Suchergebnisse

The first part of the article presents historiographical problems relating to the warrior classes in Baltic and Finnish societies. In the second and third parts, it analyses Balt and Finnish societies relating to the formation of the warrior classes, with regard to the relationship between the chief/nobleman and the warriors, the meaning of the management of property and inheritance, and the vertical formation of relationships between noblemen and warriors. The written sources presented in the article show that at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there was a stable institution of management and inheritance of property, which enabled noblemen and the warriors subordinate to them to increase their power with regard to other members of the community. This provided conditions for the formation of a 'military democracy', where the most important decisions concerning the community are approved not by all free members of the community, but by the noblemen and warriors subordinate to them. The basic idea of the article is that the 'inheritance' of the power/status of the noblemen is related to the right to inherit property (the castle and the surrounding territory, the homeland). It should be noted that by relating the management and inheritance of property to 'inherited' and acquired power, a vertical relationship appears between the nobleman and the warrior, which is based on subordination, not on consensus.

The first part of the article presents historiographical problems relating to the warrior classes in Baltic and Finnish societies. In the second and third parts, it analyses Balt and Finnish societies relating to the formation of the warrior classes, with regard to the relationship between the chief/nobleman and the warriors, the meaning of the management of property and inheritance, and the vertical formation of relationships between noblemen and warriors. The written sources presented in the article show that at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there was a stable institution of management and inheritance of property, which enabled noblemen and the warriors subordinate to them to increase their power with regard to other members of the community. This provided conditions for the formation of a 'military democracy', where the most important decisions concerning the community are approved not by all free members of the community, but by the noblemen and warriors subordinate to them. The basic idea of the article is that the 'inheritance' of the power/status of the noblemen is related to the right to inherit property (the castle and the surrounding territory, the homeland). It should be noted that by relating the management and inheritance of property to 'inherited' and acquired power, a vertical relationship appears between the nobleman and the warrior, which is based on subordination, not on consensus.

The first part of the article presents historiographical problems relating to the warrior classes in Baltic and Finnish societies. In the second and third parts, it analyses Balt and Finnish societies relating to the formation of the warrior classes, with regard to the relationship between the chief/nobleman and the warriors, the meaning of the management of property and inheritance, and the vertical formation of relationships between noblemen and warriors. The written sources presented in the article show that at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there was a stable institution of management and inheritance of property, which enabled noblemen and the warriors subordinate to them to increase their power with regard to other members of the community. This provided conditions for the formation of a 'military democracy', where the most important decisions concerning the community are approved not by all free members of the community, but by the noblemen and warriors subordinate to them. The basic idea of the article is that the 'inheritance' of the power/status of the noblemen is related to the right to inherit property (the castle and the surrounding territory, the homeland). It should be noted that by relating the management and inheritance of property to 'inherited' and acquired power, a vertical relationship appears between the nobleman and the warrior, which is based on subordination, not on consensus.

The first part of the article presents historiographical problems relating to the warrior classes in Baltic and Finnish societies. In the second and third parts, it analyses Balt and Finnish societies relating to the formation of the warrior classes, with regard to the relationship between the chief/nobleman and the warriors, the meaning of the management of property and inheritance, and the vertical formation of relationships between noblemen and warriors. The written sources presented in the article show that at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there was a stable institution of management and inheritance of property, which enabled noblemen and the warriors subordinate to them to increase their power with regard to other members of the community. This provided conditions for the formation of a 'military democracy', where the most important decisions concerning the community are approved not by all free members of the community, but by the noblemen and warriors subordinate to them. The basic idea of the article is that the 'inheritance' of the power/status of the noblemen is related to the right to inherit property (the castle and the surrounding territory, the homeland). It should be noted that by relating the management and inheritance of property to 'inherited' and acquired power, a vertical relationship appears between the nobleman and the warrior, which is based on subordination, not on consensus.

