Suchergebnisse

The article deals with gender aspects of the perception of environmental problems by the population in the industrial development of the Arctic. There is substantiated the need to develop an ethno-social approach to the study of environmental problems in the framework of interaction between mining companies and the indigenous peoples of the North. It is proposed to conduct sociological surveys of the population when assessing the impact on the ethnological environment (ethnological expertise of the project). The experience of conducting such research to identify and assess gender-specific perceptions of environmental problems in the implementation of investment projects in the Arctic is shown. Based on the results of the empirical research in 2017–2019 on alluvial gold and diamond mining projects in the Northern regions of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), the main environmental problems that concern the local population are identified. These include: pollution of the environment in the territories of traditional nature use, decrease in the number of deer, reduction in the number of objects of traditional crafts, lack of a system for garbage removal and processing, climate change, and others. The article shows specifics of the environmental problems perception by the indigenous inhabitants of the North (Evenks, Dolgans, Yukagirs, Sakha) on a gender basis. It proposes a mechanism for taking into account the gender characteristics of the population's behavior in the impact of economic activities on the environment in order to ensure gender equality by signing an agreement between mining companies and the local population on the socio-economic development of the territory. The concept of a gender approach to the account of ethnosocial and environmental aspects of territory development with the account the life cycle of the project is substantiated. Implementation of this approach will allow a more full account of the interests and needs of the indigenous population in the industrial development of the territory in the Arctic.

Introduction: the article considers some issues of protection of "ethnic" and "cultural" rights of indigenous numerically small peoples of the Russian Federation. It consists of several paragraphs: cultural rights of the indigenous peoples; "cultural" and "ethnic" rights in the Russian Federation; the issue of preserving "ethno-cultural diversity"; the issue of preserving "traditional medicine"; customs of indigenous numerically small peoples as a source of law. Purpose: the authors analyze and compare different approaches to defining the legal nature of the cultural heritage of Russia's indigenous numerically-small peoples as well as measures to protect this heritage, and also give a general description of legal regulation of these peoples' rights protection. Methods: the methodological framework of the research is based on a set of methods of scientific cognition, among which the dialectic method is the major one. The authors use general scientific methods (dialectics, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization) and methods specific to legal science (formal-legal, technical-legal, comparative legal). Results: 1) the international law only mentions "ethnic" and "cultural" rights as well as "traditional knowledge" of indigenous peoples, not giving any legal definitions to these terms; 2) the constitutional law of the Russian Federation also does not contain a legal definition of the above terms; 3) protection of "ethnic" and "cultural" rights is a subject of joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its constituent units, but is actually implemented only at the level of the constituent units; 4) in the Russian Federation there is no well-regulated system of support for "ethnic and cultural diversity" since such a system may impede the prosess of a unified nation formation; 5) existing regulations do not address the issues relating to the support for "traditional medicine" as a manifestation of "ethnic" and "cultural" rights of indigenous numerically small peoples; 6) the rulemaking process in Russia does not take into consideration traditional forms of habitat and customs of these peoples. Conclusions: analysis of the current legislation of the Russian Federation on cultural rights of indigenous numerically small peoples, as well as of scientific literature on the study of ethnic and cultural diversity of the peoples of the Russian Federation has been conducted.

Статья посвящена вопросу о коренных народах Украины. Утверждается, что русские на Украине по историческому праву являются коренным народом, так как русский и украинец имеют общее этнокультурное происхождение. Однако сегодня наблюдаются попытки украинской политической элиты переписать страницы общей истории. ; Russian Russians in Ukraine are, by historical law, an indigenous people, since Russian and Ukrainian have a common ethno-cultural origin. Bearing in mind the common history until the beginning of the XX century, a significant population of the current Ukrainian lands associated themselves with Russians. At the end of the XX century, Russians and Ukrainians gained their national statehood. But the fraternal peoples have in common memories of the indigenous ethnic unity of Ancient Russia, of the epic three heroes who defended Holy Russia, of the canonical saints of the Russian Orthodox Church. However, today we are all witnessing attempts by the Ukrainian political elite to rewrite the pages of our common history.

