The aim of the research is to analyze the role of the consumer in a detailed way. Firstly I defined the concepts of "consumption" and "consumer", giving relief to the socio-economic theories that have characterized the subject during recent years,and taking in consideration the process of consumption and the behavioral and decisional theories proper of the consumer. Moreover, I have deeply analyzed the consumer under the juridical aspect, from the mere legal recognition to the trial and the efforts sustained by the European Legislator during the last years with the purpose of creating a system of common rules with the final goal of guaranteeing a high-level of protection to the consumer in international contracts and assuring the correct operation of the Single Internal Market founding the discipline on a competitive model. Great relief is given to the "Rome I Regulation" on the choice of the law aplicable to contracts and to the "Bruxelles Convention" on the competent court.
The paper analyzes two recent orders hold by the International Court of Justice in the Armed activities in the territory of the Congo case, concerning the appointment of experts, according to article 50 of the Statute of the Court. The experts will assist the Court in the assessment of the reparation owed to the Democratic Republic of Congo by Uganda for the injuries caused by Uganda as a result of the breach of several international obligations, determined by the Court in the 2005 Judgment. The analysis has the scope to highlight some of the substantial issues relating to the role of Court-appointed experts in the litigations brought before the Court. The need for this investigation is particularly significant, despite the sparing reliance of the power to call experts by the Court. Notwithstanding the great discretion enjoyed, the Court appointed independent experts only in four cases, including the present one. The limited number of precedents rises several questions related both to the function of Court-appointed experts and the Court approach to technical or scientific complexity. Firstly, the article focuses on the function of the experts appointed by the Court in the case, evaluating the terms of reference assigned by the Court. Secondly, the examination attempt to shed light on the approach of the Court in the exercise of its power to use experts. Regard this point, the essay analyses, on the one hand, the relationship between the margin of discretion, enjoyed by the Court in order to use experts, and the relevance of the Jura novit curia principle, in light on the distinction between questions of law and questions of fact. On the other hand, the essay will evaluate the usefulness of the use of experts in the determination of the amount of reparations, in order to underline the methodology employed by the Court in the assessment of damages. Thirdly, the article questioning whether the appointment of independent experts might affect the principles and rules governing the production and the burden of proof in the adjudication before the Court.
Abstract The appointment of judges to supranational and international courts has long been a neglected area of sovereign activity. However, the growing role and significance of the European Court of Justice (ECJ), by now one of the most significant players within the European political and constitutional space, demands reforms which also affect its architecture. The creation of the advisory panel under article 255 TFUE, whose task is to provide the Council with opinions on candidates suitability, it could be considered one of the most interesting novelties introduced by the Lisbon Treaty. Indeed, the panel is definitely a way to improve judicial independence and proficiency but also a means to centralize judicial selection process at the supranational level. we argue that panel activity is much more influential than the modesty of its formal powers let suppose. After a deep analysis on judicial selection procedures for the ECJ, we underline the strength and the weakness points of the new panel 255. This study let us to believe that the new panel is an important step forward a stronger European integration. In the second part, adopting a comparative approach, we propose some judicial selection models for supranational and international courts. In this way, the thesis contextualizes art.255 TFUE within a general trend present at a comparative level. Finally the thesis offers a critical reading of art.255 TFUE analyzing some important cross-cutting issues concerning independence, transparency, democracy and diversity in judicial nominations. To this extent, this doctoral thesis shows how judicial selection procedures may have important substantial implications: especially with regard to ECJ legitimacy.