In the European tradition, cultural memory of the castle is first of all stone castles, Lithuanian cultural memory -­ hill forts, stone castles, that disappeared long ago. Cultural memory of hill forts goes back to the 19th century. The way of cultural memory of stone castles was long and complicated: Lithuanians had to make a distinction which heritage is own and which is others', acknowlege that Polish built the most important castles, deal with memory games of the Soviet time. Changes in cultural memory are linked to changes of a political system. Cultural memory consolidates the nation and helps search for cultural identity. During the last 130 years hill forts have been and still are the most important landmark in Lithuanian cultural memory. Reconstructed heritage provides much information about modern society, cultural memory, ideologies of the past and present needs. It is more informative than an "authentic" object itself. When heritage, a silent and neutral witness of the past, undergoes restoration it is consciously or sub-­consciously replaces with what is acceptable for the, fulfils his expectations, restores his memory. The same has happened with castles. They have been made more Lithuanian like, important and decorative, older than they were just to be proud of. Cultural memory underlies the reconstructed object and the process of reconstruction.

In the European tradition, cultural memory of the castle is first of all stone castles, Lithuanian cultural memory -­ hill forts, stone castles, that disappeared long ago. Cultural memory of hill forts goes back to the 19th century. The way of cultural memory of stone castles was long and complicated: Lithuanians had to make a distinction which heritage is own and which is others', acknowlege that Polish built the most important castles, deal with memory games of the Soviet time. Changes in cultural memory are linked to changes of a political system. Cultural memory consolidates the nation and helps search for cultural identity. During the last 130 years hill forts have been and still are the most important landmark in Lithuanian cultural memory. Reconstructed heritage provides much information about modern society, cultural memory, ideologies of the past and present needs. It is more informative than an "authentic" object itself. When heritage, a silent and neutral witness of the past, undergoes restoration it is consciously or sub-­consciously replaces with what is acceptable for the, fulfils his expectations, restores his memory. The same has happened with castles. They have been made more Lithuanian like, important and decorative, older than they were just to be proud of. Cultural memory underlies the reconstructed object and the process of reconstruction.

In the European tradition, cultural memory of the castle is first of all stone castles, Lithuanian cultural memory -­ hill forts, stone castles, that disappeared long ago. Cultural memory of hill forts goes back to the 19th century. The way of cultural memory of stone castles was long and complicated: Lithuanians had to make a distinction which heritage is own and which is others', acknowlege that Polish built the most important castles, deal with memory games of the Soviet time. Changes in cultural memory are linked to changes of a political system. Cultural memory consolidates the nation and helps search for cultural identity. During the last 130 years hill forts have been and still are the most important landmark in Lithuanian cultural memory. Reconstructed heritage provides much information about modern society, cultural memory, ideologies of the past and present needs. It is more informative than an "authentic" object itself. When heritage, a silent and neutral witness of the past, undergoes restoration it is consciously or sub-­consciously replaces with what is acceptable for the, fulfils his expectations, restores his memory. The same has happened with castles. They have been made more Lithuanian like, important and decorative, older than they were just to be proud of. Cultural memory underlies the reconstructed object and the process of reconstruction.

In the European tradition, cultural memory of the castle is first of all stone castles, Lithuanian cultural memory -­ hill forts, stone castles, that disappeared long ago. Cultural memory of hill forts goes back to the 19th century. The way of cultural memory of stone castles was long and complicated: Lithuanians had to make a distinction which heritage is own and which is others', acknowlege that Polish built the most important castles, deal with memory games of the Soviet time. Changes in cultural memory are linked to changes of a political system. Cultural memory consolidates the nation and helps search for cultural identity. During the last 130 years hill forts have been and still are the most important landmark in Lithuanian cultural memory. Reconstructed heritage provides much information about modern society, cultural memory, ideologies of the past and present needs. It is more informative than an "authentic" object itself. When heritage, a silent and neutral witness of the past, undergoes restoration it is consciously or sub-­consciously replaces with what is acceptable for the, fulfils his expectations, restores his memory. The same has happened with castles. They have been made more Lithuanian like, important and decorative, older than they were just to be proud of. Cultural memory underlies the reconstructed object and the process of reconstruction.

