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Sacred-knightly orders are military-monastic organizations of knights that were created in the period of Crusades in XII–XIII centuries. The main purposes were: wars against unfaithful and spreading of Catholicism. Soon orders could become secular. All of them had strict regulations. Structure of sacred-knightly orders was hierarchical.Each order was headed by Great Master. He was elected for life and approved by Pontifex. Principals of provinces (priors), marshals and commanders submitted to Great Master. All of them were representatives of General chapter which was convened periodically and had legislature. Order of knights-monks had hierarchical structure. Brothers-knights were primary. Squires and chaplains were next to them. Each order was headed by Great Master who was elected for life. Authority of Great Master was large. Council of other higher officials was near Masters. Periodically meetings of general chapters of brothers-knights were gathered. Orders could be divided among territories where mon-asteries were situated. Orders were submitted to Pontifex. After entering into order knights became monks. They took vows of humility, poorness and celibacy. 12 sacred-knightly orders appeared in Europe from 1100 to 1300 years. The most resistant orders were Knights Templas, Order of Hospitallers and Teutonic Order.Each order had its symbol that was disposed on clothes. White cloak with red octagonal cross was a symbol of Knights Templas. Order of Hospitallers took as a symbol white octagonal cross that was disposed on the left shoulder of black mantle. White cloak with black cross was a symbol of Teutonic Order.Two of these orders exist nowadays. They are Order of Hospitallers and Teutonic Order ; В статье даѐтся определение термину «духовно-рыцарские ордена». Анализируются причины возникнове-ния орденов. В статье рассмотрены три духовно-рыцарских ордена: орден Тамплиеров, орден госпитальеров и Тевтонский орден. Анализируются символы, которые были присущи каждому из орденов. В статье сравнива-ются статуты каждого ордена. Рассмотрены достижения представителей каждого из орденов. Раскрыты обеты, которые принимали рыцари при вступлении в орден. ; У статті дається визначення терміну «духовно-лицарські ордени». Аналізуються причини виникнення орденів. У статті розглянуто три духовно-лицарські ордени: орден Тамплієрів, орден госпітальєрів і Тевтонський орден. Аналізуються символи, які були притаманні кожному з орденів. У статті порівнюються статути кожного ордену. Роз-глянуто досягнення, які здобули представники кожного з орденів. Висвітлені обітниці, які приймали лицарі при вступі до ордену

The article dwells on reaearch and academic activity of D. I. Kachenovskiy at Kharkiv University. His contribution is shown to the study of international relations history at Middle Ages. It is emphasized that we are quite right to call D. I. Kachenovskiy one of most prominent Ukrainian experts in this field, despite his certain idealization of feudal society. Main teaching subjects of D. I. Kachenovskiy were international law and state law of European powers. The basic research work by D. I. Kachenovskiy became his doctoral thesis «On Privateers and Prize Proceedings Relative to Neutral Merchandise» (1855) which became widely known both in Russian Empire and Europe. D. I. Kachenovskiy admitted the appropriateness of privateering, characterized its essence and shared the opinion of well-known French scholar J.-M. Pardessus that charter by Aragon king Alfonso III of 1288 had been the first legislative act relating to privateering. The first period in European privateering history when "naval war was almost indistinguishable from piracy" lasted, by the scholar's opinion, up to the end of XVI century. His «Course in International Law» was published in 1863, though unfinished, and embraced the antiquity as well as Middle Ages. The concept of international law development in the Middle Ages as proposed by D. I. Kachenovskiy included several basic elements. Those are: admission of the tremendous contribution of Christian Church, Roman Popes and German Emperors in elaboration of this law, influence of public order and national character of German tribes, as well as statement of general détente of mores and international tension in the Middle Ages under the effect of above-cited factors. The scholar emphasized positive influence of knighthood on customs of war and international relations. Medieval international law, history of privateering and trade, social-political and cultural life of Florence and effect of internal factors on its development were the main lines in research of the scientist. Works by D. I. Kachenovskiy exerted the substantial impact not only on students, but on his colleagues as well, and his scientific treatments mostly sustained time exam. ; У статті розглядається науково-педагогічна діяльність Д. І. Каченовского в Харківському університеті. Показано його внесок у вивчення історії міжнародних відносин в Середні віки. Підкреслюється, що Д. І. Каченовского з повним правом можна вважати одним з найбільших вітчизняних фахівців в даній області, незважаючи на деяку ідеалізацію їм феодального суспільства. Основними предметами викладання Д. І. Каченовского були міжнародне право і державне право європейських держав. Головною науковою роботою Д. І. Каченовского стала його докторська дисертація «Про капери і призовому судочинстві в ставленні до нейтральної торгівлі» (1855), яка отримала широку популярність як в Російській імперії, так і в Європі. Д. І. Каченовський визнавав закономірність каперства, охарактеризував його сутність і поділяв думку відомого французького вченого Ж.-М. Пардессю про те, що статут арагонского короля Альфонса III 1288 р. був першим законодавством щодо каперства. Перший період історії європейського каперства, коли «морська війна майже нічим не відрізнялася від піратства», тривав, на думку вченого, до кінця XVI ст. «Курс міжнародного права» був опублікований в 1863 р, хоча і в незавершеному вигляді, і включав в себе, поряд з епохою стародавнього світу, епоху Середньовіччя. Концепція розвитку міжнародного права в Середні віки, висунута Д. І. Каченовским, включала в себе кілька головних елементів. Серед них: визнання величезної ролі у формуванні цього права християнської церкви, римських пап і німецьких імператорів, вплив на цей процес суспільного ладу і національного характеру германських племен, а також констатація загального пом'якшення під впливом вищевикладених чинників моралі та міжнародної напруженості в Середні віки. Вчений підкреслював позитивний вплив лицарства на військові звичаї та міжнародні відносини. Середньовічне міжнародне право, історія каперства і торгівлі, суспільно-політичне та культурне життя Флоренції і вплив на її розвиток зовнішніх факторів становили головні напрямки досліджень вченого. Творчість Д. І. Каченовський мала значний вплив не тільки на студентів, а й на колег, а більшість його наукових трактувань з успіхом витримали випробування часом.