open ; The analysis of the Statutes, procedures and functions of the principal existing international administrative tribunals is aimed to propose a reconstruction of the comprehensive judicial protection granted to international officials in staff disputes with organizations in the context of contemporary international legal order, evaluating the adequacy of staff disputes resolutions systems to human rights' standards and the effectiveness of the rule of law in the internal activity of international organizations. The work explores the reasons underlying the institution of administrative tribunals in international organizations from the dominant opinion of jurisdictional immunity and protection of independence of international organisations to the current trend, expressed in internal and international case-law, which recognizes judicial immunity of international organizations before national courts only in the case of the previous setting of judicial bodies with adequate procedural standards, also trying to explain the phenomenon of the so called proliferation of administrative tribunals. A detailed analysis is dedicated to the International Labour Organization Administrative Tribunal (ILOAT), court whose jurisdiction to solve staff disputes is recognized by the majority of existing international organization and which is still considered the exemplary international administrative jurisdiction. The exam is specially focused to his jurisdiction ratione personae and ratione materiae and to the possible submission of a request of advisory proceedings before the International Court of Justice, taking into account the relevant cases in the field. The model jurisdiction is then compared to the new two-tier staff disputes system established in the framework of United Nations (UN Dispute Tribunal and UN Appeals Tribunal) and examined in its first years of activity. Furthermore, the thesis illustrates the special features and the evolution of the staff disputes system of European Union, based since 2004 on the ...
Why is secession' frightening? An update on «the ultimate right» This essay explores the fear of secession in two different context: the exit of a member State from EU and the secession of a territorially concentrated group from a member State of the EU. The case of the recent Brexit and the crisis in Catalonia are taken as case studies to comprehend theoretically which secession could «constitute» EU as a Federation. In the second part, I exemplify how from the international perspective secession can be considered as an «ultimate right» and that if one can talk of such a thing as legality when referring to secession that can be done only in the sense of a liminal legality: a legality that reside in the border area between the internal and the international legal order. In the last part of the essay, I shall try to use Catalonia as test to evaluate both the opinion of the International Court of Justice on Kosovo and the famous Reference of the Canadian Supreme Court on Québec. In the conclusion of the essay, I will also verify if Catalonia can be read through the lens of the Just-Cause Theories of Secession.
The political and civil debate on the democratic model of a state subject to the rule of law and its worldwide expansion concerns international law, particularly in the way human rights and basic freedoms are recognized as sources of the international community's legal system. Equity could be a common interpretative denominator for the law to be applied between States to guarantee a minimum fundamental provision of substantive law and basically standard procedural law (fair trial). In this way a "new" interpretative criterion for customary laws and compulsory pacts would be provided that could be constantly adapted to real situations in different international geo-political contexts. Human rights communication takes place in this frequently controversial scenario and requires a pre-emptive choice of values that the international courts' case law is developing case by case. The contribution of equity in mediating and settling disputes in the field of human rights depends, in the final analysis, on jurisprudential practice.
The political and civil debate on the democratic model of a state subject to the rule of law and its worldwide expansion concerns international law, particularly in the way human rights and basic freedoms are recognized as sources of the international community's legal system. Equity could be a common interpretative denominator for the law to be applied between States to guarantee a minimum fundamental provision of substantive law and basically standard procedural law (fair trial). In this way a "new" interpretative criterion for customary laws and compulsory pacts would be provided that could be constantly adapted to real situations in different international geo-political contexts. Human rights communication takes place in this frequently controversial scenario and requires a pre-emptive choice of values that the international courts' case law is developing case by case. The contribution of equity in mediating and settling disputes in the field of human rights depends, in the final analysis, on jurisprudential practice.
SOMMARIO: 1. Introduzione. – 2. Considerazioni generali sul principio «chi inquina paga» nel diritto dell'Ue. – 3. Problematiche connesse all"attribuzione della responsabilità ambientale nella prassi. – 4. L"attribuzione della responsabilità per danno ambientale «diffuso»: la sentenza Erg. – 5. La responsabilità ambientale del proprietario «incolpevole»: il caso Fipa. – 6. Considerazioni conclusive.