The article is devoted to the topical issue of development prospects for the peoples of Siberia throughout the vast stretch of Russian territory from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean. It incorporates the ancestral lands of many contemporary indigenous and minority peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East. For them, the issues of preservation of ethnic and cultural integrity, identity and traditional ways of land use are very urgent at the moment.Since 2001 the author has been conducting field research in the Republics of Sakha (Yakutia), Buryatia, Gorny Altai and Khakassia, Irkutsk, Kemerovo and Tomsk oblasts and the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District. We have employed the functional-systemic approach, the method of participant observation and conducted interviews with representatives of the national intelligentsia and other individuals from Sakha, Buryat, Shor, Altai, Khakas, Tuva, Nenets, Yukagir, Even and Evenki ethnic groups. Having analyzed the research outcomes, we suggest there are three levels of ethno-social consequences of transforming the federal policy on the peoples of Siberia: personal, ethno-political and ethnocultural. We have also singled out 5 models of survival strategies for the peoples of Siberia: neo-traditionalism, shared governance, competitive strategy, displacement of indigenous peoples, and preserving peoples.The author concludes that the majority of the peoples of Siberia do not have enough opportunity to reproduce their collective ethnic identity on their own. Ethnicity of endangered peoples is affected by various influences and destructive factors. The peoples of Siberia can get a chance for preservation only if the international rights of indigenous peoples are introduced and implemented in the Russian legislation. ; Статья посвящена актуальной теме перспектив исторической судьбы народов Сибири на территории России от Урала до Тихого океана. Эта территория является местом исконного проживания современных коренных и коренных малочисленных народов Севера, Сибири и Дальнего Востока, для которых в современных условиях с особой остротой стоят вопросы сохранения этнокультурной целостности и идентичности, традиционных видов природопользования.С 2001 по 2014 г. автором проведены полевые исследования на территориях республик Саха (Якутия), Бурятии, Горного Алтая и Хакасии, Иркутской, Кемеровской и Томской областей, Ямало-Ненецкого автономного округа. Применялись функционально-системный подход и методы включенного наблюдения и интервью с представителями национальной интеллигенции и этнофорами саха, бурят, шорцев, алтайцев, хакасов, тувинцев, ненцев, юкагиров, эвенов, эвенков. На основе проведенного исследования предлагается выделить три уровня этносоциальных последствий трансформации политики федерального центра по отношению к народам Сибири: личностный, этнополитический, этнокультурный. Выявлены пять моделей стратегии выживания народов Сибири: неотрадиционализм, соуправление, конкурентная стратегия, вытеснение коренных народов, народосбережение.Заключается, что большинство сибирских народов не имеют достаточных шансов на воспроизводство своей коллективной идентичности как этнической общности собственными силами. Этничность исчезающих народов подвергается всевозможным влияниям и факторам разрушения. Народы Сибири могут получить шанс на сохранение только при условии внедрения и реализации международного права коренных народов в правовом пространстве России.

The regions of the Russian North occupy 70 % of the territory of the country. These areas considerably differ in the level of socio-economic development. Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug (KhMAO) ' Yugra is the most developed industrial region of the Russian North. KhMAO is also the main supplier of oil and gas resources. Thus, KhMAO is the focus of the research. The purpose of the paper is to evaluate how the traditional natural resource management transforms on the developing territories and to assess its impact on the lifehoods of the Small Indigenous Peoples of the North (SIPN). The study is based on the hypothesis of the negative impact of industrial development on the territory of the traditional residence of SIPN and, accordingly, on their social and economic development and the quality of life. We have found certain intraregional distinctions of this territorial subject of the Federation. These differences are caused by the features of natural and resource potential, transport security and geographical location. It is true for both the separate municipal entities and larger territorial and administrative sub-regions. We have identified the most acute problems in the development of traditional natural resource management on the territories of active industrial and transport development. The main industries there are reindeer breeding and fishery. We also identified the problem of the northern legislation set up to protect the rights of SIPN. The paper considers the evolutionary changes in the formation of the institution of ancestral domains and the territories of traditional natural resource management, as well as the practice of coordinating the interests of subsoil users and SIPN's representatives with the help of economic agreements. We have demonstrated the problem associated with the difficulties of social adaptation of SIPN. We have analyzed the ecological situation and current state of traditional environmental management to compare the conditions of municipal entities of the region. Using ethnic social and ecosystem approach, we have evaluated the lifehoods of SIPN in the developed and poorly developed regions of KhMAO. The results of the assessment support the hypothesis of the research. The findings of the research can be used when working out on the roadmap of the development of traditional industries and SIPN in the municipal districts of various development level. © 2018 Economy of Region. All rights reserved. ; Дана оценка трансформации традиционного природопользования на осваиваемых территориях Севера. Выявлены проблемы развития традиционного природопользования на территориях активного промышленного и транспортного освоения, в том числе проблемы северного законодательства, призванного защищать права коренных малочисленных народов Севера. Рассмотрены эволюционные изменения в формировании института родовых угодий и территорий традиционного природопользования. Отражена проблемная ситуация, связанная с затруднениями социальной адаптации коренных малочисленных народов Севера. ; The article has been supported by the Grant of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research Concepts for the development of the industries of traditional environmental management and indigenous ethnic groups within intensively developed and undeveloped regio

