Suchergebnisse

Актуальность и цели. Везде, где существует власть, существует и сопротивление. Подобная диалектическая оппозиция постоянно актуализирует необходимость в бунтующем человеке, избирающем путь сопротивления репрессивным институтам. Сопротивление может осуществляться в различных формах, особенно обращая на себя внимание в кризисные (переходные) моменты истории. Объективность бунта во многом делает необходимым изучение его причинности. На наш взгляд, причинность может во многом определяться наличествующей культурной традицией, которая по-своему легитимирует бунт и бунтующего человека. Цель работы заключается в рассмотрении культурного контекста, определяющего выборы бунтующего человека, средства осуществления бунта и его доктринальную основу. Материалы и методы. Реализация исследовательских задач потребовала использования ряда общенаучных методов. Диалектический метод позволял постоянно актуализировать оппозицию «власть сопротивление». Сопоставление европейского и русского контекста бунта предполагало обращение к сравнительному методу. Объективность бунта и сопротивления, их присутствие в любых политических ситуациях, представленных в историческом процессе, проверяется историческим методом. Работа над данным исследованием потребовала и обращения к прикладному методологическому инструментарию (метод политической феноменологии и политической герменевтики). Результаты. Исследован европейский и русский контекст бунта. При этом выявлены как сходства в причинности бунта, так и различия, восходящие к концептуальным принципам той или иной культуры, к ее традициям. Выводы. Рассмотренные практики бунта приобретают определенные спецификации в том или ином культурном контексте. В то же время практики бунта, производимые в той или иной культурной традиции, имеют много общего, позволяя говорить о некоей предельности человеческого терпения, несовпадения эстетических и психологических миров бунтующего человека и собирательной, репрессивной институции. Практически все приведенные нами примеры, а также обращение к литературным текстам, фиксирующим исторический, культурный и политический опыт, показывают объективность сопротивления, его неизбежность вне зависимости от существующего культурного контекста. ; Background. Wherever there is power there is resistance. Such a dialectical opposition constantly updates the need for a rebellious person, who chooses the path of resistance to repressive institutions. Resistance can take many forms, especially paying attention to the crisis (transition) moments in history. Objectivity of a rebellion largely makes it necessary to study its purpose. In our opinion, the reasons may be to a large extent determined by the cultural tradition, which in its own way legitimates a rebellion and rebellious men. The article is to consider the cultural context that determines the choice of a rebellious person, means of rebellion implementation and its doctrinal basis. Materials and methods. Implementation of research tasks required the use of a number of scientific methods. The dialectical method allowed to permanently update the "power resistance" opposition. Comparison of the European and Russian contexts of a rebellion implied reference to the comparative method. Objectivity of the rebellion and the resistance, their presence in any political situations presented in the historical process, was verified by the historical method. Studying of the present problem also required application of the methodological tools (method of political phenomenology and political hermeneutics). Results. The author studied the European and Russian contexts of a rebellion. At the same time the researcher revealed both the similarities in causation of a rebellion and the differences that go back to the conceptual principles of culture, its traditions. Conclusions. The considered rebellion practices acquire certain specifications in a particular cultural context. At the same time, the practice of revolt produced in varying cultural traditions have much in common, allowing to talk about some ultimacy of human patience, a mismatch of aesthetic and psychological worlds of a rebellious human and a collective, oppressive institution. Virtually all of the examples given by the author, as well as the usage of the literary texts, fixing historical, cultural and political experience, show objectivityof resistance, its inevitability, regardless of the existing cultural context.

Данная статья посвящена такому важному аспекту антирелигиозной политики советской власти, как антицерковные музеи и выставки, появлявшиеся сразу же после прихода к власти большевиков. Особое внимание авторы уделили выставке «Самодержавие и Церковь», прошедшей в музее-заповеднике «Петродворец» в первой половине 1930-х гг. В статье рассматривается каждый отдельный аспект выставки, говорящий о той или иной связи Православной Церкви и дореволюционной государственной власти: Церковь и армия, обожествление императорской власти и лично русских царей, участие православного духовенства в борьбе с революционным движением, материальная база существования Российской Православной Церкви и многое другое. Особый авторский ракурс направлен на представление создателями и кураторами выставки послеоктябрьского периода истории Православной Церкви в контексте яростного противостояния нового атеистического режима и самой большой религиозной конфессии в Советском Союзе. Отдельно следует отметить, что авторами изучаются два вида антирелигиозных выставок и музеев: идея создания «атеистической красной лавры», возникшая практически сразу прихода большевиков к власти и по неизвестным причинам нереализованная, и второй вариант, уже более поздний, но в то же время более идеологически выверенный. И если в первом случае можно увидеть своего рода «авантюрный», творческий подход к созданию подобного рода музейных экспозиций, то уже в 1930-е гг. видна систематическая, профессиональная работа организаторов выставки в одном из главных музеев-заповедников страны. Важно отметить, что рассмотрение атеистических кампаний сталинской эпохи нашей истории необходимо из-за время от времени возникающих концептов «православного сталинизма» и систематического пересмотра публицистами и околоисторическими кругами принятых цельных концепций большинства серьезных светских и церковных историков. Эта работа одна их первых, где комплексно рассматриваются вопросы антирелигиозной кампании посредством изучения истории атеистических музеев и выставок, что повышает ее практическую значимость. ; This paper deals with an important aspect of the anti-religious policy of the Soviet government: anti-clerical museums and exhibitions, which started appearing immediately after the Bolsheviks came to power. Special attention is paid to the exhibition "Autocracy and the Church", held in the State Museum "Peterhof" in the first half of the 1930s. The article deals with every single aspect of the exhibition, talking about various connections between the Orthodox Church and the pre-revolutionary government: Church and Army, the deification of imperial power and the tsars themselves, the role of the Orthodox clergy in the struggle against the revolutionary movement, the material basis for the existence of the Russian Orthodox Church, and various other connections. The authors pay special attention to presenting the creators and curators of the post-October period of the history of the Orthodox Church in the context of violent confrontation between the new atheist regime and the largest religious denomination in the Soviet Union. Separately, it should be noted that the authors studied two types of anti-religious exhibitions and museums: the idea of creating "atheistic red laurels" arose almost immediately the Bolsheviks came to power, but for reasons unknown it remained unrealized. The second option came later, but at the same time was more ideologically aligned. And, if in the first case, you can see a kind of "opportunistic", creative approach to these kinds of museum exhibitions, already in the 1930s you can see more visible, systematic and professional work of the exhibition organizers in one of the main museums in our country. Also, the practical significance of this paper is that it is one of the first integrated treatments of the anti-religious campaign through the study of atheist museums and exhibitions.

