Suchergebnisse

European legal systems have long encompassed the concept of the "general clause", particularly in contract and labor law. The general clause includes unwritten legal norms such as good faith and public morality, and these principles are duly incorporated in the process of construing civil and labor contracts. While the general clause itself is formally absent in common law systems, its principles have found their way into modern British and American law. Two primary examples include the doctrines of good faith and unconscionability. In a broader sense, the idea of introducing rather indeterminate legal norms to be construed and interpreted by judges appears to be well‑ suited to a common law system. However, as applied to American labor law, the very indeterminacy of these terms has had rather negative effects on the rights of employees and the labor unions that represent them. Specifically, this article examines the good faith requirement in collective bargaining under the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) and the doctrine of unconscionability in employment arbitration agreements, and concludes that they both should be supplemented by more definite standards in order to effectively protect employees. ; Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania ; Charles Szymanski – Lecturer and professor of law at the Faculty of Law of the Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas, Lithuania. Practicing lawyer and professor of law in the United States of America. His scientific interests focus on European, international and comparative labor law as well as on the Alternative Dispute Resolution. ; Charles Szymanski – wykładowca i profesor na Wydziale Prawa Uniwersytetu Witolda Wielkiego w Kownie, prawnik praktyk i profesor prawa w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Jego zainteresowania badawcze koncentrują się na europejskim, międzynarodowym i porównawczym prawie pracy oraz na alternatywnych sposobach rozstrzygania sporów. ; charles.szymanski@gmail.com ; 11 ; 49 ; 2 ; Andrews R., Moroko R., Employment‑At‑Will in New York Remains Essentially Unchanged after a Century of Refinements, "N.Y. St. B.J." 1999, vol. 71-OCT. ; Andrias K., Sachs B., Constructing Countervailing Power: Law and Organizing in an Era of Political Inequality, "Yale L.J. 546" 2021, vol. 130. ; Arnow‑Richman R., Modifying At‑Will Employment Contracts, "B.C. L. Rev." 2016, vol. 57. ; Barnes T., Making the Bird Sing: Remedial Notice Reading Requirements and the Efficacy of NLRB Remedies, "Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L." 2015, vol. 36. ; Bingham L., Employment Arbitration: The Repeat Player Effect, "Employee Rts. & Emp. Pol'y J." 1997, vol. 1. ; Bingham L., On Repeat Players, Adhesive Contracts, and the Use of Statistics in Judicial Review of Employment Arbitration Awards, "McGeorge L. Rev." 1998, vol. 29. ; Bodah M., Schneider M., Politics, Ideology, and Adjudication: The German Federal Labor Court and the U.S. National Labor Relations Board, "Comp. Lab. L. & Pol'y J." 2014, vol. 36. ; Bodie M., Labor Interests and Corporate Power, "B.U. L. Rev." 2019, vol. 99. ; Broome S., An Unconscionable Application of the Unconscionability Doctrine: How the California Courts are Circumventing the Federal Arbitration Act, "Hastings Bus. L.J." 2006, vol. 3. ; Brudney J., Forsaken Heroes: Covid‑19 and Frontline Essential Workers, "Fordham Urb. L.J." 2020, vol. 48. ; Byrd R., When Arbitration Agreement Provisions Time Travel: Illusory Promises And Continued At‑Will Employment In Baker, "Mo. L. Rev." 2015, vol. 80. ; Lonegrass M., Finding Room For Fairness In Formalism--The Sliding Scale Approach To Unconscionability, "Loy. U. Chi. L.J." 2012, vol. 44. ; Maatman G., Annual Workplace Class Action Litigation Report: An Overview of 2020 in Workplace Class Action Litigation, "Lab. Law J." 2021, vol. 889127. ; Malin M., Labor Law Reform: Waiting for Congress? "Chi.-Kent L. Rev." 1994, vol. 69. ; Malin M., Privatizing Justice - But by how Much? Questions Gilmer did not Answer, "Ohio St. J. on Disp. Resol." 2001, vol. 16. ; Malin M., The Arbitration Fairness Act: It Need not and Should not be an All or Nothing Proposition, "Ind. L.J." 2012, vol. 87. ; Malin M., Two Models of Interest Arbitration, "Ohio St. J. on Disp. Resol." 2013, vol. 28. ; Meeker C., Defining "Ministerial Aid": Union Decertification under the National Labor Relations Act "U. Chi. L. Rev." 1999, vol. 66. ; Morlath J., Individual Rights vs. A Seat at the Table: The Guffey Act as an Alternative Model to the Wagner Act, "Geo. J. on Poverty L. & Pol'y" 2013, vol. 21. ; Mueller E., Ferris S., House Passes Labor Overhaul, Pitting Unions against the Filibuster. Politico (March 9, 2021) https://www.politico.com/news/2021/03/09/house-pro-act-labor-unions-474941. ; Murray J., The Uncertain Legacy Of Gilmer: Mandatory Arbitration Of Federal Employment Discrimination Claims, "Fordham Urb. L.J." 1999, vol. 26. ; Semet A., Political Decision‑Making at the National Labor Relations Board: An Empirical Examination of the Board's Unfair Labor Practice Decisions Through The Clinton And Bush II Years, "Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L." 2016, vol. 37. ; Nguyen X.-T., Disrupting Adhesion Contracts with #Metoo Innovators "Va. J. Soc. Pol'y & L.", 2019, vol. 26. ; Nolan D., Lehr R., Improving NLRB Unfair Labor Practice Procedures, "Tex. L. Rev." 1978, vol. 57. ; Norris L., The Parity Principle, "N.Y.U. L. Rev." 2018, vol. 93. ; Otte E., Toxic Secrecy: Non‑Disclosure Agreements and #Metoo "U. Kan. L. Rev." 2021, vol. 69. ; Poe K., Arbitration Agreements - What is the Employee Actually Signing up for?, "J. Bus. Entrepreneurship & L." 2019, vol. 12. ; Prats J., Are Arbitration Agreements Necessary for Class‑Action Waivers to be Enforceable? "Fla. B.J." 2018, vol. 92-DEC. ; Ray D., Doing Well by Being Good: How U.S. Labor Law Encourages Employer Good Faith Behavior, "Intercultural Hum. Rts. L. Rev." 2019, vol. 14. ; Rios F., Mandatory Arbitration Agreements: Do They Protect Employers from Adjudicating Title VII Claims? "St. Mary's L.J." 1999, vol. 31. ; Rubenstein M., Attorney Labor Unions, "N.Y. St. B.J." 2007, vol. 79-JAN. ; Spitko E., Exempting High‑Level Employees and Small Employers from Legislation Invalidating Predispute Employment Arbitration Agreements, "U.C. Davis L. Rev." 2009, vol. 43. ; Steber R., Alternative Remedies for Undocumented Workers Left Behind in a Post‑Hoffman Plastic Era, "Cath. U. L. Rev." 2019, vol. 68. ; Sternlight J., Mandatory Arbitration Stymies Progress Towards Justice in Employment Law: Where to, #Metoo? "Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev." 2019, vol. 54. ; Summers C., Employment at Will in the United States: The Divine Right of Employers, "U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L." 2000, vol. 3. ; Thompson D., Supina S., What Ethical & Strategic Employers Should Do About Arbitration, 14 "Va. L. & Bus. Rev." 2020, vol. 14. ; Tippett E., The Legal Implications of the Metoo Movement, "Minn. L. Rev." 2018, vol. 103. ; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Work Stoppages Summary, (February 19, 2021) https://www.bls.gov/news.release/wkstp.nr0.htm. ; Unfair Labor Practice Process Chart, National Labor Relations Board, https://www.nlrb.gov/resources/nlrb-process/unfair-labor-practice-process-chart. ; Union Member Summary, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), January 22, 2021, at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm. ; Wynne S., Vaughn M., Silencing Matters of Public Concern: An Analysis of State Legislative Protection of Whistleblowers in Light of the Supreme Court's Ruling in Garcetti v. Ceballos, "Ala. C.R. & C.L. L. Rev." 2017, vol. 8. ; Varner K., Hosak K., Blogging: Can Employers and Employees Avoid Getting Caught in the Web?, "Midwest L.J." 2008, vol. 22. ; Viscusi W., The Fatal Failure of the Regulatory State, "Wm. & Mary L. Rev." 2018, vol. 60. ; Von Mehren A., The Death of Contract, "Colum. L. Rev." 1974, vol. 75. ; Weston M., Buying Secrecy: Non‑Disclosure Agreements, Arbitration, and Professional Ethics in the #Metoo Era, "U. Ill. L. Rev." 2021, vol. 2021. ; Wexler L., Robbennolt J., Murphy C., #Metoo, Time's Up, and Theories of Justice, "U. Ill. L. Rev." 2019, vol. 2019. ; Wielsch D., Relational Justice, "Law & Contemp. Probs." 2013, vol. 76. ; Wilson J., Laird A., Practicing before the NLRB, "The Advoc. (Texas)" 2014, vol. 69. ; Wolfson T., King B., Even after Concepcion and Italian Colors, Some Arbitration Agreements are Not Enforceable, "Fed. Law." 2015, vol. 62-FEB. ; Worster R., If it's Hardly Worth Doing, it's Hardly Worth Doing Right: How the NLRA's Goals are Defeated Through Inadequate Remedies, "U. Rich. L. Rev." 2004, vol. 38. ; Zalesne D., The Consentability of Mandatory Employment Arbitration Clauses, "Loy. L. Rev." 2020, vol. 66 (Spring 2020). ; Altura Communication Solutions, LLC, 369 NLRB No. 85, *1 (2020). ; Apt Medical Transportation, Inc., 333 NLRB 760, 767 (2001). ; Arbah Hotel Corp., 368 NLRB No. 119 (2019). ; Ashford v. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, 954 F.3d 678, 684–85 (4th Cir. 2020). ; Barrasso v. Macy's Retail Holdings, Inc. 2016 WL 1449567 (D. Mass. 2016), *5. ; Brinks USA, 354 NLRB 312, 325 (2009). ; Chamber of Commerce v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322, 1337 (D.C. Cir. 1996). ; Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U.S. 105 (2001). ; HTH Corp., 361 NLRB 709, 716 (2014). ; CP Anchorage Hotel 2, LLC, D/B/A Hilton Anchorage 370 NLRB No. 83 (2021). ; Delfingen US-Tex., L.P. v. Valenzuela, 407 S.W.3d 791, 794 (Tex. App.--El Paso 2013, no pet.). ; Drivers, Warehouse & Dairy Employees Union, Local No. 75 v. N.L.R.B., 866 F.2d 1537 (D.C. Cir. 1989). ; Epic Systems v. Lewis, 584 U.S., 138 S. Ct. 1612 (2018). ; Fallbrook Hosp. Corp. v. N.L.R.B., 785 F.3d 729, 734 (2015). ; Gilmer v. Interstate/Johnson Lane Systems, 500 U.S. 20 (1991). ; Great Lakes Coal Co., 268 NLRB 1207, 1215 (1984). ; Harrington v. Atlantic Sounding Co., Inc., 602 F.3d 113, 126 n.7 (2nd Cir. 2010). ; Hooters of America, Inc. v. Phillips, 173 F.3d 933, 938 (4th Cir. 1999). ; In Re Konig, 318 NLRB 901, 905 (1995). ; In re Odyssey Healthcare, Inc., 310 S.W.3d 419, 424 (Tex. 2010). ; Interfoto Picture Library Ltd. v. Stiletto Visual Programmes Ltd. [1989] 1 QB 433 (CA) at 439 (Lord Bingham LJ) (appeal taken from Lambeth Cty. Ct.) (Eng.)). ; K Mart Corp. 242 NLRB 855, 876 (1979). ; McKinney v. Creative Vision Resources, LLC 2013 WL 351655 (E.D. La. 2013), *25. ; Midwest Casting, 194 NLRB 523 n. 13 (1971). ; NLRB v. Cable Vision, Inc., 660 F.2d 1, 4 (1st Cir. 1981). ; Reuther v. Fowler & Williams, Inc., 386 A.2d 119 (Pa. Super. 1978). ; Richfield Hospitality, Inc. 369 NLRB No. 111 (2020). ; Colvin A., An Empirical Study of Employment Arbitration: Case Outcomes and Processes, "J. of Empirical Legal Stud." 2011, vol. 8. ; Rivera‑Vega v. ConAgra, Inc. 876 F.Supp. 1350, 1363 (D. P.R. 1995). ; Salley v. Option One Mortg. Corp., 925 A.2d 115, 592 Pa. 323 (Pa. 2007). ; Scepter Ingot Castings, Inc., 341 NLRB 997 (2004). ; Stuart Radiator Core Manufacturing Co., Inc., 173 NLRB 125, 130 (1968). ; Thibodeau v. Comcast Corp., 912 A.2d 874, 2006 PA Super. 346 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2006). ; Triumph Aerostructures, Vought Aircraft Division, 369 NLRB No. 123 (2020). ; Weaver v. Harpster, 975 A.2d 555, 562–563 (Pa. 2009). ; Wis. Dep't of Indus. Labor and Human Rel. v. Gould, 475 U.S. 282, 289 (1986). ; Yam Seng [2013] EWHC [151]. ; Compa L., Not Dead Yet: Preserving Labor Law Strengths while Exploring New Labor Law Strategies, "UC Irvine L. Rev." 2014, vol. 4. ; Corbett W., "You're Fired!": The Common Law Should Respond with the Refashioned Tort of Abusive Discharge, "Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L." 2020, vol. 41. ; Cremades B., Good Faith in International Arbitration, "Am. U. Int'l L. Rev." 2012, vol. 27. ; Dahlstrom E., ERISA Section 510 should be Interpreted to Cover Internal, Unsolicited Employee Complaints, "ABA J. Lab. & Emp. L." 2011, vol. 26. ; Dalrymple E., Would You Like Fries with that Non-Compete? Why Restrictive Covenants Should not be Enforced Against Low Wage Workers, "Wayne St. U. J. Bus. L." 2020, vol. 3. ; Dannin E., From Dictator Game to Ultimatum Game… and Back Again: The Judicial Impasse Amendments, "U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L." 2004, vol. 6. ; Dannin E., NLRA Values, Labor Values, American Values, "Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L." 2005, vol. 26. ; Davidson S., Determining Employment Discrimination Case Merits under State And Federal Law, "Aspatore" 2012, vol. 2012 WL 3058210. ; DeMichele M., Bales R., Unilateral‑Modification Provisions in Employment Arbitration Agreements, "Hofstra Lab. & Emp. L.J." 2006, vol. 24. ; Drummonds H., Beyond the Employee Free Choice Act: Unleashing the States in Labor‑Management Relations Policy, 19 "Cornell J.L. & Pub. Pol'y" 2009, vol. 19. ; Drummonds H., Reforming Labor Law by Reforming Labor Law Preemption Doctrine to Allow the States to Make More Labor Relations Policy, "La. L. Rev." 2009, vol. 70. ; Eaton L., Arbitration Agreements in Labor and Employment Contracts: Well within the Reach of the FAA, "J. Disp. Resol." 2002, vol. 2002. ; Enger N., Offers You Can't Refuse: Post‑Hire Noncompete Agreement Insertions and Procedural Unconscionability Doctrine, "Wis. L. Rev. " 2020, vol. 2020. ; Fisk C., Pulver A., First Contract Arbitration and the Employee Free Choice Act, "La. L. Rev." 2009, vol. 70. ; Frankel R., Concepcion And Mis-Concepcion: Why Unconscionability Survives The Supreme Court's Arbitration Jurisprudence, "J. Disp. Resol." 2014, vol. 2014. ; Gardner A., George R.R. Martin's Faith Militant in Modern America: The Establishment Clause and a State's Ability to Delegate Policing Powers to Private Police Forces Operated by Religious Institutions, "Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J." 2020, vol. 29. ; Ghaffary S., Kantrowitz A., "Don't be evil" isn't a normal company value. But Google isn't a normal company. Vox, (Feb. 16, 2021) https://www.vox.com/recode/2021/2/16/22280502/google-dont-be-evil-land-of-the-giants-podcast. ; Giesbrecht‑McKee J., The Fairness Problem: Mandatory Arbitration in Employment Contracts, "Willamette L. Rev." 2014, vol. 50. ; Glynn M., #Timesup for Confidential Employment Arbitration of Sexual Harassment Claims, "Geo. Wash. L. Rev." 2020, vol. 88. ; Gordon J., Silence for Sale, "Ala. L. Rev." 2020, vol. 71. ; Gross J., Yet Another Reappraisal of the Taft‑Hartley Act Emergency Injunctions, "U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L." 2005, vol. 7. ; Grundmann S., Mazeaud D., General Clauses and Standards in European Contract Law: Comparative Law, EC Law and Contract Law Codification, The Hague 2005. ; Hengemuhle L., Striving for Consistency: The Battle of Jurisdiction in Enforcing Arbitration Awards, "B.C. L. Rev. E-Supplement" 2018, vol. 59. ; Hodges A., Employee Voice In Arbitration, "Employee Rts. & Emp. Pol'y J." 2018, vol. 22. ; Hodges A., Trilogy Redux: Using Arbitration to Rebuild the Labor Movement, "Minn. L. Rev." 2014, vol. 98. ; Hogg M.A., The Implication of Terms in Fact: Good Faith, Contextualism and Interpretation, "Geo. Wash. L. Rev." 2017, vol. 85. ; Horton D., The Arbitration Rules: Procedural Rulemaking by Arbitration Providers, "Minn. L. Rev." 2020, vol. 105. ; Iannaccone C., Spada G., Silversten R., Arbitration and Employment Disputes: Drafting to Maximize Employer Protection, "ACCA Docket" 2000, vol. 18, no. 2. ; Kaspar D., Stallworth L., The Impact of a Grievant's Offer of Apology and The Decision‑Making Process of Labor Arbitrators: A Case Analysis, "Harv. Negot. L. Rev." 2012, vol. 17. ; LaJeunesse R.Jr., The Controversial "Card-Check" Bill, Stalled in the United States Congress, Presents Serious Legal and Policy Issues, "Tex. Rev. L. & Pol." 2010, vol. 14. ; Li Y., Applying the Doctrine Of Unconscionability to Employment Arbitration Agreements, with Emphasis on Class Action/Arbitration Waivers, "Whittier L. Rev." 2010, vol. 31. ; 26