The subject. The article describes the main problems of protection of the rights and freedomsof indigenous peoples as one of the most vulnerable groups of residents in a modernstate. The author emphasizes the relevance of the study, based on increased attention tothe preservation of the peoples of the North, especially by the international community.The purpose. The author dwells particularly on the legal protection of the rights of indigenouspeoples of the North, both on the global and national levels. The main tasks and functionsof state authorities on support and protection legal status of the indigenous Northernpeople are discussed.The methodology. General scientific methods (systemic, structural, formal logical) and special(technical, legal, statistical) methods are used.Results and scope of it's application. After the analysis the national legislation the authoridentifies the shortcomings that impede the efficient activities of state authorities in thisdirection and comes to the conclusion that the Russian normative legal base, regulating theactivity of indigenous peoples of the North and protection of their rights, does not fullymeet modern requirements and existing needs. Among the major remedy options the authorcites a number of provisions which may be laid in the basis of the revised state policy.Conclusions. The Russian Federation has not used the full potential of the tools to preservethe culture and identity of peoples of the North, which allows to simulate and to conductfurther research to improve the quality of life of the peoples of the Russian North. ; В статье рассмотрены основные проблемы защиты прав и свобод коренных народовкак одной из наиболее уязвимых категорий населения в современном государстве.Автор особо останавливается на правовом обеспечении и защите прав коренныхнародов Севера, как на международном, так и на национальном уровне. Рассматриваются основные задачи и функции органов государственной власти по направлениямподдержки и защиты правового статуса коренных северных народов.