Почти 25 лет прошло с момента старта «бархатных революций», которые изменили политический ландшафт Центральной и Восточной Европы. Историческое развитие стран и народов региона проходило по-разному, что наложило серьезный отпечаток не столько на возникшие в ходе трансформаций институты, сколько определило сам процесс транзита и неформальные практики. Этот процесс и анализируется в данной статье, которая войдет в состав готовящегося учебника коллектива авторов «Сравнительная политология». Особенности политических преобразований конца XX в. в странах этой части Европы во многом связаны с включенностью их территорий в разные исторические периоды в орбиту империй Византии, Османской Турции, Австро-Венгрии, России. В свою очередь это определило цивилизационный выбор населения современных государств, связанный с религиозной принадлежностью католицизмом, православием, исламом. XX в. стал переломным в судьбах народов центральнои восточноевропейских стран. Этот период отмечен формированием национальных государств, переживших процессы фашизации, затем советизации, а с конца 1980-х годов вестернизации и демократизации. Различия в социально-экономическом, политическом, культурном и религиозном развитии, зачастую принципиально противоположные взгляды на историю и свою роль в ней определили в целом ряде случаев конфликтную среду региона. Самое жесткое разрешение имевшихся противоречий имело место на постюгославском пространстве и выразилось в кровопролитных межнациональных войнах. Политическое развитие не может быть единообразным и универсальным процессом как в социально-политическом плане, так и по экономическим, культурным, временным параметрам даже для одного региона. Однако, несмотря на существенные его различия, автор статьи утверждает, что можно выявить общие закономерности транзита. Для максимально полного представления о судьбах стран региона были рассмотрены пять стран Венгрия, Польша, Сербия, Хорватия и Чехия. Анализ показал, что при всех имевшихся особенностях развития все они прошли три основных этапа транзита: либерализацию, демократизацию и консолидацию. ; Almost 25 years have passed since the onset of the velvet revolutions that have transformed the political landscape of Central and Eastern Europe. Historically, the countries and peoples of the region have been developing differently. This fact has not so much left a significant imprint on the institutions born in the transformations as has shaped the transition process and informal practices. It is this process that is studied in the article, which is a passage from the course book entitled "Comparative Politics" being prepared by a group of authors. The specific political changes of the late 20th century in the countries of this part of Europe are related to a large degree with these countries being within the sphere of influence in different historical periods of such empires as Byzantine, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary and Russia. All that in its turn has defined a civilizational choice by the populations of today's countries connected with religious affiliations Catholicism, Orthodoxy or Islam. The 20th century was a watershed in the fate of the peoples from Central and Eastern European countries. This period is marked with nation-state building. These state-nations have experienced fascistization, then sovietization, and, since the late 1980s, westernization and democratization. The countries' differences in social, economic, political, cultural and religious development as well as often diametrically opposed views on history and their role in it have engendered a conflict-prone environment in the region in a number of cases. The most violent resolutions of contradictions took place in the post-Yugoslav space in the form of bloody interethnic wars. Political development cannot be uniform and universal in socio-political terms as well as in economic, cultural and time parameters even within one region. However, despite its essential distinctions, the author argues that it is possible to identify common transit trends. In order to fully represent the fates of the region's countries, five states have been chosen Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Croatia and the Czech Republic. The analysis has shown that all these countries have undergone, despite all the peculiarities in their development, three major stages of transit, namely liberalization, democratization and consolidation.