The question of studying the metamorphosis of Europeans' perception of the Islam is a topical issue now, because it helps to better understand the religious processes in modern Europe.Reconstructing the image of Islam in the ideas of the Christian peoples of the medieval Europe is the purpose of the study. To achieve this aim, I have used such methods as historical method, logical method, analysis, and hermeneutics. The research discusses the ideas of such authors as W.M. Watt, A.K.S Lambton, W. B. Hallaq, I. P. Dobaev, P. Veimar and others. I have identified four components of the medieval image of Islam in Europe. Firstly, it is the idea of alienation of Islam and Muslims for European countries. I have showed that this idea was a result of two facts: (1) Muslim-Christian wars of this period; (2) absence of assimilation processes of Muslim population in European countries. The second component is the thought that Europeans can learn Muslim ideas and technologies. During the middle ages Europeans borrowed from Muslims a lot of important knowledge, ideas and techniques, as well as Muslims from Europeans. I argue that the idea, that Muslim religion is something incompatible with Christianity, is the third component of the image of Islam by Christian Europeans of the Middle Ages. In particular, Thomas Aquinas rejects the idea that Muslims, Jews and Christians have a common Scripture. According to him, Muhammad's religion did not have worthy confirmation of the truth of the teachings. Thomas Aquinas interpreted the fact that great masses of people believed in Islam by suggestion that Islam appeals to the carnal desires of people, offering polygamy and the idea of physical pleasures in the paradise. Also, Thomas points out that Islam is a religion of sword and violence. Also, I have argued that a fear of large masses of Muslim population and their military successes was the fourthcomponent in the image of Muslims by Europeans in the Middle Ages. ; Выделены четыре компонента данного образа. Во-первых, ощущение чуждости ислама и мусульман для европейцев. Во-вторых, восприятие мусульман, как людей, у которых можно учиться идеям и технологиям. В-третьих, восприятие ислама как учения, которое несовместимо с христианством. В-четвертых, это страх перед численностью и военными успехами мусульман. ; Експліковані чотири компоненти даного образа. По-перше, відчуття чужості ісламу та мусульман по відношенню до європейців. По-друге, сприйняття мусульман, як людей у яких можна навчитися новим ідеям та технологіям. По-третє, сприйняття ісламу як вчення, яке є несумісним з християнством. По-четверте, це страх перед чисельністю та військовими успіхами мусульман.