Objective: to consider and analyze the problems of the development of health systems within the European Union and the World Health Organization, identify possible ways to resolve them, identify the causes of current problems of sufficient financing of health care systems, and trace the relationship to the availability of medical services for citizens of Europe and migrants. Methods : an analytical approach to the cognition of social phenomena, allowing to analyze them in historical development and functioning in the context of a combination of objective and subjective factors. Results: Based on the analysis of regulatory legal acts, directives and policies regulating the health system within the European Union and World Health Organization, the development of pan-European health systems has been considered from the very beginning to the present time, it is concluded that the specific problems of this supranational association, which correspond to the basic the policy direction of the European Union countries in the field of health - the economy of funding in the context of an aggravating demographic situation. For the full disclosure of the issue under study, particular attention is paid to a number of official documents, for example: the Maastricht Treaty of 1993, the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997, the White Paper of Public Services, and many other acts aimed at regulating the national and supranational health sectors of the European Union. The article is based on the results of research by European economists, sociologists, medical professionals and health professionals over the past twenty years; The geography of the analyzed sources is extensive and includes countries such as Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, etc. The presented documents reflect the main efforts of the participating countries in the field under study, including the main tasks of their interaction in the conditions certain legal and economic circumstances. Scientific novelty : in the article for the first time on the basis of the use of a complex of classical and postclassical methods the problems of modern European public health were studied within the framework of the development of the European community and the world health organization. Practical significance: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific activities when considering the nature and trends of development of health systems within the EU and World Health Organization. ; Цель : рассмотрение и анализ проблем развития систем здравоохранения в рамках ЕС и Всемирной Организации Здравоохранения выделение возможные пути их разрешения,обозначение причин текущих проблем достаточного финансирования систем здравоохраненения, проследить взаимосвязь с доступностью медицинских услуг для граждан Европы и мигрантов. Методы : аналитический подход к познанию социальных явлений, позволяющий проанализировать их в историческом развитии и функционировании в контексте совокупности объективных и субъективных факторов. Результаты : на основе анализа нормативно-правовых актов,директив и политик регулирующих консолидированны система здравоохранения в рамках Европейского Союза и Всемирной организации здравоохранения, рассмотрено развитие общеевропейских систем здравоохранения с самого начала зарождения до нынешних времен, сделан вывод о характерных проблемах присущих только данному наднациональному объединению, которые соответствуют основному направлению политики стран ЕС в области здравоохранения - экономия стредств финансирования в условиях усугубляющейся демографической ситуации. Для полного раскрытия исследуемого вопроса в данной работе особое внимание уделяется множеству официальных документов, например: Маастрихтский Договор 1993 года, Амстердамский договор 1997 года, «Белая книга служб общественного значения» и ко многим другим актам, направленным на регулирования национальных и надгосударственных секторов здравоохранения Европейского Союза. Статья основывается на результатах исследований европейских экономистов, социологов, медиков и специалистов в области здравоохранения за последние двадцать лет; география анализируемых источников обширна и включает такие страны, как Австрия, Бельгия, Великобритания, Франция, Германия, Ирландия, Италия и др. В представленных документах отражены основные усилия стран-участниц в отношении изучаемой области, в том числе и основные задачи их взаимодействия в условиях определенных правовых и экономических обстоятельствах. Научная новизна : в статье впервые на основе использования комплекса классических и постклассических методов исследована проблематика современного европейского здравоохранения в рамках развития европейского сообщества и всемирной организации здравоохранения. Практическая значимость : основные положения и выводы статьи могут быть использованы в научной деятельности при рассмотрении вопросов о сущности и тенденциях развития систем здравоохранения в рамках Европейского Союза и Всемирной организации здравоохранения.

The article deals with the development of international relations in Central Asia in the 1930s. The research featured the relationship between England and the Soviet Union during the uprising of the indigenous peoples of Xinjiang against the Chinese administration in 1931–1934. The analysis involved recent publications and archival sources. The research clarifies the historical picture of the confrontation between Great Britain and the Soviet Union in Central Asia. London made persistent attempts to establish its control over the rebel movement in order to gain economic and political influence in the province, which it had lost in the 1920s. However, the reciprocal actions of the Soviet government proved effective and completely deprived Britain of any serious prospects in that region. The confrontation, its forms, methods, and results affected the entire complex of international relations in Central Asia. The conflict became the final episode of the Great Game, which later determined the predominant position of the Soviet Union in Central Asia. Contrary to the opinion of many western researchers, the USSR never intended to annex the territory of Xinjiang. The research summarizes the history of international relations in Central Asia. ; Рассмотрены проблемы, связанные с развитием международных отношений в Центральной Азии в 1930‑е гг. Предмет – взаимоотношения Англии и Советского Союза в период восстания коренных народов Синьцзяна против китайской администрации в 1931–1934 гг. Проведен анализ исследований, опубликованных в последние годы, и архивных источников, вновь выявленных и введенных в научный оборот. Сделан ряд выводов и заключений, которые дополняют и уточняют событийную картину противостояния Великобритании и России (Советского Союза) в регионе Центральной Азии. Отмечено, что Лондон предпринимал весьма серьезные и настойчивые попытки установления своего контроля над повстанческим движением, чтобы с его помощью вернуть в провинции утерянное в 1920-х гг. экономиче‑ ское и отчасти политическое влияние. Однако встречные действия советского правительства в развернувшейся борьбе оказались не только более эффективными, но и окончательно лишили Англию сколько-нибудь серьезных перспектив деятельности в этом регионе. Подчеркивается, что противоборство Англии и СССР, развернувшееся в ходе восстания, его формы, методы и итоги отразились на всем комплексе международных отношений в Центральной Азии. Сама схватка стала, по сути, финальным эпизодом «Большой игры», который определил в дальнейшем преимущественное положение Советского Союза в этом регионе. При этом руководство СССР, вопреки мнению многих западных исследователей, никогда не ставило своей целью аннексию территории Синьцзяна. Материалы исследования могут быть использованы в обобщающих работах по истории международных отношений в Центральной Азии.