Статья посвящена важной проблеме социальной истории изучению процессов социализации женского населения, результатов и социальных последствий вхождения женщин в традиционно мужские роли. Слабая степень изученности темы обусловила территориальные и хронологические рамки исследования. Обращение к истории крестьянок Томско-Нарымского Приобья в первые послереволюционные десятилетия позволяет конкретизировать женский опыт переживания кардинальных социальных изменений с опорой на комплексный подход и свежие исторические источники. Важнейшим фактором женской социализации в России стала Революция 1917 г. и послереволюционные преобразования. Формировалась законодательная основа женского равноправия, одновременно допускались серьезные ограничения гражданских прав женщин-крестьянок. Первый спонтанный опыт усвоения мужских ролей был получен женщинами-крестьянками в военнореволюционное время, когда они были вынуждены выполнять мужские работы по хозяйству. Вовлечение крестьянок в общественную сферу происходило целенаправленно по решению партийно-государственного руководства. Женщины-крестьянки избирались в Советы, становились председателями сельсоветов, на равных с мужчинами участвовали в колхозном производстве в ущерб заботам о семье, детях, домашнем хозяйстве. В процессе усвоения мужских ролей действовали «механизмы поощрения и наказания». Женщины-активистки подвергались, порой, преследованиям в семье, со стороны сельского или районного руководства. Ширилась пропаганда трудовых достижений крестьянок. В пропагандистские кампании вовлекались даже дочери раскулаченных крестьян, высланных в Нарымский округ. Одна из них, Надежда Ступак, была принята в комсомол, заведовала животноводческой фермой. Формировался культурно-психологический облик выдвиженок на руководящую работу, передовых колхозниц. Новые социальные роли способствовали самоутверждению женщин-крестьянок, подготавливали их к испытаниям Великой Отечественной войны. Но двойные нагрузки в домашнем и общественном производстве приводили к повышенной изнашиваемости женского организма, оказывали негативное влияние на демографическое поведение. Томские крестьянки по-прежнему уступали мужчинам по уровню грамотности, по степени социальной активности. ; The article deals with an important issue of social history that is the research into historical processes of female socialization, the results and social consequences of women's socializing into traditional male roles. Little knowledge about the topic accounts for the territorial and chronological scope of the study. The study of peasant women of Tomsk-Narym region in the first post-revolutionary decades allows us to specify female experience during social changes. The integrated methodology and new historical sources constituted a good basis for this work. An essential factor in female socialization was the Revolution of 1917 and the postrevolutionary transformation. A statutory framework for women's equality was formed, and there were severe restrictions of civil rights of rural women as well. The first spontaneous experience of male roles peasant women acquired in the revolutionary period, when they were forced to do men's housework. Rural women were purposefully made involved in public affairs based on the decisions by the Communist Party and the Soviet leadership. Peasant women were elected to Soviets (councils); they became Chairwomen of village Soviets. On an equal footing with men peasant women worked in kolkhozes (collective farms), and so they were limited in their ability to care for their families, children, and households. 'Mechanisms of encouragement and punishment' were put in place for them to adopt men's roles. Women activists would often get harassed by their family, village or district leaders. At the same time the promotion of rural labor achievements was reinforced. Even the daughters of kulaks, exiled peasants of Narym, were involved in political campaigns. One of them, Nadezhda Stupak, was admitted to the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) and was placed in charge of a livestock farm. The cultural and psychological profile of female activists (vydvizhenki) aspiring to leadership and of leading collective farmers was being formed at the time. New social roles helped rural women establish themselves and get prepared for the hardships of the Great Patriotic War. However, the double burden bothat home and at work led to increased physical exhaustion of women and had a negative impact on demographic behaviour. Tomsk peasant women were still inferior to men in terms of literacy and social activity.

Объектом исследовательского внимания стали поэтические отклики В. Брюсова на Русско-японскую войну и его критические отзывы о военной поэзии 1904-1905 гг. Анализируются и особенности восприятия Первой мировой войны в стихах и военных корреспонденциях В. Брюсова. Такое единовременное обращение к В. Брюсову - литературному критику, поэту, военному журналисту - предпринято по нескольким причинам. Во-первых, творчество В. Брюсова дает основания судить о войне не только как о конкретном историческом событии, но и как о сложном, многомерном явлении в духовной жизни общества. В этом смысле В. Брюсов опирался на опыт своих предшественников - осмысление войны, характерное для публицистики Ф.М. Достоевского, Л.Н. Толстого и В. Соловьева. Во-вторых, суждения об отношении В. Брюсова к войне основываются не на каком-нибудь одном единичном высказывании, стихотворении, очерке, а на всем корпусе его «военных» произведений. Это позволяет выделить индивидуальное, собственно брюсовское видение, чувствование войны. Отношение того или иного литератора, журналиста к Русско-японской и Первой мировой войнам в истории отечественной литературы и журналистики зачастую оценивалось лишь по тому, насколько тесно поражение царского правительства связывалось с революциями 1905 и 1917 гг. Что касается эстетической стороны, то поэтические образы, язык публицистики того же В. Брюсова оставались вне поля зрения. Таким образом, его «военное» творчество становится частью такой большой сферы как «Художник и война». И, наконец, в-третьих. Исследование творческой индивидуальности в поэзии, критике, публицистике В. Брюсова о двух войнах дает возможность увидеть и общее, характерное в гражданской позиции русской художественной интеллигенции начала XX столетия. Это гуманизм, сострадание, сочувствие воюющим. Это всеобщая эйфория в начале войны и угасание интереса в связи с неудачами. Это и желание поражения царскому правительству и надежды на обновление России. ; The object of the research is focused on V. Brusov's poetic responses on the Russian-Japanese war, and his critical reviews of the 1904-1905 war poetry. The peculiarities of the First World War perception in poems and military correspondences by V. Brusov are analyzed. Our research interest to V. Brusov as a literary critic, poet and military journalist can be explained by several reasons. Firstly, V. Brusov's creative work gives grounds to treat the war not only as a concrete historical event, but also as a complex, multidimensional phenomenon in the spiritual life of the society. V. Brusov relied on the experience of his predecessors the interpretation of war and characteristic of journalism is typical for F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy and V. Solovyov. Secondly, V. Brusov's judgments about the war are not based on any single statement, poem or essay, but on his corpus of "military" works. This allows us to single out individual V. Brusov's vision, feeling of war. The attitude of a writer, a journalist towards the Russian-Japanese War and World War II in the history of Russian literature and journalism is often assessed only by how closely the defeat of the tsarist government was associated with the revolutions of 1905 and 1917. As for the aesthetic side, poetic images, V. Brusov's journalism language remained out of sight. Thus, his "military" creative work becomes a part of a large scope called "Artist and War". Thirdly, the research of the creative individuality in poetry, criticism, journalism by V. Brusov is devoted to two wars gives an opportunity to see general characteristic of citizenship in Russian artistic intellectuals in the early years of the 20 th century. This is humanism, compassion, empathy to belligerent. This is general euphoria at the beginning of the War and the Extinction of interest in the context of failures. This is a desire to defeat the imperial government and hope for the renewal of Russia.