Not infrequently appear in the judgments and legislation in the field of drugs, cannabis-related terms that do not seem to be in line with the scientific studies conducted by the botany and toxicology. There were many chances we had at the legislative level to remedy this discrepancy lexical and terminological, but even today, there is still widespread uncertainty that could have implications for the practical application of the criminal provisions under the combined provisions of Articles 28 and 73 of TU, DPR 309/1990. The present work arises, therefore, the aim of addressing the issues mentioned above also through the analysis of the national and Community legislation as well as through the examination of some significant decisions of the Supreme Court and the Court of Criminal Justice. ; Non di rado compaiono all'interno delle sentenze e della normativa in tema di stupefacenti, termini riferiti alla cannabis che non sembrano essere in linea con gli studi scientifici condotti dalla botanica e dalla tossicologia. Numerose sono state le occasioni avute a livello legislativo per porre rimedio a questa discordanza lessicale e terminologica; tuttavia, ancora oggi, persiste una diffusa incertezza che potrebbe avere ripercussioni sulla concreta applicazione dei precetti penali previsti dal combinato disposto degli articoli 28 e 73 del T.U., D.P.R. 309/1990. Il presente lavoro si pone, dunque, l'obiettivo di affrontare i temi sopra accennati anche tramite l'analisi della normativa nazionale e comunitaria oltre che attraverso l'esame di alcune significative decisioni della Corte di Cassazione penale e della Corte di giustizia europea.
Revue classée de "Rang A" ("Fascia A") par le ministère de l'éducation nationale italien ; International audience ; Can the Administrative Judge void an act because it is in direct conflict with the precautionary principle? In which category of "fault of the act" does this case fall into? These are questions that are becoming more and more pressing in each country of the European Union and particularly in France, where the Constitutional Legislator has annexed a "Chart of the Environment" to the constitution.This was done in such a way that, in the before-mentioned case, administrative legality and constitutional legality are profoundly interconnected. The answers to these questions are particularly complex for at least two reasons. The first problem is that the precautionary principle is often in conflict with other rights of the citizen that have equal constitutional value, like the fundamental right of property. The second problem is that this principle has always been characterized by a sort of semantic ambiguity: on the one hand, French legislation has given multiple definitions, sometimes conflicting with each other, while, on the other, there are conflicts between the definitions of the Legislator and a definition that was created in the European framework, and problems related to the general vagueness of the notion of "precaution" itself, which is often confused with the concept of "prevention". This essay analyzes these problems, trying to find answers to the questions stated at the outset, while offering some possible answer to the Italian reader who has to deal with similar situations. ; Le principe de précaution est aujourd'hui entré dans le langage courant, utilisé en matière météorologique, sanitaire, médical, mais aussi psychologique (antenne relais, organismes génétiquement modifiés…), sociologique, politique, voire sentimental au point d'en perdre son contenu. Ces grands principes environnementaux ont suscité dès l'origine un débat quant à leur place dans l'ordonnancement juridique.Une double ...
The thesis analyzes the diplomatic-political activity carried out by the nuncio Francesco Buonvisi at the court of Leopold I of Habsburg.The main political events of the European scenario in the years 1672-1678 were studied through the study of the correspondence exchanged between the nuncio and Rome. In particular, the work done by Buonvisi in the realization of the pontifical projects was highlighted: stipulation of peace between the European powers and creation of an alliance against the Turks. For this reason, the path taken by the pontifical diplomacy for the preparation of the congress of Nijmegen was considered and much attention was paid to the election of Innocent XI. The pope, in fact, brought about a change of course in pontifical politics at a time when Rome did not have the ability to really influence other European courts. This inability emerged from the study of the vain efforts made by the nuncio Buonvisi. Despite the limited success achieved by Francesco Buonvisi, his contribution has proved to be fundamental for the papal court and for the few but significant results obtained in favor of the Holy See. ; Cette thèse de doctorat se propose d'analyser l'activité diplomatique et politique menée par le nonce Francesco Buonvisi à la cour de Léopold Ier de Habsbourg.La recherche effectuée ici, permet d'étudier les principaux événements politiques du scénario européen entre les années 1672 et 1678, à travers l'analyse de la correspondance échangée entre le nonce et Rome. Cet ouvrage s'attarde sur le travail accompli par Buonvisi lors de la réalisation des projets pontificaux : signer une paix durable entre les puissances européennes et créer une alliance solide contre les Turcs.Dans ces conditions, il est apparu judicieux d'examiner le chemin emprunté par la diplomatie pontificale dans la préparation du congrès de Nimègue. Parallèlement, une attention toute particulière a été accordée à l'élection du pape Innocent XI. Cette dernière a en effet entraîné un changement de cap dans la politique pontificale ...