Full list of authors: Akiyama, Kazunori; Algaba, Juan Carlos; Alberdi, Antxon; Alef, Walter; Anantua, Richard; Asada, Keiichi; Azulay, Rebecca; Baczko, Anne-Kathrin; Ball, David; Baloković, Mislav; Barrett, John; Benson, Bradford A.; Bintley, Dan; Blackburn, Lindy; Blundell, Raymond; Boland, Wilfred; Bouman, Katherine L.; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Boyce, Hope Bremer, Michael; Brinkerink, Christiaan D.; Brissenden, Roger; Britzen, Silke; Broderick, Avery E.; Broguiere, Dominique; Bronzwaer, Thomas; Byun, Do-Young; Carlstrom, John E.; Chael, Andrew; Chan, Chi-kwan; Chatterjee, Shami; Chatterjee, Koushik; Chen, Ming-Tang; Chen, Yongjun; Chesler, Paul M.; Cho, Ilje; Christian, Pierre; Conway, John E.; Cordes, James M.; Crawford, Thomas M.; Crew, Geoffrey B.; Cruz-Osorio, Alejandro; Cui, Yuzhu; Davelaar, Jordy; De Laurentis, Mariafelicia; Deane, Roger; Dempsey, Jessica; Desvignes, Gregory; Dexter, Jason; Doeleman, Sheperd S.; Eatough, Ralph P.; Falcke, Heino; Farah, Joseph; Fish, Vincent L.; Fomalont, Ed; Ford, H. Alyson; Fraga-Encinas, Raquel; Friberg, Per; Fromm, Christian M.; Fuentes, Antonio; Galison, Peter; Gammie, Charles F.; García, Roberto; Gelles, Zachary; Gentaz, Olivier; Georgiev, Boris; Goddi, Ciriaco; Gold, Roman; Gómez, José L.; Gómez-Ruiz, Arturo I.; Gu, Minfeng; Gurwell, Mark; Hada, Kazuhiro; Haggard, Daryl; Hecht, Michael H.; Hesper, Ronald; Himwich, Elizabeth; Ho, Luis C.; Ho, Paul; Honma, Mareki; Huang, Chih-Wei L.; Huang, Lei; Hughes, David H.; Ikeda, Shiro; Inoue, Makoto; Issaoun, Sara; James, David J.; Jannuzi, Buell T.; Janssen, Michael; Jeter, Britton; Jiang, Wu; Jimenez-Rosales, Alejandra; Johnson, Michael D.; Jorstad, Svetlana; Jung, Taehyun; Karami, Mansour; Karuppusamy, Ramesh; Kawashima, Tomohisa; Keating, Garrett K.; Kettenis, Mark; Kim, Dong-Jin; Kim, Jae-Young; Kim, Jongsoo; Kim, Junhan; Kino, Motoki; Koay, Jun Yi; Kofuji, Yutaro; Koch, Patrick M.; Koyama, Shoko; Kramer, Michael; Kramer, Carsten; Krichbaum, Thomas P.; Kuo, Cheng-Yu; Lauer, Tod R.; Lee, Sang-Sung; Levis, Aviad; Li, Yan-Rong; Li, Zhiyuan; Lindqvist, Michael; Lico, Rocco; Lindahl, Greg; Liu, Jun; Liu, Kuo; Liuzzo, Elisabetta; Lo, Wen-Ping; Lobanov, Andrei P.; Loinard, Laurent; Lonsdale, Colin; Lu, Ru-Sen; MacDonald, Nicholas R.; Mao, Jirong; Marchili, Nicola; Markoff, Sera; Marrone, Daniel P.; Marscher, Alan P.; Martí-Vidal, Iván; Matsushita, Satoki; Matthews, Lynn D.; Medeiros, Lia; Menten, Karl M.; Mizuno, Izumi; Mizuno, Yosuke; Moran, James M.; Moriyama, Kotaro; Moscibrodzka, Monika; Müller, Cornelia; Musoke, Gibwa; Mus Mejías, Alejandro; Michalik, Daniel; Nadolski, Andrew; Nagai, Hiroshi; Nagar, Neil M.; Nakamura, Masanori; Narayan, Ramesh; Narayanan, Gopal; Natarajan, Iniyan; Nathanail, Antonios; Neilsen, Joey; Neri, Roberto; Ni, Chunchong; Noutsos, Aristeidis; Nowak, Michael A.; Okino, Hiroki; Olivares, Héctor; Ortiz-León, Gisela N.; Oyama, Tomoaki; Özel, Feryal; Palumbo, Daniel C. M.; Park, Jongho; Patel, Nimesh; Pen, Ue-Li; Pesce, Dominic W.; Piétu, Vincent; Plambeck, Richard; PopStefanija, Aleksandar; Porth, Oliver; Pötzl, Felix M.; Prather, Ben; Preciado-López, Jorge A.; Psaltis, Dimitrios; Pu, Hung-Yi; Ramakrishnan, Venkatessh; Rao, Ramprasad; Rawlings, Mark G.; Raymond, Alexander W.; Rezzolla, Luciano; Ricarte, Angelo; Ripperda, Bart; Roelofs, Freek; Rogers, Alan; Ros, Eduardo; Rose, Mel; Roshanineshat, Arash; Rottmann, Helge; Roy, Alan L.; Ruszczyk, Chet; Rygl, Kazi L. J.; Sánchez, Salvador; Sánchez-Arguelles, David; Sasada, Mahito; Savolainen, Tuomas; Schloerb, F. Peter; Schuster, Karl-Friedrich; Shao, Lijing; Shen, Zhiqiang; Small, Des; Sohn, Bong Won; SooHoo, Jason; Sun, He; Tazaki, Fumie; Tetarenko, Alexandra J.; Tiede, Paul; Tilanus, Remo P. J.; Titus, Michael; Toma, Kenji; Torne, Pablo; Trent, Tyler; Traianou, Efthalia; Trippe, Sascha; van Bemmel, Ilse; van Langevelde, Huib Jan; van Rossum, Daniel R.; Wagner, Jan; Ward-Thompson, Derek; Wardle, John; Weintroub, Jonathan; Wex, Norbert; Wharton, Robert; Wielgus, Maciek; Wong, George N.; Wu, Qingwen; Yoon, Doosoo; Young, André; Young, Ken; Younsi, Ziri; Yuan, Feng; Yuan, Ye-Fei; Zensus, J. Anton; Zhao, Guang-Yao; Zhao, Shan-Shan; Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration.--Original content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. ; Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observations at 230 GHz have now imaged polarized emission around the supermassive black hole in M87 on event-horizon scales. This polarized synchrotron radiation probes the structure of magnetic fields and the plasma properties near the black hole. Here we compare the resolved polarization structure observed by the EHT, along with simultaneous unresolved observations with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, to expectations from theoretical models. The low fractional linear polarization in the resolved image suggests that the polarization is scrambled on scales smaller than the EHT beam, which we attribute to Faraday rotation internal to the emission region. We estimate the average density ne ~ 104–7 cm−3, magnetic field strength B ~ 1–30 G, and electron temperature Te ~ (1–12) × 1010 K of the radiating plasma in a simple one-zone emission model. We show that the net azimuthal linear polarization pattern may result from organized, poloidal magnetic fields in the emission region. In a quantitative comparison with a large library of simulated polarimetric images from general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) simulations, we identify a subset of physical models that can explain critical features of the polarimetric EHT observations while producing a relativistic jet of sufficient power. The consistent GRMHD models are all of magnetically arrested accretion disks, where near-horizon magnetic fields are dynamically important. We use the models to infer a mass accretion rate onto the black hole in M87 of (3–20) × 10−4 M⊙ yr−1. © 2021. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society. ; The authors of the present Letter thank the following organizations and programs: the Academy of Finland (projects 274477, 284495, 312496, 315721); Agencia Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrollo (ANID), Chile via NCN19_058 (TITANs), and Fondecyt 3190878; the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung; an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship; Allegro, the European ALMA Regional Centre node in the Netherlands, the NL astronomy research network NOVA and the astronomy institutes of the University of Amsterdam, Leiden University and Radboud University; the black hole Initiative at Harvard University, through a grant (60477) from the John Templeton Foundation; the China Scholarship Council; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT, Mexico, projects U0004-246083, U0004-259839, F0003-272050, M0037-279006, F0003-281692, 104497, 275201, 263356, 57265507); the Delaney Family via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute; Direccion General de Asuntos del Personal Academico-Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (DGAPA-UNAM, projects IN112417 and IN112820); the EACOA Fellowship of the East Asia Core Observatories Association; the European Research Council Synergy Grant "BlackHoleCam: Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes" (grant 610058); the Generalitat Valenciana postdoctoral grant APOSTD/2018/177 and GenT Program (project CIDEGENT/2018/021); MICINN Research Project PID2019-108995GB-C22; the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (grants GBMF-3561, GBMF-5278); the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Napoli, iniziative specifiche TEONGRAV; the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne; Joint Princeton/Flatiron and Joint Columbia/Flatiron Postdoctoral Fellowships, research at the Flatiron Institute is supported by the Simons Foundation; the Japanese Government (Monbukagakusho: MEXT) Scholarship; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellowship (JP17J08829); the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS, grants QYZDJ-SSW-SLH057, QYZDJSSW-SYS008, ZDBS-LY-SLH011). We further thank the Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellowship; the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG); theMax Planck Partner Group of the MPG and the CAS; the MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI (grants 18KK0090, JP18K13594, JP18K03656, JP18H03721, 18K03709, 18H01245, JP19H01943, 25120007); the Malaysian Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) FRGS/1/2019/STG02/UM/02/6; the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) Funds; the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Taiwan (105-2112-M001-025-MY3, 106-2112-M-001-011, 106-2119-M-001-027, 107-2119-M-001-017, 107-2119-M-001-020, 107-2119-M-110005, 108-2112-M-001-048, and 109-2124-M-001-005); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, Fermi Guest Investigator grant 80NSSC20K1567, NASA Astrophysics Theory Program grant 80NSSC20K0527, NASA grant NNX17AL82G, Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51431.001A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555, and NASA NuSTAR award 80NSSC20K0645); the National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan; the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant 2016YFA0400704, 2016YFA0400702); the National Science Foundation (NSF, grants AST-0096454, AST-0352953, AST-0521233, AST-0705062, AST-0905844, AST-0922984, AST-1126433, AST-1140030, DGE-1144085, AST-1207704, AST-1207730, AST-1207752, MRI-1228509, OPP-1248097, AST-1310896, AST-1337663, AST-1440254, AST-1555365, AST-1615796, AST-1715061, AST-1716327, AST-1716536, OISE-1743747, AST-1816420, AST-1903847, AST-1935980, AST-2034306); the Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11573051, 11633006, 11650110427, 10625314, 11721303, 11725312, 11933007, 11991052, 11991053); a fellowship of China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2020M671266); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, including a Discovery Grant and the NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarships-Doctoral Program); the National Research Foundation of Korea (the Global PhD Fellowship Grant: grants 2014H1A2A1018695, NRF-2015H1A2A1033752, 2015-R1D1A1A01056807, the Korea Research Fellowship Program: NRF-2015H1D3A1066 561, Basic Research Support Grant 2019R1F1A1059721); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI award (grant 639.043. 513) and Spinoza Prize SPI 78-409; the New Scientific Frontiers with Precision Radio Interferometry Fellowship awarded by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (SARAO), which is a facility of the National Research Foundation (NRF), an agency of the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) of South Africa; the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Innovation and National Research Foundation; the Onsala Space Observatory (OSO) national infrastructure, for the provisioning of its facilities/observational support (OSO receives funding through the Swedish Research Council under grant 2017-00648) the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Science); the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (grants PGC2018098915-B-C21, AYA2016-80889-P, PID2019-108995GB-C21); the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the "Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa" award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (SEV-2017-0709); the Toray Science Foundation; the Consejeria de Economia, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad of the Junta de Andalucia (grant P18FR-1769), the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (grant 2019AEP112); the US Department of Energy (USDOE) through the Los Alamos National Laboratory (operated by Triad National Security, LLC, for the National Nuclear Security Administration of the USDOE (Contract 89233218CNA000 001); the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 730562 RadioNet; ALMA North America Development Fund; the Academia Sinica; Chandra TM6-17006X and DD7-18089X; the GenT Program (Generalitat Valenciana) Project CIDEGENT/2018/021. This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), supported by NSF grant ACI-1548562, and CyVerse, supported by NSF grants DBI-0735191, DBI-1265383, and DBI-1743442. XSEDE Stampede2 resource at TACC was allocated through TGAST170024 and TG-AST080026N. XSEDE JetStream resource at PTI and TACC was allocated through AST170028. The simulations were performed in part on the SuperMUC cluster at the LRZ in Garching, on the LOEWE cluster in CSC in Frankfurt, and on the HazelHen cluster at the HLRS in Stuttgart. This research was enabled in part by support provided by Compute Ontario (http://computeontario.ca), Calcul Quebec (http://www.calculquebec.ca) and Compute Canada (http://www.computecanada.ca).We thank the staff at the participating observatories, correlation centers, and institutions for their enthusiastic support. This Letter makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO. ALMA#2016.1.01154.V. ALMA is a partnership of the European Southern Observatory (ESO; Europe, representing its member states), NSF, and National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan, together with National Research Council (Canada), Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST; Taiwan), Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA; Taiwan), and Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI; Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI)/NRAO, and the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The NRAO is a facility of the NSF operated under cooperative agreement by AUI. This paper has made use of the following APEX data: Project ID T-091.F-0006-2013. APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie (Germany), ESO, and the Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden). The SMA is a joint project between the SAO and ASIAA and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The JCMT is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of the NAOJ, ASIAA, and KASI, as well as the Ministry of Finance of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the National Key R&D Program (No. 2017YFA0402700) of China. Additional funding support for the JCMT is provided by the Science and Technologies Facility Council (UK) and participating universities in the UK and Canada. The LMT is a project operated by the Instituto Nacional de Astrofisica, Optica, y Electronica (Mexico) and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst (USA), with financial support from the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia and the National Science Foundation. The IRAM30-mtelescope on Pico Veleta, Spain is operated by IRAM and supported by CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France), MPG (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Germany) and IGN (Instituto Geografico Nacional, Spain). The SMT is operated by the Arizona Radio Observatory, a part of the Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona, with financial support of operations from the State of Arizona and financial support for instrumentation development from the NSF. The SPT is supported by the National Science Foundation through grant PLR-1248097. Partial support is also provided by the NSF Physics Frontier Center grant PHY-1125897 to the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Kavli Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation grant GBMF 947. The SPT hydrogen maser was provided on loan from the GLT, courtesy of ASIAA. The EHTC has received generous donations of FPGA chips from Xilinx Inc., under the Xilinx University Program. The EHTC has benefited from technology shared under open-source license by the Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER). The EHT project is grateful to T4Science and Microsemi for their assistance with Hydrogen Masers. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. We gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the extended staff of the ALMA, both from the inception of the ALMA Phasing Project through the observational campaigns of 2017 and 2018. We would like to thank A. Deller and W. Brisken for EHT-specific support with the use of DiFX. We acknowledge the significance that Maunakea, where the SMA and JCMT EHT stations are located, has for the indigenous Hawaiian people. ; Peer reviewed