This article deals with the written sources of 9–12 centuries. The main focus of research is on analysis of the process of formation of special military-political category of «warrior monks» – sōhei and their impact on the socio-political life of early medieval Japan. Highlights philosophical and religious, social and political conditions of this category in the Heian and Hempey periods, monastery war and its impact on contemporary Japanese medieval society. Sōhei (Jap. 僧 兵, そ う へ い, «warrior monks») – Buddhist monks in medieval Japanese warriors who generally were concentrated in monasteries Kofuku-ji, Enryaku-ji, Today-ji and others. Sōhei – master of martial arts were actively involved in armed conflict in Central Japan, used by monasteries leadership to make political pressure on the Imperial court and participated in land disputes with the secular rulers or other monasteries. In addition, sōhei for permission monastic leadership mercenaries served in the armies of regional lords, speaking on the side of a clan. At the end of the Heian era due to the crisis the central government, the collapse of the economy, the constant strife and wars in Japanese society spread eschatological beliefs. This was reflected in the two main sect's countries that joined the protracted crisis. Most of the temples of Tendai and Shingon become communities that have their own private possession, army of armed monks – sōhei, clientele of aristocrats and government. In the second half of 10 century, after a series of formal debates controversy took the nature of acute confrontation. The first serious incident involving a conflict of monks against monks took place in 949, when fifty-six Buddhist monks from the monastery Toda-ji temple in Nara, started protests circle residence Kyoto official, protesting appointed abbot. In the following centuries such incidents continued, and abbots of monasteries formed the army of warrior monks – sōhei. Only in the 11 century sōhei teams four times completely burned monastery Mii-dera. However, it should be noted that there were also occasions when the two armies united against the common enemy, particularly in 1081 they attacked Kofuku-ji temple in Nara (the same year the monks Kofuku-ji on revenge burned the monastery Mii-dera). In 1117 Enryaku-ji community united against Mii-dery and monasteries in Nara. This case is described in «Heike monohitari» – samurai epic devoted to the events of the 12 century. Thus, based on the reports of Japanese medieval chronicles – «Hikeyki» and «Heike monogatari» as well as an array of historiographical literature on the subject, we can say that the tradition of forming units of warrior monks (sōhei) originates between the monastery and later and Hempey wars period (1180–1185). The traditional Western perception of «classical Buddhism» emphasizes its peace, but it was in early medieval Japan since the tenth century, monastic community of Mount Hien and Nara, begin to concentrate their army warrior monks, combined esoteric religious and philosophical ideas that preached the idea of equality, led by superiors and priests who opposed samurai clans protecting the community, based on self-government and equality. Contemporary sources indicate the key role of monastic community's sōhei in military conflicts of the time, equating them to the martial art of the samurai. Keywords: history of Japan, medieval Japan, sōhei, Buddhism, Shinto, samurai. ; На основі письмових джерел ІХ–ХІІ століть, проаналізовано процес формування особливої військово-політичної категорії «воїнів-ченців» – сохеїв та їх вплив на суспільно-політичне життя ранньосередньовічної Японії. Висвітлено філософсько-релігійні та соціально-політичні передумови розвитку цієї категорії в періоди Хейян та Гемпей, монастирські війни, а також її вплив на тогочасне японське с ередньовічне суспільство. Ключові слова: історія Японії, середньовічна Японія, сохей, буддизм, сінто, самураї.

Secret marriages and cases that reached the Church courts show that there was a social tension in the society, as marriage was also a social fact affected by family, financial and feudal aspects. Therefore, in reality, the choice by people, especially by women, was not free. In real life, marriages were still formed for economic, social, even military reasons. Marriage consent rules developed into an entire section of the contract law, they were not only the foundation of the contemporary matrimonial law, but also produced certain fundamental elements of the contract law, namely the notion of free will and related notions of an error, coercion and deceit. The Christian matrimonial law that was formed in the Middle Ages existed in the Western Europe until the Reformation in the 16th century, in England even longer.

Secret marriages and cases that reached the Church courts show that there was a social tension in the society, as marriage was also a social fact affected by family, financial and feudal aspects. Therefore, in reality, the choice by people, especially by women, was not free. In real life, marriages were still formed for economic, social, even military reasons. Marriage consent rules developed into an entire section of the contract law, they were not only the foundation of the contemporary matrimonial law, but also produced certain fundamental elements of the contract law, namely the notion of free will and related notions of an error, coercion and deceit. The Christian matrimonial law that was formed in the Middle Ages existed in the Western Europe until the Reformation in the 16th century, in England even longer.

Secret marriages and cases that reached the Church courts show that there was a social tension in the society, as marriage was also a social fact affected by family, financial and feudal aspects. Therefore, in reality, the choice by people, especially by women, was not free. In real life, marriages were still formed for economic, social, even military reasons. Marriage consent rules developed into an entire section of the contract law, they were not only the foundation of the contemporary matrimonial law, but also produced certain fundamental elements of the contract law, namely the notion of free will and related notions of an error, coercion and deceit. The Christian matrimonial law that was formed in the Middle Ages existed in the Western Europe until the Reformation in the 16th century, in England even longer.