В статье исследуются художественно-изобразительные средства (метафора и сравнение) в языке афганской племенной хроники XVII-XVIII вв., относящейся к начальному периоду развития книжной прозы на языке пашто. Исследуемые тексты входят в компилятивное историографическое сочинение « Тāр╖╜-и мура╘╘а '» (закончено в 1724 г.) и включают в себя разнородные по содержанию и жанровой принадлежности записи афганских племенных вождей Аф╓ал-╜āна ═атака (ум. ок. 1740/1741) и ═╛ш╝āл-╜āна ═атака (ум. 1689). Представленный в статье анализ метафор и сравнений, используемых авторами хроники для решения как собственно художественных, так и внелитературных идеологических задач, показывает, что данные языковые средства по источнику могли быть индивидуальными (локальными), общеязыковыми или заимствованными из региональной книжной традиции, а по мотивировке основанными на зооморфной образности или бытовых и социально-исторических реалиях. ; The paper examines expressive stylistic tools (metaphors and figurative comparisons) in the texts of an Afghan tribal chronicle composed in the early literary Pashto language in the XVIIXVIII centuries and included in the historiographical work Tārīkh-i muraṣṣa' ("The Ornamented History"). The authorship of this work finished in 1724 is ascribed to the Pashtun tribal ruler Afḍal Khān Khatak (d. circa 1740/1741). However, among the texts of the chronicle there are original records of his grandfather, the eminent classical poet Khūshḥāl Khān Khatak (d. 1689), as well as some accounts directly based on the Khūshḥāl's lost diaries traditionally known under the title Bayāḍ ("A copybook"). Until now Tārīkh-i muraṣṣa' has not been thoroughly studied outside the Pashto-speaking academic circles in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and its only Peshawar edition by D. M. Kāmil (1974), obviously, lacks primary textological research. Regardless of the fact that the texts of the chronicle are badly structured and obscured by a number of incorrectly located passages, hidden lacunas, interpolations, textual recurrences, and even grammatically unfinished sentences, this part of Tārīkh-i muraṣṣa' is the most important in the book, for it contains only original and absolutely unique documentary and literary material in Pashto including genealogies, historical accounts, political declarations, letters, family stories, personal diaries and memoirs of the Khatak tribal rulers. To reach their literary as well as nonliterary ideological objectives the authors of the chronicle extensively employ various literary devices, including metaphors and figurative comparisons. In the present study these stylistic means are classified by their origin as being local, or author's (e.g., 'a bowl of food' for 'paltry dole', 'spell-bound cock' for 'helpless and resigned victim', 'Bengali magician' for 'shrewd man'), commonly used in vernacular speech ('sister' for 'cowardly man', 'a piece of meat' for 'worthless person', 'carrion-eating birds' for 'base and greedy people'), and those derived from bookish, mostly religious sources ('The Judgment Day' for 'hardships and troubles', 'snakes and scorpions from beyond the grave' for 'improperly obtained material wealth', probably, 'chess-game' for 'intrigues'). By motivation many metaphors and comparisons reflect widespread zoomorphic figurativeness ('dog' for 'mean and rude person', 'monkey' for 'ridiculous person without any self-esteem', 'jackals and foxes' for 'insidious and corrupt people'), or everyday life realities ('clouds of the Pashakāl season' for 'fruitless efforts', 'burned village' for 'deserted settlement'), or some socio-historical and cultural traditions ('Muslim ritual of sacrifice during pilgrimage' for 'bloody battle', 'the throne of Delhi' for 'something very desired'). Lexical material collected and analyzed in the paper may also help to illustrate the process of formation of the written literary Pashto language in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Ferrara è tra le città con le quali Piero Bottoni (1903-1973) ha istaurato un rapporto proficuo e duraturo che gli permise di elaborare molti progetti e che fu costante lungo quasi tutta la parabola professionale dell'autore milanese. Giunto nella città estense nei primi anni Trenta, vi lavorò nei tre decenni successivi elaborando progetti che spaziavano dalla scala dell'arredamento d'interni fino a quella urbana; i diciannove progetti studiati, tutti situati all'interno del centro storico della città, hanno come tema comune la relazione tra nuova architettura e città esistente. Osservando un ampio spettro di interventi che abbracciava la progettazione sull'esistente come quella del nuovo, Bottoni propone una visione dell'architettura senza suddivisioni disciplinari intendendo il restauro e la costruzione del nuovo come parti di un processo progettuale unitario. Sullo sfondo di questa vicenda, la cultura ferrarese tra le due guerre e nel Dopoguerra si caratterizza per il continuo tentativo di rendere attuale la propria storia rinascimentale effettuando operazioni di riscoperta che con continuità, a discapito dei cambiamenti politici, contraddistinguono le esperienze culturali condotte nel corso del Novecento. Con la contemporanea presenza durante gli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta di Bottoni, Zevi, Pane, Michelucci, Piccinato, Samonà, Bassani e Ragghianti, tutti impegnati nella costruzione dell'immagine storiografica della Ferrara rinascimentale, i caratteri di questa stagione culturale si fondono con i temi centrali del dibattito architettonico italiano e con quello per la salvaguardia dei centri storici. L'analisi dell'opera ferrarese di Piero Bottoni è così l'occasione per mostrare da un lato un carattere peculiare della sua architettura e, dall'altro, di studiare un contesto cultuale provinciale al fine di mostrare i punti di contatto tra le personalità presenti a Ferrara in quegli anni, di osservarne le reciproche influenze e di distinguere gli scambi avvenuti tra i principali centri della cultura architettonica italiana e un ambito geografico solo apparentemente secondario. ; Ferrara counts among the cities with which Piero Bottoni (1903-1973) has created a rich link, which allowed him to elaborate many projects and that has a constant presence all along the professional circuit of the author. Residing at the Este town in the first Thirties, he worked there during three successive decades developing projects that spread between the scale of internal forniture to urban projects; the nineteen projects examined, all placed in the city's historic centre, have as a common subject the relationship among the new architecture and the existing city. Studying a large spectre of interventions that embraces projects based upon the existent buildings as well as new projects, Bottoni proposes a vision of architecture without disciplinary sub divisions, approaching restoration and new building as parts of a unitary projecting process. Upon this background, Ferrara's culture between the two wars and after the war is characterized by the permanent attempt to give actuality to its own renaissance history, notwithstanding the political changes. With the contemporary presence during the Fifties and Sixties of Bottoni, Zevi, Pane, Michelucci, Piccinato e Samonà, Bassani a Ragghianti, all participating to the construction of the historiographic image of the Renaissance Ferrara, the characteristics of this cultural context melt into the central subjects of the Italian architectonical debate and the debate for the defence of historical centres. The analytical study of Bottoni's Ferrarese works becomes thus the occasion to outline, on one side, the peculiar character of his architecture and, on the other side, to study a provincial cultural context with a view to show such points of contact among the personalities present at Ferrara in those years, to observe their reciprocal influence and to distinguish the exchanges occurred among the outstanding centres of Italian architectonic culture and a geographical environment only secondary in appearance.