Relevance of the research. Recognition and education of children and teenagers gifted in sporting activity is an important part of the attainment of particular results in sports. Identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports is a process, when athletes are recognised at the early stage of their development and have a possibility to attain high results in adulthood (Williams, Reilly, 2000; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Philippaerts, 2008). It means that individually or in combination, their physical, physiological, psychological and social features, as well as technical capabilities can help to predict their potential in the future (Williams, Reilly, 2000). Some scientists maintain that aiming to achieve high results in sports gifted athletes should be selected by appropriate methods at an early age and involved into a long and systematically planned training (Sevim, 2007; Bompa, Haff, 2009). However, recognition of young gifted athletes is a complex process, since the results of teenagers' physical development, as well as their value-based provisions, attitudes and motives change in the process of growing and development (Callender, 2010; Gonçalves, Rama, Figueriredo, 2012). According to some scientists (Byrne, Davenport, Mazanov, 2007), adolescence is a specific and rather complicated age period, when rapid and big changes occur not only in physical development, but also in psycho-social maturity. Therefore, recognition and selection of children and teenagers gifted for sports is a multi-faceted process, when it is important not only to evaluate an athlete's present appearance considering their physical, physiological, psychological, cognitive and sociological features, and technical capacities, but also evacuating such important aspects as social, emotional, motivational and temperamental factors (Pruna, Tribaldos, Bahdur, 2018). Whether the talents will be disclosed depends not only on an athlete's innate capabilities, but also on the educational factors affecting them. A great influence is made by the coach and educational environment created by the school, which allows developing and growing an athlete's personality (Williams, Reilly, 2000; Pensgaard, Roberts, 2002). However, it is not the school that affects the educational environment and motivational climate. The attitude of family members towards physical activity, their support for an athlete, the coach and his/her ability to appropriately plan the training content, teammates, facilities, attention from the media and other people, as well as values and social provisions also contribute to this process (Hassandra, Goudas, Chroni, 2003; Lenzen, Brouwers, Dejardin et al., 2004). An effective programme of the identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports can help to recognize talents at an early stage, which can become a vitally important element when trying to enhance successful competitiveness of the country (Vaeyens, Gullich, Warr, Philippaerts, 2009). The programmes of the identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports facilitate the process of athlete selection, which maximizes the number of gifted persons (Anshel, Lidor, 2012). Early recognition of gifted athletes can attract funding and training opportunities for athletes having the greatest potential for success (Durand-Bush, Salmela, 2001). Countries are concerned with creating research-based methods to select the most gifted athletes that could successfully compete on the international sports arena. Over the past two decades, the increasing number of studies have been accomplished trying to understand the issues concerning experience in the identification and education of children and teenagers gifted for sports (Williams, Reilly, 2000; Abbott, Button, Pepping et al., 2005; De Bosscher, De Knop, Van Bottenburg, Shibli, 2006; Pearson, Naughton, Torode, 2006; Lidor, Cote, Hackfort, 2009; Anshel, Lidor, 2012; Roth, 2012; Brouwers, De Bosscher, Sotiriadou, 2012; Nijs, Gallardo-Gallardo, Dries, Sels, 2014; Swann, Moran, Piggott, 2015). However, despite considerable achievements in the process of identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports, a universally recognized model of the identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports does not exist Hohmann, 2001; Abbott, Collins, 2004; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Philippaerts, 2008; Davids, Araujo, Vilar, Pinder, 2013; Louzada, Maiorano, Ara, 2016). There are cases when decisions concerning the selection of athletes are made subjectively, without scientific validation (Regnier, Salmela, Russell, 1993; Williams, Franks, 1998; Abbott, Button, Pepping, Collins, 2005), whereas a lot of potentially gifted athletes are not selected due to inappropriate selection criteria or applying no selection criteria at all, as well as due to athletes changing a sports branch or a large number of drop-outs from sports (Abbott, Collins, 2004; MacNamara, Collins, 2011; Tranckle, Cushion, 2006; Winfried, 2001). It is important that children and teenagers get interested in sports, are selected to appropriate sport branches, as well as attempts are made so that they do not break their sporting career too early (Schiffer, 2013); every year approximately 35% of young athletes quit sports and it is not clear if they ever resume their sporting activity again (Purcell, 2005; Breunner, 2012). Therefore, the application of these selection criteria and a large drop-out of athletes from sports can be partly justified in countries with high population. The principle of natural selection can have a greater influence. In the case of a small country (for instance, Lithuania), such a selection is not suitable. Trying to avoid subjectivity, the majority of the latest scientific studies in sports science are related to the investigation of the influence of innate (natural) and acquired (educated) features on sporting results (Baker, Bagats, Büsch, Schorer, 2012; Coutinho, Mesquita, Fonseca, De Martin-Silva, 2014; Davids, Baker, 2007). With the increasing competition among athletes over the past period (De Bosscher et al., 2006) and sports becoming a political and commercial phenomenon (Green, Oakley, 2001), there appears a necessity for timely and appropriate choice of a specific branch of sports, which would help to achieve good results in the future. Different methods and programmes of selecting the most capable athletes are applied all over the world. In the majority of countries, selection models consisting of several stages are applied, which rely on a coach's competence, test results and analysis of competition results, whereas the selected athletes are invited to learn and do sports in specialised schools. Similarly to some other countries, in Lithuania concern about (self-) education of children gifted for sports has led to the emergence of sports gymnasiums. Panevėžys Raimundas Sargūnas Sports Gymnasium is one of the three general education schools of Lithuania that implement basic and general education alongside with sports education, and in which a part of sports education in the field of specialized education aims at training students that have special educational needs due to their giftedness in sports for high excellence and results (Order No. V-1010 of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania, 24 October 2014). The programme outlines the knowledge, abilities and attitudes that athletes should acquire to comply with physical, technical, tactical requirements, as well as requirements for fitness and achievements. The purpose of Panevėžys Raimundas Sargūnas Sports Gymnasium gives a possibility to analyse the gymnasium as a case revealing the aspects of the selection of teenagers gifted for sports, which can help to better understand what educational preconditions are created and how to select teenagers gifted for sports and to disclose their talents, as well as to help create and improve practical models for schools educating teenagers gifted for sports. Therefore, the research question was formulated: how does the selection of teenagers gifted for sports occur and how are the educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports created? The problem-based question and the fact that a universal and effective model of the selection of children and teenagers gifted for sports does not exist, highlight the research object, i. e. the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. The aim of the research is to reveal the educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. The research objectives: 1. To theoretically validate the educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. 2. To identify the educational factors and notice of the choice of sporting activity by athletes. 3. To explore the physical and functional fitness of athletes and its dynamics. 4. To determine the attitudes of athletes as educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. 5. To determine the attitudes of coaches as educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. Scientific novelty and practical significance of the doctoral research ● The validated educational factors that influence the selection of teenagers gifted for sports allow better understanding of the factors of choosing a sporting activity and survival in sports as educational preconditions for the development of capabilities. ● The determined dynamics of physical and functional fitness of teenage athletes in an educational environment beneficial to the development of their innate capabilities for sports helps to understand the dynamics and multi-dimensionality of the selection of teenagers gifted for sports as a process, as well as problematic control of its components when identifying and developing their capabilities. The case of one of the three sports gymnasiums of Lithuania has been explored in terms of the selection of teenagers gifted for sports – such studies have not been performed in Lithuania so far. ● The results of the theoretical and empirical research complement the theory of sports science with innovative and original data on the expression of the educational preconditions affecting the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. Practical significance. The educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports that affect athletes' decision to choose a sporting activity from other spheres of supplementary education have been analysed and generalised. The determined peculiarities of motivation will help coaches to select appropriate pedagogical and psychological tools to motivate athletes to seek for high results in sports. The educational factors stimulating and aggravating athletes' selection and motivation to seek for high results in sports have been distinguished during the research, the role of a coach as one of educational factors has been revealed in the process of selecting and training athletes – these findings will allow a more purposeful planning of the (self-) development of coaches' competences and provision of all the necessary support concerning the selection of athletes to them. The analysis of the changes in the results of athletes' physical and functional fitness will give a possibility to make a more thorough selection of teenagers gifted for sports to 12 sports branches, as well as to train them more purposefully and effectively for national and international competitions. The research data can be applied in compiling model characteristics of different age periods and different sports branches by specifying training programmes and evaluating the changes in athletes' individual fitness. The research results can be used by the administration, coaches and other employees of athletes' educational centres, federations and sports schools. CONCLUSIONS 1. The search and selection of gifted children is a complex, dynamic, long-lasting, and special educational process that depends on a variety of factors interacting and constantly changing in the process. The factors influencing the selection and results in the sporting activity can be divided into four groups: genetic-physiological, psychological, social, and educational factors. The genetic potential, anthropometric data and physical abilities are essential indicators for the identification and selection of teenagers gifted for sports. Psychological features, such as perseverance, self-confidence, positive attitude, devotion, dedication, strong intrinsic motivation, concentration, attentiveness, and emotional control, are important in selecting gifted teenagers. Social factors include sports policy, culture, natural conditions, geographical location of the country, various opportunities, specific tendencies in the development of modern sports, and support rendered to the participants of the educational process. Educational factors – educational environments, parent support, practice, the coach and teammates, have an educational impact on athletes and can influence their decision making, motivation, habits, training and skills.Therefore, the selection of gifted teenagers should be specific to each sports branch and include a multi-disciplinary approach when clearing out athletes' motives, the attitudes of athletes and coaches, as well as implementing the monitoring athletes. 2. Regardless of gender and a group of sports branches, the main factors that motivate the choice of sports activities include educational (motivation of the coach, parents and friends) and internal cognitive motives (desire to master a sports technique). The least important motives involve material (possession of own inventory, good facilities for training), geographical (a sports school close to home), not being admitted into another sports branch, or lack of other choices. The choice of a sport from other areas of supplementary education is determined by a desire to be physically fit and a desire to engage in leisure activities. The least important motives are the desire to become famous and the desire to be attractive. Intrinsic motivation is more pronounced than extrinsic.The boys' external motivation is stronger than that of girls. Amotivation is more characteristic of the girls. The internal and external motivation is more expressed by the athletes of team sports; external motivation in individual sports appears to be the weakest, whereas the weakest intrinsic motivation and the strongest amotivation is revealed in duelling sports. 3. The results of physical development, physical fitness and functional capacity of stronger athletes are not always statistically significantly different from those of other athletes or control group athletes. A part of the indicators of stronger athletes are better, which leads to an assumption that alongside with psychosocial abilities, social factors, educational factors, and high motivation, they are essential to achieve high results. The correlation study reveals which indicators need to be taken into account and developed when selecting teenagers gifted for sports and achieving high results. 4. The most important factors for teenagers' decision to start doing sports and choose a sports branch include the surrounding environment, where the most important roles are ascribed to the coach, family members and friends. The genetic-physiological and psychological factors that are affected by the coaching and environmental factors are considered as the main factors determining success in sports. The coach is identified as the most important educational factor in the selection of gifted teenagers, whereas a favourable climate, motivating influence of the coach, his/her competence and ideal conditions help to disclose the athletes' talents and achieve high results. While choosing a sport and training, the self-educational factor is distinguished seeking to change oneself, as well as to change own or others' future relating it to sports. The factors that reduce the motivation of athletes and thus prevent the full potential of talented athletes, as well as leading them to end their sporting careers are highlighted: stabilisation of their progress in the results, injuries and high loads of physical activity. 5. The coaches distinguish the importance of psychological and physiological factors in selecting teenagers gifted for sports. The coaches consider the teenagers to be prospective athletes who have a strong internal and external motivation to train, innate capabilities, and physical abilities that are influenced by environmental factors, coaching competence, and practice. The role of the coach as the most important educational factor is highlighted in the search for gifted athletes among those already in the sport or referring to the competence of other coaches, recommending athletes who can achieve higher results in other sports branches. Identifying gifted teenagers-athletes, the coaches look for dedicated, hardworking and goal-seeking athletes with strong motivation. Family members and peers are recognised as educational factors that have a significant impact on athlete selection. The research also highlights the problems faced by coaches in the selection process. These are physiological and psychological changes in the body and the priorities of teenage athletes, which are influenced by their surrounding environment.