The thesis analyzes the diplomatic-political activity carried out by the nuncio Francesco Buonvisi at the court of Leopold I of Habsburg.The main political events of the European scenario in the years 1672-1678 were studied through the study of the correspondence exchanged between the nuncio and Rome. In particular, the work done by Buonvisi in the realization of the pontifical projects was highlighted: stipulation of peace between the European powers and creation of an alliance against the Turks. For this reason, the path taken by the pontifical diplomacy for the preparation of the congress of Nijmegen was considered and much attention was paid to the election of Innocent XI. The pope, in fact, brought about a change of course in pontifical politics at a time when Rome did not have the ability to really influence other European courts. This inability emerged from the study of the vain efforts made by the nuncio Buonvisi. Despite the limited success achieved by Francesco Buonvisi, his contribution has proved to be fundamental for the papal court and for the few but significant results obtained in favor of the Holy See. ; Cette thèse de doctorat se propose d'analyser l'activité diplomatique et politique menée par le nonce Francesco Buonvisi à la cour de Léopold Ier de Habsbourg.La recherche effectuée ici, permet d'étudier les principaux événements politiques du scénario européen entre les années 1672 et 1678, à travers l'analyse de la correspondance échangée entre le nonce et Rome. Cet ouvrage s'attarde sur le travail accompli par Buonvisi lors de la réalisation des projets pontificaux : signer une paix durable entre les puissances européennes et créer une alliance solide contre les Turcs.Dans ces conditions, il est apparu judicieux d'examiner le chemin emprunté par la diplomatie pontificale dans la préparation du congrès de Nimègue. Parallèlement, une attention toute particulière a été accordée à l'élection du pape Innocent XI. Cette dernière a en effet entraîné un changement de cap dans la politique pontificale ...
The thesis analyzes the diplomatic-political activity carried out by the nuncio Francesco Buonvisi at the court of Leopold I of Habsburg.The main political events of the European scenario in the years 1672-1678 were studied through the study of the correspondence exchanged between the nuncio and Rome. In particular, the work done by Buonvisi in the realization of the pontifical projects was highlighted: stipulation of peace between the European powers and creation of an alliance against the Turks. For this reason, the path taken by the pontifical diplomacy for the preparation of the congress of Nijmegen was considered and much attention was paid to the election of Innocent XI. The pope, in fact, brought about a change of course in pontifical politics at a time when Rome did not have the ability to really influence other European courts. This inability emerged from the study of the vain efforts made by the nuncio Buonvisi. Despite the limited success achieved by Francesco Buonvisi, his contribution has proved to be fundamental for the papal court and for the few but significant results obtained in favor of the Holy See. ; Cette thèse de doctorat se propose d'analyser l'activité diplomatique et politique menée par le nonce Francesco Buonvisi à la cour de Léopold Ier de Habsbourg.La recherche effectuée ici, permet d'étudier les principaux événements politiques du scénario européen entre les années 1672 et 1678, à travers l'analyse de la correspondance échangée entre le nonce et Rome. Cet ouvrage s'attarde sur le travail accompli par Buonvisi lors de la réalisation des projets pontificaux : signer une paix durable entre les puissances européennes et créer une alliance solide contre les Turcs.Dans ces conditions, il est apparu judicieux d'examiner le chemin emprunté par la diplomatie pontificale dans la préparation du congrès de Nimègue. Parallèlement, une attention toute particulière a été accordée à l'élection du pape Innocent XI. Cette dernière a en effet entraîné un changement de cap dans la politique pontificale ...