У статті викладено провідні ознаки й особливості функціонування данської системи освіти. Проаналізовано основні етапи її розвитку та становлення. Викладено аспекти роботи освітніх закладів різних рівнів від початкової обов'язкової школи до вищих освітніх закладів. Зроблено акцент на ефективні методи та принципи роботи шкіл, училищ і університетів. Також приділено увагу особливостям життя громадян в Данії. ; The educational system of Denmark is unique. The first thing you notice, exploring this problem is the existence of an absolutely unique education for children and adults. Denmark is able to prove that in fact no matter what is taught at schools, it is important what knowledge they have after finishing them. Back in 1814, the Danish monarchy first adopted the Education Act, according to which all children have the right to get 7-year education. It should be noted that law free boarding schools began to open all over the country in all cities. In addition, the colleges for teacher training were established. The purpose of schooling was to prepare a worthy and useful member of the society. The students studied religion, reading, writing and mathematics. The Education Act changed several times, but when making the last edition in 1993, the Danish Parliament has considered more than 800 projects submitted from various schools of the country. This indicates that the law was passed with the requirements of that society put forward the education system. And this approach to the election of the new directions of the system of education in the country made it possible to provide the knowledge and skills that will enable the students to become a full member of the society in future. According to the law all have to be educated from 7 to 16 years. It does not matter where the child receives education – at a state («traditional») school or at a private school or even at home. The only criterion is that you need to learn some compulsory subjects in accordance with the standards of education. It means that children should gain knowledge but not to go to school. Most children attend public schools («Folkeskole»). «People's School» is a public school, which includes kindergarten and grades from the 1st to 10th form. In addition, the school has a group of extended day for primary school children. Danish «public schools» are very diverse. The Education Act defines the purpose of education, certain requirements and local authorities, together with the management of the school and parents are choosing not only the objects but also the teaching methods and means to achieve an aim. The students automatically, regardless of success in learning are transferred from form to form. All students have the opportunity to receive the same knowledge till the 9th form, and the last 2 years they can learn in another - an alternative school («Efterskole») or in the youth schools or high folk schools. The law defines the following tasks to help the students to gain knowledge, skills, the ways of expressing themselves and comprehensively promote the personal development of each student and create the conditions for the realization of usefulness of studying, make it possible to believe in their own strength for further active and independent participation in the society. They learn the history, culture and traditions not only of their own people and other nations as well. They get good knowledge about the relationship and interaction between man and nature. The schools teach the basics of democracy in order to prepare decent citizens. The teachers teach the students to be responsible members of the society, the rights and duties of each to society based on democracy. That is why education is based on freedom, equality and democracy.