Relevance of the research. Recognition and education of children and teenagers gifted in sporting activity is an important part of the attainment of particular results in sports. Identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports is a process, when athletes are recognised at the early stage of their development and have a possibility to attain high results in adulthood (Williams, Reilly, 2000; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Philippaerts, 2008). It means that individually or in combination, their physical, physiological, psychological and social features, as well as technical capabilities can help to predict their potential in the future (Williams, Reilly, 2000). Some scientists maintain that aiming to achieve high results in sports gifted athletes should be selected by appropriate methods at an early age and involved into a long and systematically planned training (Sevim, 2007; Bompa, Haff, 2009). However, recognition of young gifted athletes is a complex process, since the results of teenagers' physical development, as well as their value-based provisions, attitudes and motives change in the process of growing and development (Callender, 2010; Gonçalves, Rama, Figueriredo, 2012). According to some scientists (Byrne, Davenport, Mazanov, 2007), adolescence is a specific and rather complicated age period, when rapid and big changes occur not only in physical development, but also in psycho-social maturity. Therefore, recognition and selection of children and teenagers gifted for sports is a multi-faceted process, when it is important not only to evaluate an athlete's present appearance considering their physical, physiological, psychological, cognitive and sociological features, and technical capacities, but also evacuating such important aspects as social, emotional, motivational and temperamental factors (Pruna, Tribaldos, Bahdur, 2018). Whether the talents will be disclosed depends not only on an athlete's innate capabilities, but also on the educational factors affecting them. A great influence is made by the coach and educational environment created by the school, which allows developing and growing an athlete's personality (Williams, Reilly, 2000; Pensgaard, Roberts, 2002). However, it is not the school that affects the educational environment and motivational climate. The attitude of family members towards physical activity, their support for an athlete, the coach and his/her ability to appropriately plan the training content, teammates, facilities, attention from the media and other people, as well as values and social provisions also contribute to this process (Hassandra, Goudas, Chroni, 2003; Lenzen, Brouwers, Dejardin et al., 2004). An effective programme of the identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports can help to recognize talents at an early stage, which can become a vitally important element when trying to enhance successful competitiveness of the country (Vaeyens, Gullich, Warr, Philippaerts, 2009). The programmes of the identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports facilitate the process of athlete selection, which maximizes the number of gifted persons (Anshel, Lidor, 2012). Early recognition of gifted athletes can attract funding and training opportunities for athletes having the greatest potential for success (Durand-Bush, Salmela, 2001). Countries are concerned with creating research-based methods to select the most gifted athletes that could successfully compete on the international sports arena. Over the past two decades, the increasing number of studies have been accomplished trying to understand the issues concerning experience in the identification and education of children and teenagers gifted for sports (Williams, Reilly, 2000; Abbott, Button, Pepping et al., 2005; De Bosscher, De Knop, Van Bottenburg, Shibli, 2006; Pearson, Naughton, Torode, 2006; Lidor, Cote, Hackfort, 2009; Anshel, Lidor, 2012; Roth, 2012; Brouwers, De Bosscher, Sotiriadou, 2012; Nijs, Gallardo-Gallardo, Dries, Sels, 2014; Swann, Moran, Piggott, 2015). However, despite considerable achievements in the process of identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports, a universally recognized model of the identification of children and teenagers gifted for sports does not exist Hohmann, 2001; Abbott, Collins, 2004; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Philippaerts, 2008; Davids, Araujo, Vilar, Pinder, 2013; Louzada, Maiorano, Ara, 2016). There are cases when decisions concerning the selection of athletes are made subjectively, without scientific validation (Regnier, Salmela, Russell, 1993; Williams, Franks, 1998; Abbott, Button, Pepping, Collins, 2005), whereas a lot of potentially gifted athletes are not selected due to inappropriate selection criteria or applying no selection criteria at all, as well as due to athletes changing a sports branch or a large number of drop-outs from sports (Abbott, Collins, 2004; MacNamara, Collins, 2011; Tranckle, Cushion, 2006; Winfried, 2001). It is important that children and teenagers get interested in sports, are selected to appropriate sport branches, as well as attempts are made so that they do not break their sporting career too early (Schiffer, 2013); every year approximately 35% of young athletes quit sports and it is not clear if they ever resume their sporting activity again (Purcell, 2005; Breunner, 2012). Therefore, the application of these selection criteria and a large drop-out of athletes from sports can be partly justified in countries with high population. The principle of natural selection can have a greater influence. In the case of a small country (for instance, Lithuania), such a selection is not suitable. Trying to avoid subjectivity, the majority of the latest scientific studies in sports science are related to the investigation of the influence of innate (natural) and acquired (educated) features on sporting results (Baker, Bagats, Büsch, Schorer, 2012; Coutinho, Mesquita, Fonseca, De Martin-Silva, 2014; Davids, Baker, 2007). With the increasing competition among athletes over the past period (De Bosscher et al., 2006) and sports becoming a political and commercial phenomenon (Green, Oakley, 2001), there appears a necessity for timely and appropriate choice of a specific branch of sports, which would help to achieve good results in the future. Different methods and programmes of selecting the most capable athletes are applied all over the world. In the majority of countries, selection models consisting of several stages are applied, which rely on a coach's competence, test results and analysis of competition results, whereas the selected athletes are invited to learn and do sports in specialised schools. Similarly to some other countries, in Lithuania concern about (self-) education of children gifted for sports has led to the emergence of sports gymnasiums. Panevėžys Raimundas Sargūnas Sports Gymnasium is one of the three general education schools of Lithuania that implement basic and general education alongside with sports education, and in which a part of sports education in the field of specialized education aims at training students that have special educational needs due to their giftedness in sports for high excellence and results (Order No. V-1010 of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania, 24 October 2014). The programme outlines the knowledge, abilities and attitudes that athletes should acquire to comply with physical, technical, tactical requirements, as well as requirements for fitness and achievements. The purpose of Panevėžys Raimundas Sargūnas Sports Gymnasium gives a possibility to analyse the gymnasium as a case revealing the aspects of the selection of teenagers gifted for sports, which can help to better understand what educational preconditions are created and how to select teenagers gifted for sports and to disclose their talents, as well as to help create and improve practical models for schools educating teenagers gifted for sports. Therefore, the research question was formulated: how does the selection of teenagers gifted for sports occur and how are the educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports created? The problem-based question and the fact that a universal and effective model of the selection of children and teenagers gifted for sports does not exist, highlight the research object, i. e. the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. The aim of the research is to reveal the educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. The research objectives: 1. To theoretically validate the educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. 2. To identify the educational factors and notice of the choice of sporting activity by athletes. 3. To explore the physical and functional fitness of athletes and its dynamics. 4. To determine the attitudes of athletes as educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. 5. To determine the attitudes of coaches as educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. Scientific novelty and practical significance of the doctoral research ● The validated educational factors that influence the selection of teenagers gifted for sports allow better understanding of the factors of choosing a sporting activity and survival in sports as educational preconditions for the development of capabilities. ● The determined dynamics of physical and functional fitness of teenage athletes in an educational environment beneficial to the development of their innate capabilities for sports helps to understand the dynamics and multi-dimensionality of the selection of teenagers gifted for sports as a process, as well as problematic control of its components when identifying and developing their capabilities. The case of one of the three sports gymnasiums of Lithuania has been explored in terms of the selection of teenagers gifted for sports – such studies have not been performed in Lithuania so far. ● The results of the theoretical and empirical research complement the theory of sports science with innovative and original data on the expression of the educational preconditions affecting the selection of teenagers gifted for sports. Practical significance. The educational preconditions for the selection of teenagers gifted for sports that affect athletes' decision to choose a sporting activity from other spheres of supplementary education have been analysed and generalised. The determined peculiarities of motivation will help coaches to select appropriate pedagogical and psychological tools to motivate athletes to seek for high results in sports. The educational factors stimulating and aggravating athletes' selection and motivation to seek for high results in sports have been distinguished during the research, the role of a coach as one of educational factors has been revealed in the process of selecting and training athletes – these findings will allow a more purposeful planning of the (self-) development of coaches' competences and provision of all the necessary support concerning the selection of athletes to them. The analysis of the changes in the results of athletes' physical and functional fitness will give a possibility to make a more thorough selection of teenagers gifted for sports to 12 sports branches, as well as to train them more purposefully and effectively for national and international competitions. The research data can be applied in compiling model characteristics of different age periods and different sports branches by specifying training programmes and evaluating the changes in athletes' individual fitness. The research results can be used by the administration, coaches and other employees of athletes' educational centres, federations and sports schools. CONCLUSIONS 1. The search and selection of gifted children is a complex, dynamic, long-lasting, and special educational process that depends on a variety of factors interacting and constantly changing in the process. The factors influencing the selection and results in the sporting activity can be divided into four groups: genetic-physiological, psychological, social, and educational factors. The genetic potential, anthropometric data and physical abilities are essential indicators for the identification and selection of teenagers gifted for sports. Psychological features, such as perseverance, self-confidence, positive attitude, devotion, dedication, strong intrinsic motivation, concentration, attentiveness, and emotional control, are important in selecting gifted teenagers. Social factors include sports policy, culture, natural conditions, geographical location of the country, various opportunities, specific tendencies in the development of modern sports, and support rendered to the participants of the educational process. Educational factors – educational environments, parent support, practice, the coach and teammates, have an educational impact on athletes and can influence their decision making, motivation, habits, training and skills.Therefore, the selection of gifted teenagers should be specific to each sports branch and include a multi-disciplinary approach when clearing out athletes' motives, the attitudes of athletes and coaches, as well as implementing the monitoring athletes. 2. Regardless of gender and a group of sports branches, the main factors that motivate the choice of sports activities include educational (motivation of the coach, parents and friends) and internal cognitive motives (desire to master a sports technique). The least important motives involve material (possession of own inventory, good facilities for training), geographical (a sports school close to home), not being admitted into another sports branch, or lack of other choices. The choice of a sport from other areas of supplementary education is determined by a desire to be physically fit and a desire to engage in leisure activities. The least important motives are the desire to become famous and the desire to be attractive. Intrinsic motivation is more pronounced than extrinsic.The boys' external motivation is stronger than that of girls. Amotivation is more characteristic of the girls. The internal and external motivation is more expressed by the athletes of team sports; external motivation in individual sports appears to be the weakest, whereas the weakest intrinsic motivation and the strongest amotivation is revealed in duelling sports. 3. The results of physical development, physical fitness and functional capacity of stronger athletes are not always statistically significantly different from those of other athletes or control group athletes. A part of the indicators of stronger athletes are better, which leads to an assumption that alongside with psychosocial abilities, social factors, educational factors, and high motivation, they are essential to achieve high results. The correlation study reveals which indicators need to be taken into account and developed when selecting teenagers gifted for sports and achieving high results. 4. The most important factors for teenagers' decision to start doing sports and choose a sports branch include the surrounding environment, where the most important roles are ascribed to the coach, family members and friends. The genetic-physiological and psychological factors that are affected by the coaching and environmental factors are considered as the main factors determining success in sports. The coach is identified as the most important educational factor in the selection of gifted teenagers, whereas a favourable climate, motivating influence of the coach, his/her competence and ideal conditions help to disclose the athletes' talents and achieve high results. While choosing a sport and training, the self-educational factor is distinguished seeking to change oneself, as well as to change own or others' future relating it to sports. The factors that reduce the motivation of athletes and thus prevent the full potential of talented athletes, as well as leading them to end their sporting careers are highlighted: stabilisation of their progress in the results, injuries and high loads of physical activity. 5. The coaches distinguish the importance of psychological and physiological factors in selecting teenagers gifted for sports. The coaches consider the teenagers to be prospective athletes who have a strong internal and external motivation to train, innate capabilities, and physical abilities that are influenced by environmental factors, coaching competence, and practice. The role of the coach as the most important educational factor is highlighted in the search for gifted athletes among those already in the sport or referring to the competence of other coaches, recommending athletes who can achieve higher results in other sports branches. Identifying gifted teenagers-athletes, the coaches look for dedicated, hardworking and goal-seeking athletes with strong motivation. Family members and peers are recognised as educational factors that have a significant impact on athlete selection. The research also highlights the problems faced by coaches in the selection process. These are physiological and psychological changes in the body and the priorities of teenage athletes, which are influenced by their surrounding environment.