In the middle of the 13th century, Samogitian and Curonian armies were formed of lightly armed soldiers. A heavily-armed soldier could have a sword, a helmet, a shield, and a wide blade battle axe. Heavily-armed troops would make a cavalry platoon, while lightly armed soldiers who fought with spears, shields, fighting knives, and sometimes axes, made an infantry platoon. Archers constituted a separate segment of an army. During the Order invasions and in defensive battles, Samogitians and Curonians were inferior to the enemy in their weaponry. Therefore, Samogitians and Curonians used different defensive tactics: lured the enemy into wet and wooded areas, made barricades of trees, before the retreatment of the enemy with the loot, carried out attacks, fought defensive battles from hill-forts, and in favorable situations conducted surprise attacks from hill-forts In an armed conflict, Samogitian and Curonian soldiers were match to the enemy. Therefore, the Order failed to overcome the resistance of Samogitians. Historical sources of information about the Curonian and Samogitian weaponry and fighting techniques are often distorted, and therefore historians should also consider other sources of the same period, e.g., the archaeological research data.

In the middle of the 13th century, Samogitian and Curonian armies were formed of lightly armed soldiers. A heavily-armed soldier could have a sword, a helmet, a shield, and a wide blade battle axe. Heavily-armed troops would make a cavalry platoon, while lightly armed soldiers who fought with spears, shields, fighting knives, and sometimes axes, made an infantry platoon. Archers constituted a separate segment of an army. During the Order invasions and in defensive battles, Samogitians and Curonians were inferior to the enemy in their weaponry. Therefore, Samogitians and Curonians used different defensive tactics: lured the enemy into wet and wooded areas, made barricades of trees, before the retreatment of the enemy with the loot, carried out attacks, fought defensive battles from hill-forts, and in favorable situations conducted surprise attacks from hill-forts In an armed conflict, Samogitian and Curonian soldiers were match to the enemy. Therefore, the Order failed to overcome the resistance of Samogitians. Historical sources of information about the Curonian and Samogitian weaponry and fighting techniques are often distorted, and therefore historians should also consider other sources of the same period, e.g., the archaeological research data.

This paper examines the particularities of the preparation of special plans of Širvėta regional park and provides planning solutions. After an applied analysis of the regional park has been performed, it is advisable to grant the following status for the discovered new nature valuables: a nature monument – for Lukšiškės dry valley; an object of nature heritage, protected by the State – for Sėtikis ridge; an object of nature heritage, protected by the municipality – for the island and the hill of the bay of Lake Kančioginis. It is recommended to grant the status of an object of cultural heritage for the village of Kulniškės. It is necessary to intensify the protection and management of the hills of Nevaišiai with the prospects to integrate this geomorphologically significant territory to Širvėta regional park in the future. Also the analysis has shown that the boundaries of the park are not optimal. During the optimization of the boundaries of the park, the economic territories in the northern and western part have been forfeited. Also the territories of the sanctuaries are clarified by merging the sanctuaries of Šventa and Pailgis villages and the landscape sanctuary of Kulniškės into one unit – the landscape sanctuary of Šventa. Considering the nature situation, the boundaries of Širvėta landscape sanctuary and Ilgis hydrographical sanctuary are being changed. Evaluating the recreational potential it is scheduled to increase the number and area of recreational zones suggesting new recreational zones of Beržuvis, Aidukai, Stanislavavas, Dvarykščiai, Merkmenai and Ilgis. It is necessary to remove and recultivate the derelict buildings from the park and the peripheries as well as the household waste sites. Developing the recreational net in Širvėta regional park, it is necessary to pay the most attention for the installation of cognitive tourism routes. The process of planning has revealed that it is necessary to improve the document of the typical protection regulations of protected territories by presenting a more flexible system of landscape management. The State Protected Areas Service under the Ministry of Environment should pay more attention not only for the preparation of management plans, but for their implementation as well. The experience of the preparation of special plans of Širvėta regional park shows that it is advisable to return to the former single scheme of planning, which would cover the issues of boundaries, zones and management and which would be provided with the common governmental affirmation level. This would increase the possibilities to implement those plans.