L'attività di ricerca nell'ambito del Dottorato di ricerca "Persone, imprese e lavoro: dal diritto interno a quello internazionale" ha consentito di studiare ed approfondire una tematica nuova del diritto internazionale, ossia "La responsabilità delle imprese multinazionali per crimini internazionali". Il progetto di ricerca è stato strutturato su tre parti dedicate rispettivamente alla soggettività giuridica delle imprese multinazionali, ai diversi profili di responsabilità che possono essere riferiti alle imprese multinazionali e, infine, alla responsabilità penale che può essere loro contestata. Per quanto riguarda il primo capitolo, "L'impresa multinazionale come realtà multiforme", l'analisi si è concentrata principalmente sulla nozione di impresa multinazionale e sul relativo problema dell'ammissibilità della personalità giuridica di diritto internazionale delle imprese multinazionale. Il profilo definitorio è stato oggetto di un iter argomentativo che si è mosso lungo l'analisi delle fonti di diritto internazionale e il modus operandi delle imprese multinazionali. Alla luce di ciò, l'indagine definitoria si è conclusa propendendo per una nozione di impresa multinazionale che va specificata in concreto attraverso i suoi elementi costitutivi. In definitiva, l'impresa multinazionale è un'organizzazione che esercita la sua attività produttiva in Paesi diversi da quello di origine avvalendosi di aziende affiliate, che, seppure sono qualificate come satelliti delle imprese multinazionali, sono dotate di personalità giuridica e di autonomia giuridica. Risolto il problema definitorio, l'indagine si è concentrata su una problematica complessa, che ha sollecitato l'intervento della dottrina più autorevole. Al di là del dibattito dottrinario che ne è scaturito, attualmente si potrebbe propendere per la personalità giuridica delle imprese multinazionali. Il riconoscimento che ne è derivato è stato determinato da una serie di "criteri sintomatici". Valga a titolo esemplificativo il riferimento alla loro partecipazione nei procedimenti giurisdizionali ed arbitrali al fine di garantire i diritti riconosciuti (esempio significativo si può indicare nell'istituzione dell'Iran-United States Claims Tribunal risalente al 1981, che è stato oggetto del Rapporto dell'Alto Commissario per i diritti umani delle Nazioni Unite, ove è stato dichiarata in modo esplicito la colpevolezza dell'impresa multinazionale che si mostra tollerante ovvero ignora i fatti criminali riservati ai diritti umani.). Il primo capitolo è introduttivo del secondo capitolo dal titolo "La disciplina giuridica internazionale dell'attività delle imprese multinazionali". La seconda parte della tesi ha avuto ad oggetto un ambito di indagine piuttosto esteso, che non è stato di difficile inquadramento in quanto le problematiche sottese hanno trovato adeguate risposte attraverso l'intervento dottrinario, ma soprattutto attraverso l'intervento della giurisprudenza e l'operato del legislatore. L'attività delle imprese multinazionali si lega inesorabilmente con la tematica della responsabilità sociale delle imprese multinazionali (indicato con l'acronimo inglese CSR, Corporate Social Responsability). Gli unici strumenti in grado di fornire un'adeguata risposta sanzionatoria alle condotte delle imprese multinazionali si possono rinvenire nei Codici di Condotta, anche detti codici etici. Gli esempi più rilevanti di Codici di Condotta, che sono stati oggetto di una puntuale analisi, sono da riscontrare nella Dichiarazione Tripartita dell'OIL sulle imprese multinazionali e la politica sociale (1977/2000/2006), nelle Guidelines dell'OCSE destinate alle imprese multinazionali (2000/2011) e nel Global Compact delle Nazioni Unite (2000/2010). Per ragioni di completezza sistematica, il secondo capitolo ha tenuto conto anche dei c.d. Codici di Condotta privati, quali documenti volontariamente sottoscritti dalle imprese multinazionali raggruppanti norme e principi non vincolanti tesi a disciplinare la condotta sul mercato delle stesse imprese. Resta da prendere in esame la parte centrale della tesi che si incentra sulla responsabilità internazionale delle imprese multinazionali per i crimini internazionali. Il terzo, il quarto e il quinto capitolo sono il cuore della tesi di dottorato, che si riferiscono ad un ambito del diritto internazionale inesplorato e su cui si concentrano le numerose perplessità della dottrina nazionale ed internazionale. L'attività di ricerca ha seguito un determinato filo d'indagine tenendo anche conto che il progetto di ricerca si inserisce nel ciclo di dottorato dal Titolo "Persone, imprese e lavoro: dal diritto interno al diritto internazionale". In altri termini, l'indagine ha tenuto conto della penale responsabilità delle imprese multinazionali partendo dalla normativa interna dell'ordinamento italiano, che com'è noto è segnata dal d.lgs. n. 231 del 2001. Al di là della scelta strutturale che segna