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug - Yugra (KMAO) is the North's most industrially developed region and the key supplier of the oil and gas resources. Moreover, it is the historical homeland of the small indigenous peoples of the North (SIP). The problem of saving the KMAO's traditional economy is relevant to other North regions, too. The paper analyses the evolutionary changes in the traditional nature management on the developed territories. Additionally, it establishes the methodological tools to substantiate the possibility of the SIP's entrepreneurial activity and its main directions. We hypothesised that the traditional nature management, which determines the necessity of the entrepreneurial activity's development, is volatile. We revealed the reason for the fisheries' low profitability in the traditional economy and proposed the ways of increasing the eficiency of the traditional sector's enterprises. Furthermore, we demonstrated the role of the state and corporate structures in supporting traditional industries and traditional ways of the SIP's living. An analysis of the development of the traditional nature management in the historical perspective has revealed the instability of this kind of activity of indigenous ethnic groups. The instability is caused by several threats of political, socio-economic, environmental, institutional, demographic nature. We demonstrated the specificity of the modern state of traditional nature management in the territories of active industrial and transport development. Traditional nature management involves reindeer herding, hunting, fishing and collecting the wild crop. Furthermore, we considered the forms of organizing the enterprises of traditional nature management. These forms include communities with the stable legal status, non-profit enterprises, limited liability companies, reindeer herding companies, trading posts. We formulated the reasons for the strengthening of the ecological threat, caused by the expansion of the areas transferred to the oil companies for long-term lease, which negatively impacts the environment in these territories. We suggested the methodological tools for substantiating the possibility for the entrepreneurial activity of indigenous ethnic groups. We have depicted them in the form of algorithm of the wild crops' harvesting and processing in the territory of Russkinskaya settlement that belongs to Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug. © 2019 Institute of Economics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. ; Проанализированы эволюционные изменения в традиционном природопользовании на осваиваемых территориях Севера. Вскрыты причины низкой рентабельности промысловых отраслей традиционного хозяйствования. Обоснованы направления повышения эффективности работы предприятий традиционного сектора. Показана роль государственных и корпоративных структур в поддержке традиционных отраслей и традиционного образа жизни коренного населения. Предложены методический инструментарий обоснования возможности предпринимательской деятельности коренных этносов и его схематичное отображение в виде алгоритма, реализованного для условий заготовки и переработки дикоросов на территории Ханты-Мансийского автономного округа. ; The article has been prepared with the support of Russian Foundation for Basic Research. 18-010-00626 Conceptual provisions for the development of the branches of the traditional nature management and indigenous ethnic groups within intensively developed

Статья посвящена актуальной в научном и общественно-политическом отношении проблеме, связанной с подавлением в первой половине 30‑х гг. ХХ в. китайскими властями Синьцзяна национального движения коренных народов этой провинции. Протест народов провинции, исповедовавших ислам, вызывали экономический грабеж, оскорбительное отношение властей к их культуре, традициям, обычаям и верованиям. Активную и всестороннюю помощь в разгроме повстанческого движения администрации региона оказало советское руководство. Автор статьи на основе источников, выявленных в центральных архивах России, приходит к выводу, что значительную роль в принятии Москвой решения об оказании китайцам помощи в подавлении национального движения сыграл внутриполитический фактор. В частности сложная социально-экономическая обстановка в приграничных районах среднеазиатских советских республик, возникшая в результате начавшейся кампании коллективизации и приведшая к массовой эмиграции проживавшего здесь населения на сопредельную китайскую территорию. Кроме того, на территорию Синьцзяна ушли и влились в ряды повстанцев отряды басмачей, которые боролись против советской власти.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2016)2-03 ; The article is devoted to the scientifically and politically important issue dealing with the problem of suppression of national movement of indigenous peoples in Xinjiang in the first half of the 1930‑s of the 20th century, implemented by Chinese authorities. Protests of the peoples of the province professing Islam caused economic plunder, humiliating attitude of the authorities to their culture, traditions, customs and beliefs. The Soviet leadership provided the regional administration with active and comprehensive assistance in defeating the insurgency. On the basis of the sources identified in the central archives of Russia, the author makes the conclusion that the home-policy factors played a significant role in forcing Moscow to make the decision to provide Chinese national movement with aid in suppression of the rebels. In particular, one of the reasons was a difficult socio-economic situation in the border areas of the Soviet Central Asian Republics, which resulted from the collectivization campaign and led to the mass emigration of the native population to the neighboring Chinese territory. In addition, Basmachis, who had been fighting against the Soviet regime, left for Xinjiang and joined the insurgency troops.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2016)2-03