This paper examines the particularities of the preparation of special plans of Širvėta regional park and provides planning solutions. After an applied analysis of the regional park has been performed, it is advisable to grant the following status for the discovered new nature valuables: a nature monument – for Lukšiškės dry valley; an object of nature heritage, protected by the State – for Sėtikis ridge; an object of nature heritage, protected by the municipality – for the island and the hill of the bay of Lake Kančioginis. It is recommended to grant the status of an object of cultural heritage for the village of Kulniškės. It is necessary to intensify the protection and management of the hills of Nevaišiai with the prospects to integrate this geomorphologically significant territory to Širvėta regional park in the future. Also the analysis has shown that the boundaries of the park are not optimal. During the optimization of the boundaries of the park, the economic territories in the northern and western part have been forfeited. Also the territories of the sanctuaries are clarified by merging the sanctuaries of Šventa and Pailgis villages and the landscape sanctuary of Kulniškės into one unit – the landscape sanctuary of Šventa. Considering the nature situation, the boundaries of Širvėta landscape sanctuary and Ilgis hydrographical sanctuary are being changed. Evaluating the recreational potential it is scheduled to increase the number and area of recreational zones suggesting new recreational zones of Beržuvis, Aidukai, Stanislavavas, Dvarykščiai, Merkmenai and Ilgis. It is necessary to remove and recultivate the derelict buildings from the park and the peripheries as well as the household waste sites. Developing the recreational net in Širvėta regional park, it is necessary to pay the most attention for the installation of cognitive tourism routes. The process of planning has revealed that it is necessary to improve the document of the typical protection regulations of protected territories by presenting a more flexible system of landscape management. The State Protected Areas Service under the Ministry of Environment should pay more attention not only for the preparation of management plans, but for their implementation as well. The experience of the preparation of special plans of Širvėta regional park shows that it is advisable to return to the former single scheme of planning, which would cover the issues of boundaries, zones and management and which would be provided with the common governmental affirmation level. This would increase the possibilities to implement those plans.

The article discusses questions pertaining to the development of the socio-political structures of the West Balts. On the basis of archaeological studies and scarce historical sources, the conclusion is drawn that the first shoots of statehood might have emerged during the Viking era. It seems that the fortification of hill-forts, the emergence of castles, the increasing differentiation of material wealth, the emergence of proto-towns, and the formation of the stratum of warriors should allow us to talk of the emergence of chiefdoms in the land of the West Balts. However, all these attributes rather demonstrate the development of social structures. The question is put whether the social elite that stood out during the Viking era was at the same time the political elite. Thus, the main question is, what kind of chiefdoms can we talk about, and from when and how did the political elite emerge, which predetermined the emergence of a state in the lands of the East Balts, but which nevertheless did not lead the society of the West Balts to statehood?

The article discusses questions pertaining to the development of the socio-political structures of the West Balts. On the basis of archaeological studies and scarce historical sources, the conclusion is drawn that the first shoots of statehood might have emerged during the Viking era. It seems that the fortification of hill-forts, the emergence of castles, the increasing differentiation of material wealth, the emergence of proto-towns, and the formation of the stratum of warriors should allow us to talk of the emergence of chiefdoms in the land of the West Balts. However, all these attributes rather demonstrate the development of social structures. The question is put whether the social elite that stood out during the Viking era was at the same time the political elite. Thus, the main question is, what kind of chiefdoms can we talk about, and from when and how did the political elite emerge, which predetermined the emergence of a state in the lands of the East Balts, but which nevertheless did not lead the society of the West Balts to statehood?

Urban solutions in Vilnius were mostly of a practical rather than aestethical character. After World War II architects of urban design, whose activity used to change substantly historically settled cities, became more active. In Lithuania the conception of heritage developed gradually lagging behind dominating European tendencies; therefore, Vilnius city has been strongly influenced by individual creative works. The most obvious materialized conception of that kind is the idea of "architectural hills". Currently this conception is widely criticized, and at the same time new restraints protecting the old town are set. These restraints often contradict the development of the city, which is inevitable bearing in mind the status of Vilnius city (the capital) and the size of administrated territory. Due to objective reasons political decisions and the activity of energetic private investors have a strong influence on the development of the city. In the chain an investor–administrator–professional there exists uneven proportion of participation thus spoiling the final result. The paper presents the main contradiction between the city development and heritage supporters and ways of solving it.