il terzo, il quarto e il quinto capitolo, è bene precisare che la responsabilità penale delle imprese multinazionali è stata definita dal presunto ambito operativo. Difatti, l'indagine si è concentrata principalmente sull'ammissibilità della responsabilità penale delle imprese multinazionali per i crimini internazionali, sugli elementi tipizzanti il fatto illecito e sul relativo disvalore penale. E' bene precisare che i crimini internazionali sono, generalmente, di esclusiva competenza della Corte penale internazionale, salva l'applicazione del noto principio della giurisdizione penale universale. In tal modo si garantisce l'intervento giurisdizionale anche dei Tribunali interni, che possono sindacare la illiceità della condotta offensiva. In astratto, non vi sarebbero ostacoli a riconoscere la responsabilità penale delle imprese multinazionali per i crimini internazionali. Ma, in concreto, le perplessità persistono. Il primo problema che è stato affrontato attiene alla copertura normativa. L'analisi ha consentito di comporre un adeguato sostrato normativo, partendo dalla bozza dello Statuto della Corte penale internazionale e da autorevole dottrina e completando con il rapporto del 2013 del Segretario Generale delle Nazioni Unite. Quindi, il problema attinente alla copertura normativa è stato risolto, ma ciò che ha destato immediate difficoltà è stata l'individuazione degli elementi costitutivi della responsabilità penale delle imprese multinazionali e, di conseguenza, l'imputazione diretta della violazione dei diritti umani. La responsabilità delle imprese multinazionali per crimini internazionali, attualmente, si può risolvere in un duplice modo: 1. non intervenire con lo strumento sanzionatorio, ma ciò vorrebbe dire lasciare impunite le condotte delle imprese multinazionali; 2. riferire la condotta delle imprese multinazionali allo Stato ospite. In questo secondo caso, sono ben note le conseguenza che derivano, basti considerare che l'illecito internazionale materialmente lesivo dei diritti degli individui è subordinato alla giurisdizione dello Stato che ne è autore. Invece, per quanto concerne il primo profilo si corre il rischio di fare andare impunite le condotte delle imprese multinazionali violando indirettamente il principio di legalità e direttamente i principi sottesi alla comunità internazionale. In altri termini, se il sistema di diritto internazionale non aziona gli strumenti previsti dalla normativa sopra esaminata a tutela dei diritti umani si può determinare una doppia violazione a danno di quest'ultimi. Di conseguenza, l'esigenza di attivare strumenti idonei previsti dall'ordinamento internazionale ha fatto sì che si possa utilizzare uno strumento idoneo a riscontrare la diretta imputabilità delle imprese multinazionali, ossia l'interpretazione estensiva . E' noto che il sistema penale ripudia l'analogia, ma allo stesso tempo consente l'interpretazione estensiva . Avvalendosi dell'interpretazione estensiva l'interprete può adoperare gli strumenti che sono contenuti nel Progetto 2001, ove si tiene conto della responsabilità dello Stato. Di conseguenza, anche per le imprese multinazionali sarà possibile riscontrare, a seguito dell'interpretazione estensiva, la sussistenza degli elementi costitutivi del fatto illecito. Pertanto, si configura anche in capo alle imprese multinazionali l'elemento oggettivo della violazione delle norme internazionali e l'elemento soggettivo attinente alla diretta imputazione del comportamento antigiuridico. In tal modo entrambi gli elementi sono riconducibili direttamente alla condotta delle imprese multinazionali, che, come più volte chiarito, può essere intesa come una condotta attiva ovvero una condotta omissiva. In altri termini, la condotta può essere attiva quando le imprese violano direttamente per un profitto proprio le disposizioni di legge a tutela dei diritti umani determinando effetti incidenti sugli individui, che sono collocati stabilmente nell'area ove operano le imprese multinazionali; invece, la condotta è omissiva, quando le imprese multinazionali omettono di adottare le misure di prevenzione (che potrebbero corrispondere ai c.d. compliance programs) finalizzate a ridurre o eliminare le conseguenze offensive derivanti dalla loro condotta a danno dei diritti umani. In definitiva, accertato che l'attività delle imprese multinazionali è coperta normativamente da atti delle organizzazioni internazionali e ritenuta ammissibile l'interpretazione estensiva degli elementi essenziali costitutivi del fatto illecito dello Stato, le imprese multinazionali possono essere responsabili per i crimini internazionali. In conclusione, la soluzione positiva offerta è stata frutto di una ricostruzione che ha preso le mosse principalmente dagli esempi degli ordinamenti nazionali e ha trovato la sua ratio nella bozza dello Statuto della Corte penale internazionale, ma nonostante ciò la scelta incriminatrice non vuole