Considering the questions of Latin-American development, it is necessary to take into account the existing environmental problems of the region. The human impact on the conditions of the environment gave birth to new challenges, initially perceived as a local, which reached to the global level. The so-called «eco-territorial turn» that we can to observe in some Latin American countries has become a reaction to the expansion of the neoextractivism's policy of the authorities, whose support the «consensus of commodities». These trends brought new forms of inequality and potential conflicts to the Latin American society, in our opinion, but not only as a local forms of mentioned problems, but also as a possible ways to resolve them. ; При рассмотрении вопросов развития Латинской Америки необходимо учитывать существующие проблемы окружающей среды, с которыми столкнулся регион. Человеческое воздействие на состояние экологии породило новые угрозы, которые первоначально воспринимаясь как локальные, вышли на глобальный уровень. Так называемый «эко-территориальный сдвиг», который наблюдается в некоторых государствах Латинской Америки стал реакцией на расширение неоэкстрактивистской политики властей, поддерживающих «товарный консенсус». Последний привнёс в латиноамериканское общество новые формы неравенства и потенциальные конфликты. Указанные тенденции, на наш взгляд, являются не только локальными формами накопившихся проблем, но и возможным выходом из сложившейся ситуации.

The article analyzes the text of the «Canada's Arctic and Northern Policy Framework», published in September 2019. The author conducted a comparative analysis with a comparable document «Canada's Northern Strategy: Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future» of 2009. As a result, new approaches to the development of Canada's Northern policy were revealed. There were detected unchanged priorities and goals, as well as emphases of the Canadian government in the shaping of Arctic and Northern policy on addressing the socio-economic problems of indigenous peoples and residents of the North of Canada.

The impact on healthcare organization on the territory of Russian Arctic of unique natural and climatic, demographic, ethnic, settlement and professional factors of influencing the health of population, constantly or temporarily living on this territory is studied. The necessity is substantiated of various forms and resource provision with healthcare services such real and potential patients of Arctic medical institutions, as representatives of indigenous small peoples of the North, workers of mining and metallurgical industry, military personnel, sailors and shift workers. In this connection a correction of a number of All-Russian normative acts is proposed.

The article considers the national movement of the local indigenous people in Xinjiang in the second half of the 1940s and the influence of Islam on this process. The nationalimovement that involved uprisings was due to a number of complex socio-economic and political factors. In this article, the author reflects on the influence of Islam and Islamic clergy on the political processes of the region. Religion has traditionally played an important role in the lives of the indigenous peoples of the Northweof China. Sunni Islam influences the tradition of social and domestic relations, interethnic interaction and it is the ideological basis of the national struggle for liberation. The article infers that essentially the EaTurkestan Republic in Xinjiang (1945-1949) was an Islamic state. However, in the face of opposition of the Kuomintang, the CommuniParty of China and the Soviet Union, an alternative national and religious scenario in was never to be implemented. ; В статье рассматривается национальное движение коренных народов Синьцзяна во второй половине 1940-х годов и влияние ислама на данный процесс. Национальное движение в регионе, сопровождавшееся восстаниями, было обусловлено комплексом социально-экономических и политических факторов. В данной работе внимание автора сконцентрировано на влиянии ислама и исламского духовенства на политические процессы в регионе. Суннитский ислам оказывал влияние на традиции, социально-бытовые отношения, межэтническое взаимодействие различных народов и являлся идеологической базой национально-освободительной борьбы. В статье делается вывод о том, что по своему характеру Восточно-Туркестанская Республика, существовавшая в Синьцзяне в 1945–1949 гг., была исламским государством. Но в условиях противодействия со стороны гоминьдановского Китая, Коммунистической партии Китая и СССР, альтернатива национального и религиозного развития региона не была реализована.