A healthy society is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The enjoyment of highest attainable standard of health in one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, political belief, economic or social condition‖ Constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO), 1946. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has provided a definition of development as "development of the people for the people by the people" (UNDP, 1993). Egypt has been long considered as one of the most attractive countries to visit because of its historical treasures. Egypt instituted several sport-for-all initiatives in its post-colonial modernization. These included a government sports council in the 1960s and the establishment of a Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS) in 1999. The MYS oversees national parks and seaside areas as well as a large-scale fitness mobilization walk/jog events. A major goal of MYS was to develop and maintain youth centers in all of Egypt's metropolitan areas that would service young people's needs in mass sport and physical activities(e.g., basketball, soccer, volleyball).With Egyptian population up to 80 million there are projects related to sport- for- all, events, and or organized programs (cooperative or competitive ) for large groups , including the general population participating in clubs, on playing fields, in gymnasiums , community centers and community recreation programs around Egypt. These were enough for the future of mass sport participation in a great nation with a great history in sport. The International Sport Management Questionnaire (ISMQ), created by Waters (1996), in order to determine the status of sport development in Egypt it was necessary that the ISMQ be translated in to Arabic. This would ensure that Egyptian's mass sport and activities leaders- all of whom speak Arabic as their ―mother tongue‖- would have every opportunity to completely understand each of the 51 question as posed specifically for mass sport and activities (and its development) and answer with accuracy, confidence, and reliability. The translation of the ISMQ was carried out by Aly& Elmahdy who are associated with this present study, then distributed to 66 Egyptian mass sport and activities leaders at different youth centers, clubs, recreation departments, in 24 out of 26 cities in Egypt. Raters were asked to provide answers to closed- and open – ended questions (n=51) on the ISMQ, which ultimately resulted in scoring. (Maximum=33 points) of eight factor components: objectives, legislation, organization, implementation, physical resources, human resources, research and evaluation, and contribution to healthy nation building. Analysis of data was through descriptive statistics (frequency distribution using a histogram graph that shows the frequency distribution of variable to evaluate the mass sport and physical activities distribution). The results showed that Egyptians practice recreation, mass sports and physical activities as a tool to promote health and prevent disease. Running, soccer, and team sports are mostly practiced in the southern part of Egypt while in the north west of the country people mostly practice aquatic sports such as beach volleyball, swimming, surfing, speed boating , fishing ,rowing, scuba diving, sailing, etc. Because of population increases over the last decade facilities like parks, schools, clubs, beaches, water facilities, and youth centers are insufficient to meet the needs of the population. In addition, poor access to private clubs doesn't help Egypt's middle class to participate in mass sports programs and activities as long as those clubs have annual membership fees. Most of the facilities for mass sport and physical activities are located in the suburban areas cities such as Cairo, Alexandria, and Ismailia. Further south there are fewer mass sport programs and physical activities and opportunities for the Egyptian population.

La tesi che ho cercato di sviluppare in Analitici e continentali (1997) e in molti scritti successivi, è che la diversificazione delle due tradizioni A (analitica) e C (continentale) è la ricaduta pratica e istituzionale dell'assenza di una chiara consapevolezza collettiva circa che cosa sia la filosofia, quali siano i suoi compiti e metodi, e in che cosa si differenzi da altre scienze o attività intellettuali. Tale assenza potrebbe non essere di per sé problematica, se non fosse che la filosofia, almeno a partire dall'idealismo tedesco, è diventata una disciplina accademica, e attraverso un processo iniziato nel secondo Ottocento e giunto a compimento all'incirca nella seconda metà del secolo successivo, ha acquisito l'assetto istituzionale di una collezione di discipline specializzate, che dovrebbero operare in modo simile a tutte le altre scienze e discipline.Quando una forma di sapere si struttura come una scienza senza avere (o senza voler avere) una chiara e uniforme coscienza di sé, si generano due conseguenze. La prima è che, come osservava già Aristotele, si diffonde e trionfa la "falsa scienza", ovvero la "simulazione di sapienza" prolifica in modo incontrollato. Si produce allora una grande quantità di filosofia nominale, che tende sopraffare e annientare gli scarsi residui di filosofia sostanziale. La seconda è che si determinano controversie intellettuali, culturali e metodologiche, che a lungo andare diventano facilmente manipolabili, e vengono utilizzate per le più basse e ignobili manovre di potere.È quanto è accaduto alla distinzione A-C. Il testo ricostruisce brevemente questa vicenda e mostra come la storia recente della diversificazione abbia portato a una specie di disastro intellettuale e morale, che interessa tutta la filosofia, e ha forme particolarmente problematiche nella filosofia A (o presunta tale). ; The text is divided into two part. First, a brief reconsideration of the history and theory of the "analytic-continental divide" is presented, then an assessment of the contemporary situation is suggested.In the first part, it is explained that the A-C distinction dates back to the end of the XIX century, and is completely acknowledged at the middle of the XX century. The two categories intend to capture a general divergence within the field of philosophy, a divergence that does not properly regard currents of movements or philosophical trends, but "traditions". Two different lines of canonical authors, two conceptions of philosophy, two different philosophical stiles largely confront each other. Various projects of possible convergence have been presented (the most authoritative were the ones of Apel and Tugendhat), but they have generally remained undeveloped, basically because some different (cultural and not philosophical) controversies have been interposed, such the controversy about "post-modernism". In the second part, it is suggested that two new factors have intervened in recent times: the globalization of knowledge, and the scientization of philosophy. To a certain extent, the emergence of the A-C question, at the middle of the XX century, was due to the announcing occurrence of both. But both globalization and scientization do make the divide, in its proper sense, to vanish. There are no traditions in philosophy yet, but there are distinct, parallel and non-communicating disciplines. So the A-C distinction lack any properly meta-philosophical significance, and also remains as a political instrument of academic dominance, that survives only nominally, mainly to authorize exclusion or inclusion of researchers and research programs.