essere esaustiva di una tematica che dispone di un notevole ambito operativo e che è risultata essere connessa con diversi fattori (economici, politi e sociali) non sempre di facile comprensione. ; The research activities within the framework of the PhD "People, businesses or jobs: domestic law to the international" made it possible to study and discuss a new subject of international law, i.e. "the responsibility of transnational corporations for international crimes". The research project has been structured on three sections devoted respectively to legal subjectivity of various MNEs liability profiles that may be related to transnational corporations and, finally, the criminal liability that may be disputed. As regards the first chapter, "The multinational enterprise as a multiform reality", the analysis focused primarily on the notion of multinational enterprise and its problem of eligibility of legal personality under international law of multinational enterprises. The Definitory profile has been the subject of an argumentative process that moved along the analysis of sources of international law and the modus operandi of the multinational companies. In light of this, the survey definition ended inclinations for a notion of multinational enterprise must be specified in concrete terms through its constituent elements. Ultimately, the multinational firm is an organization that carries on his production activity in countries other than the country of origin through affiliated companies, which, although they are classified as satellites of multinational companies, have legal personality and legal autonomy. Fixed issue Definitory, the investigation has focused on a complex issue, which has prompted the intervention of the most authoritative doctrine. On the other side of the debate that has been doctrinaire, currently you might lean towards the legal personality of multinational enterprises. The recognition that resulted was determined by a series of "symptomatic criteria". It is not limited to the reference to their participation in court proceedings and arbitral tribunals to ensure that the statutory rights (example you can indicate in the establishment of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal dating from 1981, which was the subject of the report of the High Commissioner for human rights of the United Nations, where it has been explicitly declared guilty of multinational enterprise that is tolerant or ignores the facts private human rights criminals.). The first chapter is an introduction to the second chapter entitled "international legal regulation of the activities of transnational corporations". The second part of the thesis had such a scope object of investigation rather extended, which was not difficult to monitor because the underlying problems have found adequate responses through a doctrinaire, but especially through the intervention of the law and the work of the legislature. The activity of multinational enterprises is bound inexorably with the issue of social responsibility of multinational companies (referred to by the acronym CSR, Corporate Social responsibility). The only instruments capable of providing an adequate response to the conduct of disciplinary multinational enterprises can be found in the codes of conduct, also called ethical codes. The most important examples of codes of conduct, which were the subject of a detailed analysis, are to be found in the ILO Tripartite Declaration on multinational enterprises and social policy (1977/2000/2006), in the OECD Guidelines for multinational enterprises (2000-2011) and the United Nations Global Compact (2000/2010). For the sake of completeness, the second chapter systematically took account also of the so-called private codes of conduct, which documents voluntarily undertaken by transnational corporations involving non-binding standards and principles designed to govern the conduct of business on the market. It remains to consider the central part of the thesis that focuses on international responsibility of transnational corporations for international crimes. The third, fourth and fifth chapter are at the heart of the doctoral thesis, which refer to an international law which is unexplored and concentrate the many concerns of national and international doctrine. The research activity has been following a certain thread of investigation taking into account also that the research project is part of the doctoral cycle entitled "People, businesses or jobs: domestic law with international law". In other words, the survey took account of the responsibility of the criminal multinationals from the internal legislation of the Italian law, which as you know is marked by d.lgs. No. 231 of 2001. Beyond the structural choice that marks the third, fourth and fifth chapter, it is good to point out that the criminal responsibility of transnational corporations was allegedly operating scope