The 19th volume of Archaeologia Lituana is dedicated to the topic of hillforts as important monuments of cultural identity of the past and present. Eleven scientific articles were published in this volume, nine of which have been based on papers presented during the international scientific conference "Hillforts. From Emergence to the Present Day." Another two articles were written by people who had not participated in this conference. The idea of the mentioned conference of its organizers arose after finding out information about the initiative of the Seimas on June 23, 2015, based on the Decree No. XII-1845, in which the year 2017 was declared as the Year of Hillforts. This important initiative of the Seimas served as an inspiration for organizing the international scientific conference in 2017 to discuss the important issues related to hillforts and their study. The three-day conference was held in Vilnius and Klaipėda. It was attended by archaeologists from nine countries, which presented 25 papers during the course of two days. The first day of the conference was organized in Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania. Algimantas Merkevičius, Chairman of the Organizing Committee, started the conference with a short welcome speech. The conference was welcomed and opened by members of the Seimas Prof. Eugenijus Jovaiša and Prof. Arūnas Gumuliauskas. In the next day of the Conference, on the 20th of October, a tour was organized for the participants of the conference that led them through the Vytautas Magnus War Museum and several hillforts and castles on the way from Kaunas to Klaipėda. On October 21, the third day of the conference was held at Klaipėda University. The articles published in this volume are grouped in a chronological order and cover a long period of time, from Prehistory to the late Medieval Period, starting with early hilltop settlement sites and the emergence of fortified settlements up to the construction of masonry castles on hills and other elevated locations across the landscape during the Middle Ages. This volume opens with an article by Estonian archaeologist, Professor of the University of Tartu Valter Lang, the guest lecturer of the conference. The first part of the article reviewed an investigation of early fortified settlements in the eastern Baltic Region and provided with the earlier interpretations of this type of settlement sites. In the second part of the article, Lang, relying on the material culture of the early fortified settlements and recent investigations on the ethnogenesis of the Baltic and Finnic people, has put forward a new hypothesis, claiming that the fortified settlements in the eastern Baltic Region could have been built by a new inhabitants that could have come from the eastern European forest belt. Two articles in this volume are devoted to the research of fortified and hilltop settlements in the Czech Re- public. They provided our readers with new information and insights on the appearance and the development of fortifications as well as the studies of hillforts in this part of Central Europe. The article by Josef Hložek, Petr Menšík, and Milan Procházka reviewed the emergence and development of hilltop and fortified settlements in southern Bohemia from the beginning of the Prehistoric Period to the end of the Middle Ages. The authors discussed the main features of fortified settlements, as well as the classification, chronology, functions, and de- velopment of fortifications over several millennia. In the next article, Roman Křivánek analyzed the use of geophysical methods for investigating Czech hillforts. The article discusses the development of geophysical research of fortified sites in the Czech Republic and the potential this non-destructive method has in studying the different types of settlement sites. This article also presents the results of this type of research in seven sites to illustrate the results, possibilities, and limitations of this method. The hillforts of Central Nadruvians, dated back to the 1st part of the 1st millennium AD, are focus of Russian archaeologists Olga Khomiakova, Ivan Skhodnov, and Sergey Chaukin. The authors touch upon many aspects of hillforts, such as their morphological characteristics, the distribution of these sites across the landscape, and their functions and significance for society. The main idea of their study is that these sites served as social centers in the discussed area. Some of the most important hillforts, located in the valleys of the Prieglius River and its tributaries, were described in further detail. Four articles in this volume are devoted to the analysis and interpretations of materials obtained during the investigations of late hillforts in various parts of Lithuania. In the first article, Ramūnas Šmigelskas, based on the results of his own small-scale archaeological excavations carried out in the Palace of the Vilnius Upper Cas- tle in 2016 and nine radiocarbon dates obtained during these investigations, aims to answer the question when a wooden castle was built on Gediminas Hill. Another important conclusion that he offered, which is based on radiocarbon data, is that the Gediminas Hill was settled during the 7th –5th century BC. The review of archaeo- logical excavations, which took part in this site throughout the whole of the 20th century, are also an important part of this study. The results of geophysical research, soil analysis, and archaeological small-scale excavations in the Senieji (Old) Trakai Castle and its settlement site were summarized in an article written by a group of seven researchers: Albinas Kuncevičius, Inga Merkytė, Justina Poškienė, Regina Prapiestienė, Rokas Vengalis, Gintautas Vėlius, Jonas Volungevičius. The article also reviews the written sources and historical studies as well as previous ar- chaeological excavations at the Senieji (Old) Trakai Castle. The main focus of this article is the transformation of the natural environment and landscape during the building activities of the castle. Mantas Užgalis analyzes in his article the hillforts of the Lamata land, which located in the southern part of western Lithuania. The author has counted 22 hillforts in the area under examination. Most attention is payed to the paleogeographical reconstruction of these fortified settlements, dated from second part of the 1st Millennium AD to the 13th century. The article also sets the political and administrative center of the Lamata land, which, according to Užgalis, was in the Skomantai Hillfort. In her article, Dovilė Baltramiejūnaitė reviewed the features and development of wheel-turned pottery dated to the 10th –14th centuries and found in the hillforts of the northeastern part of the area attributed to the Jotving- ian tribes. The morphological, technological, and decorative features of this pottery were examined. The stages of development, typology, chronology, classification, and contexts of wheel-tuned ceramics were discussed. The last article devoted to the topic of hillforts is produced by Ukrainian archaeologist Sergey Panishko on the "motte" type fortifications of the Medieval, so-called Lithuanian Period in the Volyn land. The author of- fered a classification of these late fortifications, presented their main characteristics, tried to trace the origin, and discussed their chronological development. Two articles in this volume are presented not by the participants of the mentioned conference and not devoted to the topic of hillforts. In the first of them, Erika Buitkutė and Giedrė Motuzaitė Matuzevičiūtė, using research methods for the investigation of ecofactual material, tried to determine the function of a wooden building dis- covered during the archaeological excavations in the eastern part of the Palace of the Lower Castle in Vilnius, which, according to the authors, could have served economic purposes. In the second catalog-type article, Russian archaeologists Vladimir Dryakhlov and Vladimir Kulakov published the data and the related interpretations on an items collection from the Merovingian epoch that is stored in the Alexander Pushkin State Art Museum (Moscow). According to the authors, these items, dated back to the 6th–7th centuries AD, were mainly found in the eastern territories of the Frankish tribes and belonged to the members of the Frankish aristocracy, who practiced their native, traditional religion. In the chapter "In memoriam" Prof. Mykolas Michelbertas briefly reviewed the scientific achievements of the famous Latvian archaeologist and historian Ēvalds Mugurēvičs, who passed away at the end of 2018. It is important to note that Mugurēvičs was an editorial member of the journal Lietuvos archeologija from 2000 to 2005, and in 2013, he was awarded to the Cross of the Knight of the Order for Merits to Lithuania. In the chapter "Publications of the Department of Archaeology," Algimantas Merkevičius briefly presents a book published in 2018 that is devoted to the Early Metal Period settlement sites of Lithuania. The book contains basic data about more than 500 settlement sites of the period. In our usual chapter titled "Scientific Life Chronicle," Violeta Vasiliauskienė overviews the key academic activities of the Archaeology Department's teachers and students. We hope that this volume of Archaeologia Lituana will be interesting and useful to our readers. Algimantas Merkevičius ; Šis, 19-asis, Archaeologia Lituana tomas skirtas piliakalniams – svarbiems praeities ir dabarties kultūrinės tapatybės paminklams. Leidinyje publikuojama vienuolika mokslinių straipsnių, iš kurių devyni parengti 2017 metų spalio 19–21 dienomis vykusioje tarptautinėje mokslinėje konferencijoje "Piliakalniai. Nuo atsiradimo iki šių dienų" skaitytų pranešimų pagrindu. Kiti du straipsniai parašyti ne konferencijos dalyvių. Konferencijos idėja jos organizatoriams kilo sužinojus, kad Lietuvos Respublikos Seimas 2015 metų birželio 23 dienos nutarimu Nr. XII-1845 2017 metus paskelbė Piliakalnių metais. Ši svarbi Seimo iniciatyva ir inspiravo idėją 2017 metais organizuoti tarptautinę mokslinę konferenciją piliakalnių tyrinėjimams aptarti. Trijų dienų konferencija vyko Vilniuje ir Klaipėdoje. Joje dalyvavo devynių šalių archeologai, jie per dvi konferencijos dienas perskaitė 25 pranešimus. Pirmoji konferencijos diena buvo organizuota Lietuvos Respublikos Seime. Konferenciją trumpa sveikinimo kalba pradėjo organizacinio komiteto pirmininkas Algimantas Merkevičius. Konferenciją pasveikino ir atidarė Seimo nariai akad. prof. Eugenijus Jovaiša ir prof. Arūnas Gumuliauskas. Kitą dieną, spalio 20, konferencijos dalyviams buvo organizuota ekskursija, kurios metu apsilankyta Vytauto Didžiojo karo muziejuje ir pakeliui iš Kauno į Klaipėdą apžiūrėta keletas piliakalnių ir pilių. Spalio 21-ąją, trečiąją dieną, konferencija vyko Klaipėdos universitete. Šiame tome skelbiami straipsniai sugrupuoti laikantis chronologinės tvarkos ir apima platų laikotarpį nuo priešistorės iki vėlyvųjų viduramžių ir nuo gyvenviečių įrengimo kalvose ir kitų tipų aukštesnėse vietose pra- džios bei įtvirtintų gyvenviečių atsiradimo iki mūrinių pilių statybos kalvose ir aukštuose upių krantuose. Pirmas spausdinamas estų archeologo, Tartu universiteto profesoriaus Valterio Lango, konferencijoje per- skaičiusio kviestinį pranešimą apie ankstyvąsias įtvirtintas gyvenvietes Rytų Baltijos regione, straipsnis. Pirmoje šio straipsnio dalyje autorius trumpai apžvelgė ankstyvųjų piliakalnių tyrinėjimus regione ir pateikė ankstesnes jų metu gautų duomenų interpretacijas. Antroje straipsnio dalyje V. Langas, remdamasis įtvirtintų gyvenviečių materialine kultūra bei pastarųjų metų etnogenezės tyrimais, iškėlė naują hipotezę, kad įtvirtintas gyvenvietes rytinėje Baltijos regiono dalyje galėjo įrengti nauji iš Rytų Europos miškų juostos atklydę gyventojai. Čekų archeologai yra reti svečiai Lietuvoje organizuojamose archeologinėse konferencijose, o apie čekų archeologiją ir jų teritorijoje esančias įtvirtintas gyvenvietes Lietuvoje nedaug žinome, todėl šiame leidinyje publikuojami du čekų archeologų straipsniai yra svarbūs, nes suteikia naujų žinių apie Centrinės Europos piliakalnius. Abu straipsniai skirti Čekijos įtvirtintų gyvenviečių tyrimams ir gyvenviečių pagrindinių bruožų bei raidos aptarimui. Viename jų trys archeologai – Josefas Hložekas, Petras Menšíkas ir Milanas Procházka – apžvelgė gyvenviečių kalvose ir įtvirtintų gyvenviečių atsiradimą ir raidą Pietų Bohemijoje nuo priešistorinio laikotarpio pradžios iki viduramžių pabaigos. Autoriai aptarė pagrindinius įtvirtintų gyvenviečių bruožus, pateikė jų klasifikaciją, chronologiją, nustatė funkcijas bei apžvelgė raidą kelių tūkstantmečių laikotarpiu. Kitame straipsnyje Romanas Křivánekas analizavo geofizinių metodų taikymą tiriant įvairių tipų Čekijos piliakalnius. Straipsnyje aptarta piliakalnių geofizinių tyrimų Čekijoje raida ir šio nedestrukcinio metodo galimybės tiriant įvairių tipų įtvirtintas gyvenvietes. Straipsnyje pateikti septyni geofizinių metodų taikymo pavyzdžiai, iliustruojantys metodo galimybes bei ribotumus. Rytprūsiuose gyvenusios nadruvių genties centrinės dalies piliakalniai, datuojami I tūkstm. po Kr. pirma puse, įvairiapusiškai analizuojami trijų rusų archeologų – Olgos Khomiakovos, Ivano Skhodnovo ir Sergeyaus Chaukino – straipsnyje. Aptartos nadruvių piliakalnių morfologinės charakteristikos, piliakalnių išsidėstymas kraštovaizdyje, funkcijos ir reikšmė to meto visuomenės gyvensenoje. Šio laikotarpio piliakalniai straipsnio autorių matomi kaip buvę to meto socialiniai centrai. Straipsnyje detaliai aprašyti ir keli autorių pasirinkti nadruvių piliakalniai, esantys Priegliaus upės ir jos kairiųjų intakų slėniuose. Keturi straipsniai šiame tome skirti įvairiose Lietuvos dalyse esančių vėlyvųjų piliakalnių tyrimų metu gautai medžiagai analizuoti. Viename jų Ramūnas Šmigelskas, remdamasis 2016 metais savo paties vykdytais nedidelės apimties Vilniaus Aukštutinės pilies rūmų archeologiniais lauko tyrimais ir jų metu gautomis devyniomis radioanglies datomis, siekia atsakyti į klausimą, kada buvo pastatyta medinė pilis Gedimino kalne. Remdamasis tų pačių tyrimų metu gauta radioanglies data, straipsnio autorius daro dar vieną svarbią išvadą – kad Gedimino kalno apgyvendinimo pradžia siekia VII–V a. pr. Kr. Svarbu ir tai, kad straipsnyje apžvelgti šio, bene žinomiausio Lietuvos piliakalnio, esančio pačiame Vilniaus centre ir tapusio Vilniaus ir net Lietuvos simboliu, archeologiniai tyrimai, vykdyti XX amžiuje. Senųjų Trakų piliavietės ir šalia jos buvusios gyvenvietės 2018 metais atliktų geofizinių, dirvožemio, archeologinių žvalgomųjų tyrimų metu gautus rezultatus savo straipsnyje apibendrino septynių tyrėjų grupė: Albinas Kuncevičius, Inga Merkytė, Justina Poškienė, Regina Prapiestienė, Rokas Vengalis, Gintautas Vėlius, Jonas Volungevičius. Straipsnyje apžvelgti rašytiniai šaltiniai, istorikų darbai apie šį objektą ir ankstesni archeologiniai tyrimai Senųjų Trakų piliavietėje. Pagrindinis dėmesys šiame straipsnyje teikiamas Senųjų Trakų gamtinei aplinkai ir reljefo transformavimui pilies įrengimo metu. Kitame straipsnyje Mantas Užgalis analizuoja Vakarų Lietuvos pietinėje dalyje buvusios Lamatos žemės piliakalnius, kurių šioje teritorijoje, straipsnio autoriaus manymu, yra 22. Daugiausia dėmesio straipsnyje skirta I tūkstm. po Kr. antros pusės–XIII a. įtvirtintų gyvenviečių paleogeografinės aplinkos rekonstrukcijai. Straipsny- je įvardytas ir Lamatos politinis ir administracinis centras, M. Užgalio nuomone, buvęs Skomantų piliakalnyje. Jotvingiams skiriamos teritorijos šiaurės rytinėje dalyje tyrinėtuose piliakalniuose surastos apžiestos keramikos, datuojamos X–XIV amžiumi, bruožus ir raidos tendencijas apžvelgė Dovilė Baltramiejūnaitė. Aptarti šios keramikos morfologiniai, technologiniai, puošybos požymiai. Nustatyti apžiestos keramikos raidos etapai, tipologija, chronologija, klasifikacija ir kontekstai. Su piliakalnių problematika susijusių mokslinių straipsnių skyrius užbaigiamas ukrainiečių archeologo Sergey'aus Panishko straipsniu apie Voluinės regione viduramžiais, lietuviškuoju laikotarpiu paplitusius vadinamuosius moto tipo įtvirtinimus. Straipsnio autorius šiuos vėlyvus įtvirtinimus suklasifikavo, pateikė jų pagrindi- nes charakteristikas, bandė atsekti, iš kur šio tipo įtvirtinimai atsirado; aptarė jų chronologinę raidą. Šiame tome publikuojami ir du moksliniai straipsniai, kaip minėta, parašyti ne pirmiau minėtos konferencijos dalyvių ir neskirti piliakalnių problematikai analizuoti. Viename jų aprašoma, kaip Erika Buitkutė ir Giedrė Motuzaitė Matuzevičiūtė, pasitelkusios ekofaktų tyrimų metodus, bandė nustatyti Valdovų rūmų rytiniame korpuse archeologinių kasinėjimų metu atrasto medinio pastato paskirtį. Remdamosi tyrimų metu gautais duomenimis straipsnio autorės argumentuotai teigia, kad tai turėjo būti ūkinės paskirties pastatas. Kitame, kataloginio pobūdžio straipsnyje rusų archeologai Vladimiras Dryakhlovas ir Vladimiras Kulako- vas paskelbė Aleksandro Puškino valstybinio dailės muziejaus (Maskva) fonduose saugomo Merovingų epo- chos papuošalų rinkinio duomenis ir jų interpretaciją. Straipsnio autorių nuomone, šio rinkinio dirbiniai buvo skirti rytų frankų aristokratijai ir yra tradicinės ikikrikščioniškos religijos amuletų rinkinys, datuojamas VI–VII amžiumi. Tradiciškai po mokslinių straipsnių skyriaus, tomo pabaigoje, yra dar keli skyriai. Viename jų, In memoriam, profesorius Mykolas Michelbertas trumpai apžvelgė 2018 metų pabaigoje mirusio žymaus latvių archeologo, baltų archeologijos ir ankstyvosios istorijos tyrinėtojo prof. Evaldo Mugurevičiaus (Ēvalds Mugurēvičs) archeologinę veiklą. Svarbu paminėti, kad E. Mugurevičius 2000–2005 metais buvo leidinio ,,Lietuvos archeologija" redaktorių kolegijos narys, o 2013 metais už nuopelnus baltų archeologijai, latvių ir lietuvių mokslininkų ryšių stiprinimą Lietuvos Respublikos prezidentūroje buvo apdovanotas ordino ,,Už nuopelnus Lietuvai" riterio kryžiumi. Skyriuje Archeologijos katedros leidiniai A. Merkevičius trumpai pristatė 2018 metais išleistą knygą apie ankstyvojo metalų laikotarpio gyvenvietes Lietuvoje, parengtą vykdant mokslinių tyrimų projektą "Ankstyvųjų bal- tų visuomenės tapatumo bruožai remiantis archeologijos paveldo tyrimais Lietuvoje (ARCHBALTAI)" (vadovas Algimantas Merkevičius) ir jam pasibaigus papildytą nauja informacija ir gausia iliustracine medžiaga. Knygoje abėcėlės tvarka pagal vietovių pavadinimus pateikti pagrindiniai duomenys apie daugiau nei 500 aptariamojo laikotarpio gyvenviečių. Tradiciškai tomo pabaigoje Mokslinio gyvenimo kronikoje Violeta Vasiliauskienė apžvelgė 2018 metų Archeologijos katedros darbuotojų, doktorantų ir studentų akademinę veiklą. Tikimės, kad šis Archaeologia Lituana tomas bus įdomus ir naudingas mūsų skaitytojams.

