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A review essay on books by: Ben Ross Schneider, Politics within the State: Elite Bureaucrats and Industrial Policy in Authoritarian Brazil (Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh Press, 1991); Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton U Press, 1993); & Shmuel N. Eisenstadt, The Political Systems of Empires (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1993 [see listings in IRPS No. 85]). Eisentadt's structural functionalist approach to the operation characteristics of empires has been a significant influence, since its initial publication in the 1960s. In this updated edition, comparative sociohistorical studies are linked to the ongoing debate over the utility of the structural-functionalist paradigm in social science. Putnam finds that political culture's behavior-shaping ability is greater than that of institutions, but implies that political culture is static & fails to explain the connection between Italy's embedded political culture & recent political changes. Schneider focuses on the influence of bureaucrats on institutional performance, & demonstrates that Brazil's deep power structure is not greatly impacted by changes in political regimes. S. Jameson

PurposeThis study was undertaken to identify and describe the impact of leadership behaviour of educational leaders (both relation-oriented and task-oriented) along with demographics on institutional performance for the fulfilment of goals of education as envisaged in national documents.Research Design/MethodologyThree questionnaires namely Leadership Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), Institutional Performance Questionnaire (IPQ) and Leadership Demographics Checklist (LDC) were developed for the collection of data. The validity and reliability of the instruments was ensured through experts' opinions and pilot testing. All educational administrators working in educational institutions—schools, colleges situated at district and provincial level formed the population for this study. The population of study was consisted of Principals of Higher Secondary Schools, Degree Colleges and Colleges of Education, District Educational Officers (DEOs), Executive District Officers (EDOs), and their subordinates [DEOs, Dy. DEOs, AEOs and Superintendents] respectively. Leadership Demographics (attributes + situational factors) Checklist was administered to 171educational leaders and 1368 their subordinate / teaching staff. For gathering quick and reliable data all three questionnaires were routed through Additional Secretary (Schools), Education Department. Using that channel more than 90 % data were collected from the field.Major FindingsThe findings of the study revealed that both Relation-Oriented and Task Oriented Behavioural dimensions of educational leaders of the study directly relate to their leadership effectiveness. This evidence also suggests that the strong relationship between these two variables is optional for high leadership effectiveness for achieving the objectives of the organization. The correlation r =.73 shows a strong positive relationship between relation oriented behaviour of educational leaders and institutional performance. Whereas, the correlation r=.74 shows that there is also a strong relationship between task oriented behaviour of educational leaders and institutional performance. Comparison of both behaviours shows that comparatively second relationship is stronger than the previous one even instead of a little difference between their values. Therefore task oriented behaviour of educational leaders has better impact on the performance of institution rather than relation oriented behaviour of educational leaders and institutional performance. Whatsoever are the factors other than educational leaders, the impact of educational leaders on institutional performance cannot be easily ignored. Originality/ValueGiven the findings in this study, a relatively straight forward profile of educational leaders on institutional performance emerges. An effective educational leader according to this study is one who has Task-Oriented Behaviour which reflects the behaviour of the leader as high on relationship i.e. high on consideration, better with professional qualification, interaction with Subordinates/teaching staff enjoyable academic freedom that acts as catalyst in the use of potential of the staff for better instructional efficiency.

Payments for environmental services (PES) programs represent an innovative and increasingly popular approach to natural resource policy in Latin America. This article examines Costa Rica's PES program using evaluative criteria established using the institutional analysis and development (IAD) framework. First, three types of transaction costs (information, coordination, and strategic) involved with implementing the program are investigated, then the institutional performance of the PES program is assessed according to six benchmarks established using the IAD framework: economic efficiency, fiscal equivalence, redistributional equity, accountability, conformance to the values of local actors, and sustainability. Finally, recommendations for improving the program's overall performance and minimizing its transaction costs are offered.

Economic growth is a researchable debate in the context of trade openness relation in testing trade-led growth hypothesis. This study explores the relation of economic growth with trade openness to test the trade-led growth hypothesis by using a recently developed nonlinear ARDL model over the period 1984-2017 in Pakistan. The results reveal that trade openness affects economic growth differently when it decomposes into positive and negative components, and trade openness decrease has a more impact on economic growth in the presence of labor, capital, FDI and institutional performance as control variables. The mixed relationship of openness-growth in the long-run does not completely verify the trade-led growth and shows non-linear impacts of trade openness on economic growth in Pakistan. The study suggests the policies for government officials and policymakers after unearthing the asymmetric association between trade openness and economic growth that would help to make trade policies for Pakistan.