Secret marriages and cases that reached the Church courts show that there was a social tension in the society, as marriage was also a social fact affected by family, financial and feudal aspects. Therefore, in reality, the choice by people, especially by women, was not free. In real life, marriages were still formed for economic, social, even military reasons. Marriage consent rules developed into an entire section of the contract law, they were not only the foundation of the contemporary matrimonial law, but also produced certain fundamental elements of the contract law, namely the notion of free will and related notions of an error, coercion and deceit. The Christian matrimonial law that was formed in the Middle Ages existed in the Western Europe until the Reformation in the 16th century, in England even longer.

With the enlargement of the European Union, Europe is experiencing profound changes. All European nation states are going to face growing cultural and linguistic diversity. Therefore, considerable efforts to understand, respect, and sustain the very contrasts that make Europe so rich and complex will be required from all EU citizens. A specific feature of European cultural life is the ability to engage effectively with diversity. This engagement is linked to its basis in tradition and new developments.

With the enlargement of the European Union, Europe is experiencing profound changes. All European nation states are going to face growing cultural and linguistic diversity. Therefore, considerable efforts to understand, respect, and sustain the very contrasts that make Europe so rich and complex will be required from all EU citizens. A specific feature of European cultural life is the ability to engage effectively with diversity. This engagement is linked to its basis in tradition and new developments.

With the enlargement of the European Union, Europe is experiencing profound changes. All European nation states are going to face growing cultural and linguistic diversity. Therefore, considerable efforts to understand, respect, and sustain the very contrasts that make Europe so rich and complex will be required from all EU citizens. A specific feature of European cultural life is the ability to engage effectively with diversity. This engagement is linked to its basis in tradition and new developments.

Adapted from the source document.

The relevance of this study is determined by the strengthening of migration processes, caused by the development and deepening of globalization and integration processes, and the emergence of the opposing processes. It has been indicated that migration processes influence greatly the direction and pace of development of the global and domestic economy, demographic processes in most countries, enhancement or reduction of the social standards, and other aspects of our lives. It has been determined that nowadays our country doesn't have any unified comprehensive concept of the migration policy that would give the country and its citizens opportunity to become high-grade members of the European Community, keep and fully protect their civil, labour and social rights and freedoms. The aim of the study is to analyze the modern migration policy of the European countries and to define recommendations on the strengthening of the communication between domestic and European migration policy. Methods of the systemic, structural analysis, logical analysis, factual analysis and situational approach have been used in order of achieving the stated aim. During the study it has been found that modern migration policy of the European countries is formed under the influence of the defined factors: demographics, significant changes in conditions of the modern labour market, increase of the intensity of external migration flows, military conflicts on the territory of Ukraine and Syria, deepening of the problem of international terrorism, permanent financial crisis in some countries of the European Union, the referendum in the UK on the decision to exit the EU. According to the results of the research, recommendations on the necessity to study and apply the fundamentals and principles of the European migration policies in defined spheres have been formed.

The paper researches the studies of medieval and early modern history of Ukraine in Lviv University in the last decades (1990–2010), the formation of new trends of the scientific studies, broadening of the traditional themes, in particular, history of agrarian relationships, history of trade connections, history of Lviv, ethnic-cultural and political history of the early Middle Ages.Key words: Ukrainian historiography, Middle Ages, history of agricultural relationships, history of Lviv, history of trade, ethnic, cultural and political history. ; Стаття присвячена розвитку досліджень середньовічної та ранньомодерної історії України у Львівському університеті впродовж останніх десятиріч (у 1990-х–2000-х рр.), формуванню нових напрямів наукових студій, розширенню проблематики традиційних тем, зокрема, історії аграрних відносин, історії торговельних зв'язків, історії Львова, етнокультурної та політичної історії раннього середньовіччя.Ключові слова: українська історіографія, середньовіччя, історія аграрних відносин, історія Львова, історія торгівлі, етнокультурна і політична історія.

The article deals with the issue on the correlation, study and usage of the international relations history theoretical foundations as a sufficiently specific scientific direction, combining the features of historical and political sciences, in particular world history, the history of diplomacy, political science, the theory of the international relations, etc. The emergence of the international relations history is connected with the development of national historical sciences, the study of the history of diplomacy, geopolitical concepts, the theory of international relations, etc. The results of the scientific study of the international relations history have laid the basis for the common international processes study. Throughout the XX-th century this direction was actively developing, been influenced upon by the confrontation of political systems. Accordingly, antagonistic ideologies were used, a sample selection of historical facts and sources was carried out. Such issues as the concept and the subject of the international relations history, its periodization, and relations with the world history, history of diplomacy, the theory of international relations and other scientific directions still remain controversial.