La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la competencia pero también las oportunidadesde empleo asalariado en el sector exportador hacienda que aumenten las transiciones desde el autoempleo al empleo asalariado., al menos entre ios empresarios marginales. Así a medida que la competencia global se intensifica, las empresas y empresarios más ineficientes cerrarán. Por otra parte a medida que aumenta la exposición a la competencia internacional, un menor número de ocupados eran autoempleados, tal y como el modelo de Diez and Ozdagli sugiere. Además, deberíamos considerar cómo todo este proceso afecta a la productividad del autoempleo es decir, a la distribución relativa del entrepreneurship entre autoempleo formal e informal. Sin embargo, la cuestión clave pasa por conocer si el efecto de una mayor exposición al comercio internacional, genera una reasignación óptima del trabajo entre el empleo y el autoempleo y entre las empresas menos productivas y las más productivas que contribuya al crecimiento económico la innovación y el empleo. Por tanto, el reto es proporcional evidencia empírica que arroje nueva luz acerca a este debate y a las actitudes hacia la globalización. Para lograr este objetivo, es importante no solo conocer los efectos de una mayor apertura sobre la intensidad exportadora del autoempleo sino también conocer si este proceso es mutuamente beneficioso tanto para los países más y menos desarrollaodos. Para abordar estas cuestiones esta tesis aborda una segunda cuestión de investigación. Una indagación sobre las razón del porqué los efectos de la globalización sobre el sector empresarial se abordan solo de manera cuantitativa y no también de forma cualitativa. En concreto, trataremos de proporcionar nueva evidencia empírica sobre la base de la aportación teórica de Acs and Sanders (2007). Para ellos la globalización no solo no destruye autoempleo sino que promoeve el modelo de producción entrepreneurial, con una trabnsición desde grandes corporaciones a pequeñas configuraciones empresariales (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) lo que se traduce en una reducción del tamaño medio gracias a las nuevas oportunidades en el sector servicio que ha aparecido gracias al desarrollo de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación (ICT), dos factores que probablemente se encuentren detrás de la sorprendente evolución de las tasas de autoempleo en los países más desarrollados. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) refuerzan esta idea al sugerir que la globalización y el desarrollo del sector ICT han supuesto una nueva división internacional del trabajo en la que las economías más avanzadas son ahora entrepreneurial driven, con más trabajadores de altos skills especializados en los procesos de innovación mientras que los países menos desarrollados y emergentes y con trabajadores menos cualificados se especializan en las etapas de la producción que han sido offshored. En definitiva, esta tesis tratará de analizar el triángulo entre entrepreneurship, globalización y libertad económica para ofrecer una mejor comprensión del cómo y el porqué de la contribución del sector empresarial nacional al crecimiento, la innovación y el empleo con diferente intensidad y características. ; The interplay between entrepreneurship and globalization and economic freedom backs into at the heart of the debate about self-employment contributions to the economic development of modem economies. After experienced a process of exceptionally strong globalization, the world is witnessing to an upsurge of protectionism. This new trend is threating not only free trade agreements but also the levels of economic integration achieved in some economic areas like the European Union. In this framework the less competitive firms and unemployed with low employability, are groups that will treat to lobby and to vote political options that incorporate the concerns of these groups (i.e. protectionist actions like less trade openness and restrictive migration policies. The consequences of this process are a hot policy issue at the time of writing after the great recession, since some industries and large sectors of the population considers globalisation as the ultimate cause of their problems, and advocate by any return to protection for national business and domestic employees against foreign firms and migrant workers. For them, the expected promotion of efficiency and productivity associated to globalisation is not guaranteed if the differences between institutions across countries alter the relative productivity and competitiveness. Thus, one could argue that the entrepreneurship ecosystem i.e. the institutional framework for business is the main determinant of the capacity of contribution of entrepreneurship to economic growth, job creation and innovation. Therefore, the economic freedom in its different dimensions, such as the rule of law, the regulatory efficiency and in especial business freedom and labor market institutions, the degree of integration into the global economy -i.e. the openness to trade- and the weight of the public sector on the overall economy might be considered as key factors, for determining whether a society is an entrepreneurial one or not The only way to resolve this type of controversies is providing solid economic propositions and empirical findings in order to evaluate the globalisation impact on economic growth, innovation, job creation and entrepreneurship. In this context, the study of the relationship between economic integration and entrepreneurship is particularly interesting, since entrepreneurship is a determinant of economic growth and job creation. In principle, the relationship between globalization, economic freedom and entrepreneurship is ambiguous, since one can argue that we can find plausible explanations for expecting both a positive and a negative relationship. Starting with the relation between entrepreneurship and economic integration, we all agree in that economic integration opens new business opportunities and encourages the self-employed firm size, since sales to foreign markets expands the potential demand. From this perspective, more trade openness is a positive factor not only for fostering entrepreneurship but also for enhancing the probability of survival and success. On the other hand, globalization increases the intensity of competition the opportunities of jobs and wages in the export sector leading a raise in the number self-employed workers due to the confluence of two phenomena: i) as global competition continuous to intensify some of them, the less competitive ones, could not withstand this competition, thus triggering the shutdown; ii) the greater the exposure to foreign competition, the smaller the fraction of self-employed people as the Diez and Ozdagli's (2011) model suggest. In addition we should also consider whether more openness influences on the relative distribution of entrepreneurship between productive and unproductive activities, i.e. between the so-called formal and informal self-employment. However, the key question is to know whether the effect of a higher exposure to international trade, leads, in any case, an optimal reallocation of labour between paid-employment and self-employment and between less productive firms to more productive exporters, and even across countries with positive effects on economic growth, innovation and job creation. Thus, the challenge is to provide empirical findings in order to shed light to the debate and attitudes towards globalization. To this end it is important to know the effects of more trade openness on the export intensity of self- employment is mutually beneficial, not only for higher-income countries but also for lower-income countries. In order to address these questions this dissertation also includes a second research question. In particular it presents an inquiry about the reasons of why the effects of globalization on national self-employed sectors should be analyzed not only in quantitative terms but also in qualitative ones. In particular we will treat to provide empirical findings for supporting the theoretical view of the effects of globalization on national entrepreneurial systems, provided by Acd and Sanders (2007). For them, globalization does not destroy self-employment but encourage the entrepreneurial model of production (Acs and Sanders, 2007. The shift away from large corporations and towards smaller entrepreneurial activity (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) with the associated reduction in the average self-employed firm size, as well as the new business opportunities in the service sector for entrepreneurship thanks to the improvements in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are the two potential factors behind this surprising performance of the self-employment rate. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) reinforce this idea suggesting that globalization and the development of the ICT sector are leading a new international division of work, the advanced economies endowed with high skilled workers are specialized in early stages of the product life cycle introducing innovations in products or process, while the less developed economies endowed with low skilled workers are specialized in the off-shored production stage. In sum, this dissertation will treat to analyse the triangle entrepreneurship, globalization economic freedom, for providing a better understanding how and why the contribution of a national self-employed sector on economic growth, innovation and job creation can show different intensities.

INTRODUCTION GÉNÉRALE Ma dissertation doctorale porte sur une question simple qui peut succinctement se résumer de la manière suivante : la Cour constitutionnelle développe-t-elle un modèle de procédure pénale ? Cette question me paraissait intéressante dès lors que l'extension du socle de compétence de la Cour constitutionnelle au titre II de la Constitution a considérablement renforcé la « constitutionnalisation » du droit pénal sensu lato et que le catalogue constitutionnel belge des droits fondamentaux a subi un véritable bouleversement à la suite de l'évolution des droits et libertés garantis par les instruments internationaux, dont la Convention européenne des droits de l'homme. Afin de disposer des bases nécessaires pour appréhender ce sujet d'étude, il convenait, d'une part, de déterminer les possibilités d'action de la Cour constitutionnelle dès l'instant où sa saisine se réalise par voie de questions préjudicielles ou de recours en annulation et de cerner l'éventuelle ingéniosité juridique que la doctrine prête à la Cour pour étendre son analyse au delà de la vision manichéenne de la constitutionnalité. D'autre part, il était nécessaire de procéder à une recension des arrêts prononcés par la Cour constitutionnelle, dans le but toujours de vérifier si, et, le cas échéant, comment la Cour s'inscrit ou non dans une logique définie de la procédure pénale. J'ai, dès lors, après avoir rappelé le socle de compétence de la Cour constitutionnelle, la manière dont cette dernière est saisie et les techniques récurrentes auxquelles la Cour recourt dans la construction de ses arrêts, procédé à un inventaire des principaux arrêts prononcés par la Cour constitutionnelle en procédure pénale. Sciemment, j'ai pris comme point de départ de cette recension l'année 1998 qui a vu entrer en vigueur la loi du 12 mars 1998, dite Franchimont, dont le but était de donner un cadre légal et résolument actuel à l'information et à l'instruction. Une fois ce travail réalisé, j'ai entrepris de déterminer s'il était possible de dégager des prises de position répétées de la Cour qui s'imposeraient comme autant de « fondamentaux » qui jalonnent la procédure pénale. QUELS SONT LES FONDAMENTAUX DE LA COUR CONSTITUTIONNELLE EN PROCEDURE PENALE ? De la jurisprudence de la Cour constitutionnelle, il me paraît qu'il est possible de dégager 7 fondamentaux qui balisent la procédure pénale. 1. LA DISTINCTION ENTRE LES PARTIES AU PROCES PENAL ET LES PHASES PROCEDURALES 1. L'on sait que la Cour constitutionnelle estime qu'il existe une différence fondamentale entre le ministère public, d'une part, et l'inculpé et la partie civile, d'autre part. Pour la Cour, cette distinction repose sur un critère objectif : le premier accomplit, dans l'intérêt de la société, les missions de service public relatives à la recherche et à la poursuite des infractions ; les seconds défendent leur intérêt personnel . Cette différence justifie raisonnablement que, tout particulièrement au long de l'instruction, le ministère public jouisse de prérogatives dont la constitutionnalité ne peut être appréciée en procédant à une comparaison de sa situation avec celle de l'inculpé. 2. Lors de la phase du jugement, la différence tend à s'amenuiser. Il serait toutefois hasardeux de soutenir que le ministère public devient une partie comme les autres. En effet, par la Cour de cassation – dans un arrêt du 19 décembre 2012 discuté dont l'analyse m'éloignerait de mon sujet – retient que « la mission impartie au ministère public ne se réduit pas à celle d'un accusateur. Il intervient aussi au procès pour proposer au juge une solution de justice ». La Cour constitutionnelle insiste pareillement sur le rôle imparti au ministère public qui ne se cantonne pas à celui d'une simple partie au procès pénal au regard des missions qui sont les siennes. Cependant, si la distinction entre les différentes parties au procès répressif repose sur un critère objectif, la Cour constitutionnelle m'admettrait pas que cette seule différence puisse porter atteinte au principe de l'égalité des armes ce qui l'amènerait inévitablement à rétablir l'égalité. 2. LE DROIT D'ACCES AU JUGE 3. L'approche de la Cour constitutionnelle quant au droit d'accès à un tribunal est tout en nuance. Pour la Cour, ce droit peut ne pas être absolu et peut souffrir de limitations. Ainsi, la Cour insiste sur le fait que si le droit d'accès au juge peut être soumis à des conditions de recevabilité, celles-ci ne peuvent aboutir à restreindre le droit de manière telle qu'il s'en trouve atteint dans sa substance même. Une telle motivation n'est pas sans rappeler la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme sur le sujet. En effet, pour la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme, « ce droit d'accès au tribunal se trouve atteint lorsque sa réglementation cesse de servir les buts de la sécurité juridique et de la bonne administration de la justice et constitue une sorte de barrière qui empêche le justiciable de voir son litige tranché au fond par la juridiction compétente ». On aperçoit immédiatement que, la question du droit d'accès au juge est, sous certains aspects, intimement liée à celle du formalisme procédural. 3. LE FORMALISME PROCEDURAL 4. Par l'examen des règles de forme, la Cour renforce le contrôle qu'elle porte sur le droit d'accès au juge. En effet, la Cour en réalisant une distinction entre les règles de fond – entendues comme le droit garanti ou protégé – et de forme –qui déterminent les manières de procéder –elle confère un volet substantiel à certaines règles procédurales. Ce faisant, la Cour garantit l'effectivité du droit revendiqué qui est souvent dépendante de la protection procédurale qui l'encadre. 4. LA NON-INTERFERENCE DANS LES CHOIX D'OPPORTUNITE DU LEGISLATEUR 5. La Cour constitutionnelle ne se prononce pas sur le caractère approprié ou non du choix opéré par le législateur. Elle n'est pas le juge de « l'opportunité législative ».Son contrôle porte, en fait, sur l'adéquation d'une mesure au but recherché et l'existence d'un rapport raisonnable entre les moyens employés et l'objectif visé. Cependant, à nouveau, la Cour s'autorisera à sanctionner le choix du législateur s'il était porté atteinte, sans justification raisonnable, aux droits d'une catégorie de citoyens. 5. LE RESPECT DES DROITS DE LA DEFENSE 6. Au fil de sa jurisprudence, la Cour constitutionnelle se montre intensément attentive au respect des droits de la défense et au droit à un procès équitable qui, à vrai dire, sont l'essence même de la procédure pénale. La Cour veille, au stade du jugement, à assurer l'égalité des armes entre l'accusation et la défense à laquelle le droit à la contradiction est étroitement lié. Pour la Cour constitutionnelle, l'effectivité des droits de la défense passe encore par la protection de la relation de confiance qui doit se créer entre le justiciable et l'avocat qui le conseille et le défend. Le secret professionnel de l'avocat constitue « l'un des principes fondamentaux sur lesquels repose l'organisation de la justice dans une société démocratique ». 7. De manière globale, on notera que la notion de droits de la défense garantie par la Cour constitutionnelle est viscéralement marquée du sceau de la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme mais il lui revient d'intégrer ces données dans le système procédural belge en ayant égard aux choix réalisés par le législateur. 6. LA DIFFERENCIATION ENTRE LES PROCEDURES JUDICIAIRES 8. La Cour semble, a priori, rejeter une comparaison d'office entre les règles de la procédure civile et celles de la procédure pénale quand bien même la première constitue le droit commun. La Cour rappelle que vouloir établir un parallélisme entre les règles de la procédure civile et celles de la procédure pénale n'est pas nécessairement pertinent. En effet, l'application de règles procédurales différentes dans des circonstances différentes n'implique pas en soi l'émergence d'une discrimination. 7. LA PREVISIBILITE 9. Certains arrêts prononcés par la Cour constitutionnelle permettent de mettre en lumière l'importance que cette dernière accorde à la condition de prévisibilité. En droit pénal, sensu stricto, la Cour a pu rappeler qu'il découle de l'article 12, alinéa 2, de la Constitution que la loi pénale doit être formulée en des termes qui permettent à chacun de connaître, au moment où il adopte un comportement, si ce comportement est punissable ou non et la peine éventuellement encourue. Les principes de légalité et de prévisibilité ne se cantonnent toutefois pas au droit pénal, sensu stricto, mais sont applicables à l'ensemble de la procédure pénale en ce compris aux stades de l'information et de l'instruction. Ces principes entendent exclure tout risque d'intervention arbitraire de la part du pouvoir exécutif ou du pouvoir judiciaire dans l'établissement et l'application des peines. En somme, l'exigence de prévisibilité de la procédure pénale garantit à tout citoyen qu'il ne pourra faire l'objet d'une information, d'une instruction et de poursuites que selon une procédure établie par la loi et dont il peut prendre connaissance avant sa mise en oeuvre. CHAPITRE 3. VERS LA RECOMPOSITION DE LA PROCEDURE PENALE ? 10. Si, pour ma part, la Cour constitutionnelle dégage des « principes constants » qu'elle s'astreint à respecter, peut-on nécessairement en déduire que la Cour entend s'inscrire dans un modèle précis de procédure pénale ? Pour appréhender cette question, il convient naturellement d'apprécier si la Cour constitutionnelle, par les orientations qu'elle confère à ses arrêts, ouvre au juge judiciaire des perspectives qui lui permettront de se libérer d'une interprétation traditionnelle de la norme pour satisfaire aux exigences d'aujourd'hui envisagées sous l'angle du respect de la personne et de ses droits fondamentaux ? Il me paraît que la Cour y parvient par le recours au dialogue des jurisprudences. 1. LE DIALOGUE DES JURISPRUDENCES 11. Le dialogue des jurisprudences se caractérise par l'emprunt de motivations émanant de juridictions nationales ou de juridictions étrangères ou internationales qui deviennent décisoires dans les arrêts de la Cour constitutionnelle. 