La participación ciudadana en cada uno de los niveles de Gobierno reconocidos en la actualidad han perdido mucho espacio pese a que el marco legal obliga a identificar y ejecutar conjuntamente con la ciudadanía los planes, programas y proyectos que resuelvan las necesidades identificadas de manera conjunta. Se definióconceptos ordenadores de participación ciudadana y desarrollo, constituyendo la teoría. Luego la parte legal que sustenta la propuesta. Se realizó una breve historia de la planificación y de los Planes de Desarrollo y Ordenamiento Territorial del cantón Cuenca, con énfasis en la participación ciudadana, base para la propuesta donde intervienen tres actores principales: sociedad civil, régimen dependiente y autoridades locales. Para la investigación se recurrió a fuentes documentales y archivísticas del GADM de Cuenca; entrevistas a informantes claves para conocer las percepciones y opiniones sobre la participación, y las perspectivas a futuro de dicha participación en la construcción del PDOT deCuenca. Los resultados de la investigación se concentraron en la construcción del sistema de participación ciudadana operando desde los niveles más bajos de cada uno de los territorios rural y urbano; priorizando y analizando las necesidades de cada uno de los entornos y escalando dichas propuestas para establecer -espacios de concertación mixtos- con actores, tanto de las instituciones del gobierno -régimen dependiente-, así como de las -autoridades locales- que permitan una verdadera planificación participativa, a través de -espacios de concertación temáticos o especializados- y así lograr una articulación interinstitucional para la generación de mayor impacto en la Planificación Participativa Cantonal. ; ABSTRACT Citizen participation has been recognized in each of the levels of government; however, nowadays, it has lost an important place despite of the legal framework that oblige both, the Local and the National Government, to identify and execute, plans, programs and projects in collaboration with local people. This effort seeks to address the needs identified jointly; in addition, it plays an important role in local development. This situation has motivated the approach of a system of citizen participation for Cuenca Canton. For this purpose, the investigation began by defining the main elements of citizen participation. Right away, it was necessary to identify the legal framework that endorses the participation. The analysis of the history of the territorial planning and the development plans that Cuenca has had in the past years, plays an important role in this research. Three main social actors have been identified: "civil society", "regional branches of the government" and "local authorities". The main investigation techniques besides bibliographical research were: documental review and personal interviews. The conversations with people related with the topic led to answer some interrogates related to local participation efforts and its incidence in the territorial planning. The main goal of this work remains in the conformation of a citizen participation system that works basically with the lower level of participation in the canton, distinguishing rural and urban habitants. At this level of participation it is necessary to provide the conditions for them to come together and discuss their needs and possible ways of action that would allow them to reach a true participating planning process. Thus, civil society, regional branches of government and local authorities must join these dialog spaces. It is also well known, that the real impact of this proposal no depends mainly of the authorities; it involves the real participation of the citizens. The participation process should be leaded by the Mayor and the Municipality, who have the role of motivate and encourage greater citizen participation instead of a social exclusion that characterizes the current times. ; Magíster en Desarrollo Local con mención en Población y Territorio ; Cuenca

В статье рассматривается создание, развитие и деятельность инженерных рабочих войск, а также условия комплектования их инженерными и рабочими кадрами в период, предшествовавший Первой мировой войны, и на протяжении четырех военных лет вплоть до 25 октября 1917 г.В исследовательских целях в оборот введен ряд новых архивных документов. ; The dramatic experience of the defense and rear construction, as well as the formation and activities of Russian labor construction troops and Engineering Corps of Russian Imperial Army during the First World War I is the least studied both in Russian and Western historiography. Meanwhile, preparation of the territory of State in the military-engineering terms is an essential component of military policy and public administration in the security sphere as a whole. Operational organization state territory includes a system of measures for the creation, development and use of defense infrastructure. However, social and institutional aspects of the formation, training and activity of labor construction units (divisions) and military engineering personnel in the pre-war and wartime conditions is essential. This article is the first piece of research of this problem on the basis of a large array of previously not studied archival materials from the central archives of Russia. In this article, I tried to fill the existing gaps in the history of working construction units, as well as defensive engineering and construction measures on the WWI Russian front in 1914-1917. I show the state-management approach to military engineering, developed in Russia on the eve of the WWI, as well as attempts that Russian military and civilian leadership are taking throughout four years of war to provide construction of infrastructure of theaters of operations and rear strategic objects. Thus, on the eve of World War I Russian top military leadership neglected construction of military fortresses and fortified areas and did not supported the existing ones in the necessary condition. Moreover, in 1914 Emperor Nicholas Engineering Academy was closed, and Russia ceased to prepare military engineers of all levels. This led to disastrous consequences because it proved that war became protracted and positional, and war effort was quickly exhausted resources of military engineers and construction workers. In 1915-1916 all Russian military and civilian leadership's efforts were focused on compensation of acute shortage of military engineers and construction workers with the help of various social groups and categories of civilians (refugees, prisoners of war, non-Russian population of the Russian Empire). Severe conditions of rear work and forced mobilization for these works, as well as the lack of material provision of the strategic construction and the weakness of civil administration contributed to increasing social tension. At the same time in 1916, Major General A. Satkevich organized accelerated training of officers and warrant officers at engineering schools. In my article, I pay special attention to the political and social changes in Russian society and in the army caused by the February Revolution of 1917. Based on archival documents and diaries of the witnesses, I show that the destruction of the Russian army in 1917 affected all kinds of troops, including engineering ones and put the military engineering on the brink of disaster. I conclude the organization of the engineering troops and military construction workers essentially depends on the social and economic conditions in the State and on public administration in social and economic spheres. In turn, in the pre-war and wartime, organization of engineering significantly affects not only the on defense of the State, but also on the social climate in it.