defined. Indeed, the investigation has focused primarily on the admissibility of criminal liability of multinational corporations to international crimes, on particular toxins the tort and criminal disvalue. It is good to point out that international crimes are, generally, the exclusive jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court, without prejudice to the application of the principle of universal criminal jurisdiction. This ensures the jurisdiction of domestic Courts, which can review the unlawfulness of conduct offensive. In principle, there would be obstacles to recognise the criminal liability of multinational corporations to international crimes. But, in practice, the concerns persist. The first problem that has been addressed as far as the regulatory coverage. The analysis made it possible to compose an appropriate regulatory milieu, starting with the draft statute of the International Criminal Court and by authoritative doctrine and completing with the 2013 report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Then, the problem pertaining to legislation coverage is resolved, but what aroused immediate fix was the identification of the constituent elements of criminal responsibility of transnational corporations and, consequently, on charges of human rights violations. The responsibility of transnational corporations for international crimes, currently, you can resolve in a twofold way: 1. do not use the instrument of sanctions, but that would mean leaving unpunished the conduct of multinational enterprises; 2. report the conduct of transnational corporations to the host State. In this second case, are well known the consequence arising, suffice it to note that the international offence materially detrimental to the rights of individuals shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the State which is the author. On the other hand, as regards the first profile you run the risk of making go unpunished the conduct of multinational companies indirectly violating the principle of legality and the principles governing the international community. In other words, if the international law system propels the tools foreseen by examined above legislation protecting human rights can determine a double violation to the detriment of the latter. As a result, the need to activate suitable instruments under international law meant that we could use a suitable tool to experience the direct eligibility of multinational enterprises, i.e. the interpretation. It is known that the penal system rejects the analogy, but at the same time allows for broad interpretation. Using the interpretation the interpreter can use tools that are contained in the 2001 Draft, which takes into account the responsibility of the State. As a result, even for multinational enterprises will encounter as a result of the interpretation, the existence of the constituent elements of the tort. Therefore, it also configures in Chief for multinational enterprises the objective element of the violation of international standards and the subjective element relating to objectionable material behavior directly attributable. Thus both elements can be traced back directly to the conduct of multinational enterprises, which, as repeatedly explained, can be understood as active behaviour or conduct of omission. In other words, the conduct can be activated when companies violate directly for a profit its legal provisions for the protection of human rights, causing accident effects on individuals, who are placed firmly in the area where multinational enterprises operate; Instead, the conduct is of omission, when multinational companies fail to adopt prevention measures (which might correspond to so-called compliance programs) designed to reduce or eliminate offensive consequences resulting from their conduct to the detriment of human rights. Ultimately, ensured that the activity of multinational enterprises is covered by law from international organizations and acts deemed eligible for the interpretation of the essential elements constituting the tort State, multinational companies may be responsible for international crimes. In conclusion, the positive outcome was the result of a reconstruction that took the moves primarily by examples of national laws and found its ratio in the draft statute of the International Criminal Court, but nevertheless the choice event is not intended to be exhaustive of a subject that has significant operational and scope that was found to be connected with various factors (economicpolitical and social), not always easy to understand. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Persona, impresa e lavoro: dal diritto interno a quello internazionale (XXVI ciclo)
With regard to international public order and surrogate motherhood, at least the Italian Courts of highest level consistently show great respect to the autonomy of the legislator and to the legal certainty.