В статье тщательно исследован процесс формирования органов дознания в России после смены государственного строя в результате Октябрьской революции 1917 года. Данное историческое событие явилось переломным моментом в развитии отечественного уголовного процесса и построении системы правоохранительных органов. Нормативными актами нового правительства изначально была упразднена вся дореволюционная система правоохранительных органов, включая суд, прокуратуру и адвокатуру, полностью упразднена полиция и создана рабоче-крестьянская милиция. С 1918 года на милицию наряду с охраной общественного порядка возлагаются обязанности по производству неотложных следственных действий, а также дознания в полном объеме по уголовным делам. Позднее была определена структура данного органа дознания. В 1922 году был принят первый уголовно-процессуальный кодекс Советского государства, который законодательно закрепил дознание, как форму предварительного расследования и довольной обширный перечень органов дознания, В последствие намечается тенденция слияния дознания и следствия. В статье приводятся высказывания правоохранителей того времени, обосновывающие необходимость этого процесса. Несмотря на указанные тенденции, в конце 50-х г. при обсуждении проекта нового уголовно-процессуального закона среди ученых развернулась широкая дискуссия о праве на существование дознания как формы расследования преступлений в полном объеме. Однако в УПК РСФСР 1960 г. дознание было сохранено в виде двух четко разграниченных форм. Круг органов дознания был достаточно широк. На протяжении периода действия УПК 1960 г. он дополнялся и изменялся. Органы дознания в процессе расследования преступлений различались по предоставленным полномочиям. Сделан вывод, о том что расследование полицией преступлений, не представляющих большой общественной опасности в полном объеме, является институтом, исторически присущим российскому уголовному процессу. На протяжении всей истории производства дознания и непосредственно в исследованный период, основным органом дознания являлась полиция, милиция. ; The article carefully as the formation of investigative bodies in Russia after the change of regime as a result of the October Revolution of 1917. This historic event was a turning point in the development of the domestic criminal process and the construction of a system of law enforcement. Normative acts of the new government was initially canceled all pre-revolutionary system of law enforcement agencies including the court, prosecutor´s office and the legal profession, is completely abolished the police and created a working and peasant militia. Since 1918, the police along with the protection of public order shall be responsible for the production of urgent investigative actions, as well as inquiries in full in criminal matters. It was later determined the structure of the body of inquiry. In 1922 adopted the first Code of Criminal Procedure of the Soviet state, which legislated the inquiry as a form of pre-trial investigation, and a fairly extensive list of bodies of inquiry, in consequence of the tendency merger inquiry and investigation. The article presents the statements of law enforcement at the time, justifying the need for this process. Despite these trends, in the late 50´s, with the discussion of the draft of the new Criminal Procedure Law of scientists started a broad discussion about the right to exist as a form of inquiry investigation of crimes in full. However, the Code of Criminal Procedure 1960 inquiry was kept in the form of two clearly delineated forms. Circle of inquiry was wide enough. During the period of the Criminal Procedure Code 1960, he enhanced and modified. Investigative bodies in the process of investigating the offenses differed empowerment. It is concluded that the investigation by the police of crimes that do not pose a major public threat in its entirety, is an institution historically inherent in the Russian criminal process. Throughout the history of the inquiry directly to the studied period, the main body of inquiry was the police, militia.

В статье анализируются законодательные и теоретические предпосылки создания заподозренного как формы подозрения в различных сферах отношений. При этом отмечается фактическое существование лица, в отношении которого реализуется подозрения, вне статуса подозреваемого, наличие у него прав и обязанностей, гарантий деятельности, что влечет необходимость придания ему названия и систематизации его положения. Статус заподозренного может быть представлен такими элементам, как: определение, права и обязанности, момент появления и прекращения действия, способ фиксации, гарантии соблюдения его прав, свобод и законных интересов. Кроме того, автор обращается к истории вопроса, зарубежному и международному опыту функционирования заподозренного. Методологической основой исследования является, прежде всего, метод диалектического познания, который позволил выделить явление подозрения во всем его многообразии, исследовать его природу во взаимосвязи со статусом заподозренного. В уголовном судопроизводстве наблюдается отсутствие адекватных форм реализации подозрения. Во-первых, вызывает критику статус подозреваемого как процессуальной формы реализации подозрения. Во-вторых, многочисленные нормы российских законов и подзаконных актов, международного уголовного судопроизводства содержат возможности создания статуса исходя из фактического положения лица. Такие ситуации востребованы в практике уголовного судопроизводства, но не обеспечены определенной процессуальной формой. Сложившийся подход влечет необходимость его осмысления и предложения законодателю и соответственно правоприменителю оптимального и эффективного механизма научной и правовой легализации факта существования еще одного участника таких отношений. Одним из таких вариантов, на наш взгляд, может быть идея о заподозренном как первоначальной форме реализации подозрения. В результате исследования формируется теоретическая модель заподозренного как формы подозрения. Такой подход позволит обеспечить применение ряда норм УПК РФ, решений судебных органов, как Российской Федерации, так и Европейского суда по правам человека по правам человека, реализацию прав и свобод участника таких отношений в различных сферах деятельности. ; The article analyzes the legislative and theoretical premises of creating suspected as a form of apprehension in various fields of relations. It is noted the actual existence of the person against whom the suspicion is realized, his status being out of the suspect, the presence of his rights and obligations, guarantees of activity, which implies the need to give him a name and systematization of his status. The status of the suspected may be represented by such elements as: the definition of rights and responsibilities, the time of occurrence and termination of the method of fixation, guarantees of their rights, freedoms and legitimate interests. In addition, the author addresses the history of the matter, foreign and international experience of functioning of the suspected. Methodological basis of the research is primarily the method of dialectical cognition, which allowed identifying suspicious phenomenon in all its diversity, to explore its nature in relation to the status of the suspected. In criminal proceedings, there is a lack of adequate forms of realization of the suspicion. First, the status of the suspected is open to criticism as a procedural form of the implementation of suspicion. Secondly, numerous norms and regulations of Russian laws, international criminal proceedings contain the possibility of creating a status based on the actual situation of the person. Such situations are demanded in the practice of criminal justice, but are not provided with the certain procedural form. Prevailing approach implies the need to understand and suggest the legislator and enforcer respectively the most efficient and effective mechanism of scientific and lawful legalization of the existence of another participant in such relations. One such option, in our opinion, may be suspected as the idea of the original form of the suspicion. The study formed the theoretical model of the suspected as a form of apprehension. Such an approach will ensure implementation of the number of rules of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, court decisions, both of the Russian Federation and the European Court of Human Rights, the realization of the rights and freedoms of a member of such relations in various fields.