12. La Cour constitutionnelle s'est résolument et immédiatement positionnée en faveur du dialogue des jurisprudences. Nombre des arrêts que nous avons répertoriés se réfèrent expressément à la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme dont elle fait sien les enseignements. Au fil des années, les emprunts à la jurisprudence strasbourgeoise se sont accentués et non plus seulement en termes de référence mais encore en termes de contenu. La suprématie, selon la Cour constitutionnelle, de notre Charte fondamentale sur la Convention européenne des droits de l'homme n'enraie nullement ce dialogue. Par ces emprunts, la Cour constitutionnelle renforce, selon moi, ces « principes fondamentaux », et par là même leur autorité persuasive, en s'appuyant sur la notoriété et le rayonnement international de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme. Un tel dialogue contribue à promouvoir le caractère universel des garanties fondamentales inhérentes au procès pénal et oblige à la confrontation des idées entre les juridictions ce qui doit permettre, me semble-t-il, de surmonter les tensions entre elle et la Cour de cassation. Il est vrai que ces deux hautes juridictions s'affrontent sur certains points, mais ces divergences ne doivent pas être exagérées car je persiste à penser que ces deux Cours doivent avoir l'intelligence stratégique de coordonner leur interprétation, dès lors que de telles divergences de jurisprudence en procédure pénale le sont toujours au détriment du justiciable alors que le but premier des règles de procédure est d'assurer la protection des droits fondamentaux de ce dernier. Ceci étant ce dialogue des jurisprudences ne va-t-il pas faire craindre l'émergence d'une « oligarchie » des juges et à plus forte raison que des juges pourraient s'émanciper par rapport à la loi en saisissant d'autres juges qui pourraient mettre le législateur « hors jeu »? 2. L' « OLIGARCHIE » DES JUGES 13. Je crois qu'il ne faut pas amplifier le phénomène car la Cour constitutionnelle privilégie l'interprétation téléologique et rappelons-le elle n'entend pas, en règle, substituer son appréciation à celle du législateur si le choix est raisonnable. Par ailleurs, pour faire très bref, la Cour constitutionnelle devient le lieu de débats et d'échanges d'arguments où le travail légistique est réexaminé au regard des droits et libertés garantis par la Constitution couplés bien souvent à la Convention européenne des droits de l'homme. Si bien que les juges constitutionnels belges et, par ricochet le législateur, lorsqu'il obtempère aux injonctions qui lui sont faites par ces derniers, s'alignent sur l'appréciation de l'équité du procès telle qu'elle se dégage des positions adoptées par la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme. Mais le pouvoir du dernier mot appartient au législateur. 14. A l'inverse ne pourrait-on penser que de facto en raison de la composition de la Cour qui contient en son sein d'anciens mandataires politiques, le pouvoir législatif ne garde-t-il pas une certaine mainmise sur le contrôle de la constitutionnalité des lois ? 3. LA COMPOSITION DE LA COUR CONSTITUTIONNELLE Répondre à cette question relève du divinatoire et poserait en postulat que le juge, ancien parlementaire, serait un défenseur de la norme critiquée ce qui ne peut scientifiquement être démontré. Il ne paraît, dès lors, qu'il s'agit là d'une crainte infondée. Un dernier point doit, en revanche, être souligné : le pragmatisme et le conséquentialisme de la Cour. CHAPITRE 4. PRAGMATISME ET CONSEQUENTIALISME DE LA COUR CONSTITUTIONNELLE 15. Une autre grande tendance se dégage des arrêts analysés, le pragmatisme dont fait preuve la Cour dans le but d'assurer une véritable praticabilité à la procédure. 16. En parallèle au pragmatisme, le moyen conséquentialiste ne peut être négligé. Bien évidemment, tous les arrêts prononcés par la Cour ont nécessairement une conséquence dans leur sphère d'application. En l'espèce, par conséquentialisme il faut entendre plus précisément les positions adoptées par la Cour qui sont teintées de réalisme « politique » qui répond à des impératifs budgétaires ou de sécurité nationale ou encore à une volonté populaire. Ces données réelles et par toujours facile à identifier peuvent évidemment constituer autant des contraintes susceptibles de limiter la liberté d'appréciation par la Cour d'un modèle de procédure pénale. CONCLUSIONS 17. Alors, en définitive, est-il possible de répondre à ma question initiale : la Cour constitutionnelle développe-t-elle un modèle de procédure pénale ? A l'examen, il paraît illusoire, voire naïf, de vouloir répondre à cette interrogation de manière catégorique. Une telle réponse manquerait de nuances et prêterait nécessairement le flanc à la critique. Il faut donc procéder par touches successives et observer que le critère phare du raisonnement de la Cour constitutionnelle devient celui de l'équité du procès. La Cour n'en garde pas moins à l'esprit qu'elle doit maintenir la cohérence du système juridique dans lequel elle se meut et que ses interventions sont, somme toute, conditionnées par les recours et les questions qui lui sont adressés et qui dépendront, pour ces dernières, de l'attitude adoptée par le juge a quo. Par ailleurs, la Cour ne manque pas de souligner que la procédure pénale reste encadrée par le principe de légalité sans que la marge de manœuvre du pouvoir judiciaire – et de la Cour constitutionnelle elle-même – ne puisse jamais aller au-delà d'une interprétation raisonnablement prévisible des règles de procédure fixées par le seul législateur. Enfin, l'argument conséquentialiste, qu'il n'est pas toujours aisé de distinguer dans le raisonnement de la Cour, peut complètement chambouler la grille de lecture que l'analyste tenterait de dresser. En conclusion, s'il ne fallait retenir qu'une chose de ma thèse c'est que la si la Cour constitutionnelle ne développe pas un modèle de procédure pénale, il n'en est pas moins vrai, qu'à l'aulne du procès équitable, dont il ne paraît guère possible de cerner le périmètre d'action, elle refaçonne résolument cette procédure.

AMÉRICA LATINA Tras la muerte de Eduardo Campos, el Partido Socialista de Brasil oficializa la candidatura de Marina Silva. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21613316-marina-silva-upsets-electoral-calculus-third-way http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/20/world/americas/brazil-presidential-candidate/index.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720290-tras-la-muerte-de-eduardo-campos-el-psb-oficializa-la-candidatura-de-marina-silva www.time.com/3149004/the-green-activist-who-might-become-brazils-next-president/ http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/marina-silva-la-mujer-que-podria-sacar-a-dilma-roussef-de-la-presidencia-en-brasil/14428443 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/24/actualidad/1408841665_890022.html markets.html?ref=world&gwh=A7C174942BD685FB47FD1B248820621E&gwt=pay http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719742-marina-silva-le-ganaria-un-ballottage-a-dilma http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-28875205 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/26/world/americas/intensifying-presidential-campaign-brings-tension-to-brazils-financial-markets.html Debido al desabastecimiento en Venezuela habrá que dar las huellas dactilares en los supermercados. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-28891292 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720428-desabastecimiento-para-comprar-en-el-super-en-venezuela-habra-que-dar-las-huellas-dactilares http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/captahuellas-para-hacer-mercado-en-venezuela-comenzaria-en-2015/14419076 Desabastecimiento en Venezuela también golpea a hospitales. Para más información: http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/08/22/inenglish/1408716543_287566.html Datos insólitos sobre este combustible en Venezuela. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720167-diez-datos-que-probablemente-no-sabe-sobre-la-nafta-en-venezuela Presos brasileños realizan violento motín. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-28930141 http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/25/world/americas/brazil-prison-riot/index.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2014/08/140825_ultnot_brasil_motin_parana_lav.shtml http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/motin-en-carcel-de-brasil-dejo-cuatro-presos-muertos/14434915 Curioso voto en contra en el Parlamento cubano: por primera vez en décadas, alguien se opuso a una ley del régimen. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719997-curioso-voto-en-contra-en-el-parlamento-cubano El kirchnerismo apuesta por la "patria o buitres". Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/juez-de-ee-uu-dice-que-canje-de-la-deuda-de-argentina-es-ilegal/14418744 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1408925589_268292.html http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/08/25/inenglish/1408977028_808376.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/intento-de-argentina-de-pagar-deuda-en-buenos-aires-es-ilegal/14418309 Bachelet deberá llegar a importantes consensos para poner en marcha reformas propuestas. Para más información:http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/08/22/inenglish/1408722919_728679.html Chilenos salen a las calles a protestar. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/estudiantes-chilenos-salen-de-nuevo-a-las-calles-para-protestar/14418512 Sismos sacuden Chile y Perú. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/24/world/americas/peru-earthquake/index.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/sismo-en-zona-central-de-chile/14427365 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-08/25/content_18478757.htm Assange dejará "pronto" la embajada de Ecuador en Londres. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719745-assange-dejara-pronto-la-embajada-de-ecuador-en-londres http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/asilo-al-fundador-de-wikileaks-julian-assange/14427897 Peña Nieto visita California para dialogar con migrantes. Para más información:http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/08/25/inenglish/1408973805_794461.html Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo encuentran a otro de sus nietos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/abuelas-de-plaza-de-mayo-encuentan-nieto-secuestrado-en-argentina/14422678 Oficial colombiano se reúne con rebeldes de las FARC en La Habana. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-28905674 Tormentas tropicales azotan a diversos países centroamericanos. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27408964 http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/24/world/americas/tropical-weather/index.html www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/three-dead-tropical-storm-cristobal-lashes-caribbean-n187981 http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/23/world/americas/tropical-weather/index.html Arqueólogos hallan dos antiguas ciudades mayas en la selva de México. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/arqueologos-hallan-dos-antiguas-ciudades-mayas-en-selva-de-mexico/14422395 Siderúrgica india gana arbitraje contra Bolivia. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2014/08/140825_ultnot_bolivia_jindal_arbitraje_lav.shtml Canal de Panamá en vías de expansión. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/08/12/4286046/panama-canal-is-another-expansion.html Venezuela enfrenta la inseguridad y la violencia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-como-pais-y-latinoamerica-como-region-los-mas-inseguros/14418016 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-violencia-macabra-alarma-a-venezuela/14425875 ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Para Washington la amenaza islamista es un desafío sin precedente. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28891325 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/top-u-s-general-cautions-against-hitting-isis-syria-n188311 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1721008-para-washington-ei-es-un-desafio-sin-precedente http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/what-are-obamas-options-stomping-out-isis-iraq-syria-n187136 Los incidentes de Ferguson desmontan la idea de que la segregación acababa con Obama. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21613261-there-no-excuse-rioting-smarter-policing-would-make-it-less-likely-lessons http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-28924099 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-08/22/content_18467651.htm http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/portfolio/2014/08/25/ferguson-les-obseques-de-michael-brown-celebrees-dans-le-calme_4476521_3222.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/24/actualidad/1408900159_640232.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/continuan-manifestaciones-a-favor-y-en-contra-del-policia-de-ferguson/14428237 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/protestas-por-racismo-en-estado-unidos/14427977 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719851-missouri El mayor terremoto en 25 años en California paraliza Napa. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-28924146 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1408948701_953386.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/sismo-de-60-en-california/14429295 Asesinato del periodista James Foley por islámicos radicales sacude al mundo. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-28927568 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/decapitacion-de-periodista-fue-un-ataque-a-ee-uu-casa-blanca/14423465 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720296-estupor-por-una-ejecucion-obama-promete-mano-dura-con-los-extremistas http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/verdugo-de-periodista-decapitado-james-foley/14431636 Liberaron en Siria al periodista estadounidense Peter Theo Curtis. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/former-cellmate-peter-theo-curtis-tears-joy-family-n188261 http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/american-writer-curtis-release-aided-qatar-state-dept-says-n188681 http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-28922601 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1721386-liberaron-en-siria-al-periodista-estadounidense-peter-theo-curtis http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/middleeast/peter-theo-curtis-held-by-qaeda-affiliate-in-syria-is-freed-after-2-years.html?src=mv&assetType=nyt_now http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-08/25/content_18477819.htm Juez declara inconstitucional prohibir el matrimonio gay en Florida. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/juez-declara-inconstitucional-prohibir-el-matrimonio-gay-en-florida/14417736 Estados Unidos: chocaron dos trenes con material tóxico y murieron dos personas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719861-estados-unidos-chocaron-dos-trenes-con-material-toxico-y-murieron-dos-personas Estados Unidos irá por más sanciones si Rusia no retira el convoy humanitario de Ucrania. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720882-eeuu-ira-por-mas-sanciones-si-rusia-no-retira-el-supuesto-convoy-humanitario-de-ucrania http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/rusia-debe-retirar-inmediatamente-su-convoy-de-ucrania-ee-uu/14421707 Estados Unidos prohibió a sus aviones comerciales sobrevolar Siria. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719856-siria-vuelos-estados-unidos EUROPA Continúa la crisis política y militar en Ucrania. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21613313-fighting-eastern-ukraine-intensifies-pro-russian-rebels-lose-ground-raising-fresh http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/all-vehicles-russia-aid-convoy-have-left-ukraine-osce-n187486 http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-russia-ukraine-convoy-20140813-story.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28931054 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-08/25/content_18480430.htm http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/08/25/a-donetsk-l-humiliant-defile-des-prisonniers-de-guerre_4476162_3210.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/decenas-de-camiones-del-convoy-humanitario-ruso-regresan-a-rusia-/14425715 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719758-kiev-acusa-a-los-prorrusos-de-bombardear-un-convoy-de-civiles http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/europe/ukraine.html?ref=world&gwh=F02B72E98D40AEE0B040C82581325981&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1408976442_736286.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/vladimir-putin-no-espera-y-hace-entrar-convoy-a-ucrania/14424638 Rumbo al referéndum que busca una Escocia independiente. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/08/25/les-partisans-de-l-independance-pronent-une-ecosse-sociale-et-ouverte_4476154_3214.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719363-el-dilema-escoces-jugarse-por-el-orgullo-nacional-o-cuidar-el-bolsillo http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-28918473 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1409000455_298964.html http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-28929057 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/scotland-independence-vote/scotlands-independence-vote-dominates-edinburgh-festival-fringe-n186546 Ahonda la fractura de la izquierda francesa tras tomentosa salida del polémico ministro de economía. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/frances-socialist-government-dissolves-internal-feud-n188436 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1408995076_926275.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/26/world/europe/french-prime-minister-moves-to-dissolve-government.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28924279 Diversos países europeos controlarán avance de islámicos extremistas en sus territorios. Para más información:http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/08/25/inenglish/1408970186_093265.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/europe/nation-appeals-to-anti-extremist-imams-in-effort-to-uproot-seeds-of-radicalization.html Adolescente de 13 años, sospechoso de provocar 7 incendios en Portugal. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-14421317 Identifican a presunto asesino del periodista Foley. Para más información:http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/08/25/inenglish/1408959265_825374.html http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-ambassador-britain-foley-killer-20140824-story.html Rumania estaría preparada para convertirse en el granero de Europa. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2014/08/25/la-roumanie-est-en-passe-de-redevenir-le-grenier-de-l-europe_4476309_3234.html "The Economist" publica análisis sobre enseñanzas que debería de tener en cuenta el Banco Central Europeo. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21613259-european-central-bank-should-learn-success-unconventional-policies-america-and El negocio de las armas divide al gobierno alemán. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/el-negocio-de-las-armas-divide-al-gobierno-aleman/14427695 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE La ONU acusa al Estado Islámico de 'limpieza étnica y confesional' en Irak. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/08/25/la-province-syrienne-de-rakka-passe-sous-la-coupe-de-l-etat-islamique_4476158_3210.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/estado-islamico-ha-asesinado-a-casi-mil-personas-onu-1032834.html http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/isis-linked-potential-iraq-war-crimes-u-n-s-navi-n188201 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1408983145_230027.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/matanza-de-sunies-agrava-tensiones-en-irak/14424640 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/claves-para-entender-al-grupo-estado- islamico/14427699 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/deep-pockets-dark-goals-how-will-isis-keep-funding-terror-n187296 El espionaje occidental estrecha el cerco sobre el verdugo yihadista del periodista estadounidense. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/24/actualidad/1408870547_217961.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/26/world/middleeast/iraq.html?ref=world&gwh=F141A7F1E8349CC571ED760904D22567&gwt=pay http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/james-foley/syria-james-foley-rescue-might-have-worked-cooperation-n188476 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720657-llaman-a-detener-el-flujo-de-jihadistas-occidentales-a-medio-oriente Diversos ataques suicidas dejan decenas de muertos en Irak. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/suicide-car-bomb-explodes-outside-baghdad-intelligence-agency-8-dead-n187461 http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iraq-bombings-20140825-story.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ataque-deja-70-muertos-en-irak-y-ee-uu-promete-golpear-a-yihadistas/14421456 http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/08/25/l-onu-denonce-le-nettoyage-ethnique-et-religieux-de-l-etat-islamique-en-irak_4476330_3218.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28924104 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/iraq-turmoil/30-killed-iraq-bombings-day-after-mosque-attack-n187591 Barack Obama instó a las fuerzas kurdas e iraquíes a trabajar en conjunto para contener la ofensiva de los extremistas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719737-irak-con-la-ayuda-de-eeuu-los-kurdos-recuperaron-el-control-de-una-represa-estrategica Militares de ISIS toman base aérea siria. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/middleeast/isis-militants-capture-air-base-from-syrian-government-forces.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28927246 http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/isis-fighters-seize-syrias-tabqa-air-base-syrian-regime-n188171 Continúa el conflicto entre Israel y el Hamas. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28925725 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/middle-east-unrest/israeli-boy-killed-five-wounded-gaza-mortar-strike-n187226 http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-hamas-executes-suspected-informers-20140822-story.html http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-08/25/content_18480205.htm http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/justicia-de-hamas-mata-a-18-palestinos/14424375 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719971-vuelven-los-misiles-y-combates-en-gaza-tras-el-vencimiento-de-la-tregua El papa Francisco concluyó su visita a Asia y pidió por "la reconciliación de las dos Coreas". Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1719637-el-papa-francisco-concluyo-su-visita-a-asia-y-pidio-por-la-reconciliacion-de-las-dos-coreas Mueren 10 personas en estampida en India. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/26/world/asia/stampede-india.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/mueren-10-en-una-avalancha-en-la-india-1032792.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-28923854 El papa Francisco estaría amenazado por el Estado Islámico. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/el-papa-francisco-estaria-amenazado-por-el-estado-islamico/14434195 Malasia recibe a víctimas del vuelo MH17 de Malaysia Airlines derribado en Ucrania. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720823-malaysia-airlines-victimas-ceremonia http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/malaysianairliner/ Líderes chinos discuten futuro político de Hong Kong. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28923896 "The Economist" analiza la India de Narendra Modi. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21613342-narendra-modi-stern-headmaster-early-days China busca decirle adiós a su apartheid. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1721246-con-un-plan-de-ingenieria-social-china-busca-decirle-adios-a-su-apartheid ÁFRICA África continúa alerta por consecuencias del Ébola. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-africa-congo-testing-ebola-2-dead--20140825-story.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28925491 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1720533-liberia-en-fotos-el-barrio-sitiado-por-causa-del-ebola http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/el-ebola-y-el-estigma-de-la-pobreza-1032791.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/sudafrica-cierra-sus-fronteras-a-los-paises-mas-afectados-por-el-ebola/14417637 http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-28923826 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/brote-ebola-congo-distinto-de-frica-occidental-1032909.html Boko Haram proclama un califato islámico en el norte de Nigeria. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/boko-haram-proclama-un-califato-islamico-en-el-norte-de-nigeria/14433316 http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28927898 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/boko-haram-declara-califato-islamico-ciudad-nigeria-1032877.html Egipto vuelve a las obras faraónicas. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1408987117_336263.html Un nuevo 'parlamento' disputa la legitimidad a la Cámara libia. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/08/25/actualidad/1409001657_678954.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/africa/libyan-unrest.html Grupos rivales de Mozambique acuerdan cese al fuego. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28923524 OTRAS "The Economsit" publica su informe: "Business this week".Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21612259-business-week

AMÉRICA LATINA Miles de brasileños salen a las calles en protestas masivas. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2013/06/19/bresil-la-commission-des -droits-de-l-homme-approuve-un-traitement-pour-les-homosexuels_3432430_322 2.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/19/world/americas/brazilian-leaders-brace-for-moreotests.html?ref=world&_r=0&gwh=F5C24ED264CCA38C603BBD13B470C1FBhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22961874http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/18/actualidad/1371580181_ 159118.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/18/world/americas/brazil-protests/index.htm l?hpt=wo_c2http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/se-aguara-la-revolucion-del-vinagr e-en-brasil_12879971-4http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2013/06/protests-brazil El máximo tribunal de Argentina veta la reforma judicial kirchnerista. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/18/actualidad/1371586701_ 459857.html Humala deniega el indulto al ex presidente peruano Fujimori. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22823488http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/07/actualidad/13706 35226_139709.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/07/world/americas/peru-fujimori/index.htm l?hpt=wo_bn8http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/82937.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/humala-no-concede-indult o-a-fujimori_12853407-4http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22821052 OEA logra primer consenso para abordar diálogos sobre drogas. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-oas-drugs-20130605, 0,3473482.storyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/asamblea-de-la-oea-en-guatema la_12849107-4http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/06/actualidad/137055218 6_000263.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/oea-abri-va-para-continuar-deb ate-sobre-nuevo-enfoque-de-drogas_12852242-4http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cambio-de-ruta-en-lucha-contr a-la-droga_12856795-4 Reacción dispar en America Latina tras nombramiento de Rice como nueva asesora de seguridad estadounidense. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/06/05/3435679/reaction-muted-among-lati n-un.html#storylink=cpy Juicio por genocidio en Guatemala a Ríos Montt se reanudará en 2014. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/juicio-a-ros-montt-se-reanudar -en-2014_12847885-4 El miedo llega al corazón de México: la misteriosa desaparición de 12 jóvenes. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/americas/mexico-missing-mystery /index.html?hpt=wo_bn8http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22829581 http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-mexico-prison-break -20130609,0,1994844.storyhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/05/31/18651848-teen-among-11-kid napped-in-daylight-from-mexico-city-bar?lite Maduro intenta dirigir Venezuela a pesar del desabastecimiento y rumores de división chavista. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2013/06/09/world/americas/ap-lt-venezuela -election-audit.html?ref=world&gwh=9F4592A312A5BE45B1B7A3EDFA9F2EDAhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1590705-maduro-sube-la-apuesta-y-denuncia-otra -conspiracionhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22829583 La principal universidad de Venezuela paraliza indefinidamente sus actividades. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/07/actualidad/137062596 5_416315.html Según analistas Irán y Hezbollah encuentran en Latinoamérica una mina de ingresos y reclutas. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/americas/iran-latin-america/index.html Cuba es escenario de diálogos de paz para Colombia. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22853611 La carrera hacia la Casa Rosada irrumpe en el tablero político de Argentina. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/07/actualidad/1370624 610_614080.html Nicaragua apuesta a tener su canal interoceánico. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/proyecto-de-canal-interoceanic o-de-nicaragua_12858382-4 Diversos medios hacen referencia a coyuntura económica brasileña. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21579048-feeble-growth-has-for ced-change-course-governments-room-manoeuvre-morehttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/30/business/brazil-middle-class-boom/ind ex.html?hpt=wo_bn2 Condenan a cadena perpetua al último líder de Sendero Luminoso en Perú. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/08/actualidad/1370666 114_358936.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cadena-perpetua-para-ltimo-ld er-de-sendero-luminoso_12853905-4 Piden abrir juicio contra 35 militares suramericanos por Plan Cóndor Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/juicio-a-militares-por-plan-c ondor_12878566-4 El presidente chino Xi intenta estrechar lazos comerciales con México. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-china-20130 605,0,221993.story ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Espionaje en Estados Unidos: un ex empleado de la CIA filtró la información. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/us/politics/officials-say-congress-was-fu lly-briefed-on-surveillance.html?ref=worldhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/10/world/asia/snowden-what-next/index.htm l?hpt=wo_c1http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22850901http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2013/06/10/ed-snowden-le-lanceu r-d-alerte-qui-defie-obama_3427093_3210.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/site-brinca-com-programa-secreto-de-monitora mento-nos-eua-8642713#ixzz2Vs87O16b http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/19/content_16635558.htm Obama y Putin juntos en la cumbre del G8. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/17/content_16628639.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/19/world/americas/extending-a-hand -abroad-obama-often-finds-a-cold-shoulder.html?ref=world&gwh=14C0D96142432B8CB8485A67D02B6380 Obama nombró a Susan Rice como su nueva asesora de seguridad. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/susan-rice-ser-la-nueva-asesora- de-seguridad-de-barack-obama_12846982-4 Estados Unidos relanza las conversaciones de paz con los talibanes en Catar. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/18/actualidad/1371566 115_064096.html Obama nombra a Furman como nuevo jefe económico de la Casa Blanca. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/11/content_16606433.htm Presidentes de Estados Unidos y China abogan por 'nuevo modelo' de relaciones. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/china/21579043-president-xi-jinping-shows-inter est-reviving-ties-america-how-far-he-preparedhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-us-china-summit-20130609, 0,5869616.storyhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/world/asia/obama-and-xi-try-building-a-new -model-for-china-us-ties.html?ref=worldhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/world/asia/obama-and-xi-try-to-avoid-a-col d-war-mentality.html?ref=world Estados Unidos cada vez más cerca de la reforma migratoria. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/reforma-migratoria-podra-ser-apr obada-este-ao_12850708-4http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22850762http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/82934.html Escándalo en torno al alcalde de Toronto. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/18/content_16631857.htmhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/30/world/americas/canada-toronto-mayor/in dex.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/05/30/18634392-embattled-toro nto-mayor-will-run-again-despite-drug-allegations?litehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-22960593 Diversos medios analizan y cuestionan la postura de Estados Unidos frente a los refugiados, los rebeldes y el conflicto sirio. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-refugees-20130610,0,6484601.storyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/crisis-en-siria_12877505-4http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/09/politics/white-house-syria/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 EUROPA Rusia bloquea el acuerdo sobre una intervención en Siria. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/19/content_16635919.htmhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/17/actualidad/137150 2103_091990.html Crece la violencia en Turquía por enfrentamientos entre manifestantes y la policía. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/18/actualidad/1371555410 _756638.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2013/06/10/en-turquie-le-processus-de-pai x-kurde-a-l-epreuve-des-manifestations_3426986_3214.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1590256-advertencia-de-erdogan-a-los-manifestanteshttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/pakistan-drones/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-police-clash-with-protester s-in-istanbul-20130611,0,6189707.storyhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/82969.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22790635http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/08/content_16594833.htm http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/primeiro-ministro-turco-aceita-receber-manifestant es-8646402http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21579005-protests-against-recep-tayyip- erdogan-and-his-ham-fisted-response-have-shaken-his-rule-and Alemanes y checos vivan las consecuencias de las devastadoras inundaciones. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/world/europe/10iht-flood10.html?ref=worldhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1590680-parte-de-alemania-bajo-el-agua#comentarwww.lemonde.fr/europe/video/2013/06/10/la-police-reprime-les-manifestants-a-ankara_3427273_3214.html La centroizquierda italiana logró un triunfo contundente en las municipales. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/centro-esquerda-recupera-roma-nas-urnas-8647380http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1590681-la-centroizquierda-italiana-logro-un-triunfo-co ntundente-en-las-municipales Suiza se encierra en sus miedos y endurece su ley de asilo. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/07/actualidad/137063251 4_643009.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ley-de-asilo-en-suiza_12860089-4http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/09/actualidad/1370806897_ 177919.html Los programas electorales muestran que los partidos alemanes coinciden en los recortes. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/08/actualidad/1370722970_ 157146.html Putin apoyará prohibición de adopción a parejas homosexuales en Rusia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/prohibicin-de-adopcin-a-parejas-ho mosexuales-en-rusia_12844610-4http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/world/europe/trial-sendss.html?ref=wo rld&_r=0 París se plantea disolver los grupos violentos de extrema derecha tras asesinato de militante comprometido en la defensa de los homosexuales. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/pars-se-plantea-disolver-los-grupos -violentos-de-extrema-derecha_12850632-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/06/actualidad/1370547 423_977824.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/06/actualidad/13704794 17_014580.html El Asad advierte a Europa de que pagará las consecuencias si arma a los rebeldes. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/18/actualidad/13 71546210_225136.html "El País" de España analiza: "Ni Grexit ni Grecovery". Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/09/actualidad/1370799 092_688308.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Elecciones en Irán: apatía y lucha de poder. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/06/iran-s-electionhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/15/world/meast/iran-rouhani-profile/inde x.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/relaciones-iran-con-estados -unidos_12875543-4http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/08/content_16591014.htmhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/09/world/meast/iran-nuclear-reactor/index. html?hpt=wo_bn11http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-elections-20130611,0,3357264.story http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg- iran-elections-20130611,0,3357264.storyCumbre del G8 sin acuerdo sobre guerra en Siria. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/19/world/europe/g-8-meeting-ends-wit h-cordial-stalemate-on-syria.html?ref=world&gwh=325D51A100831D8E95 A7CDA8915C9A27http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/cumbre-del-g8-evalua-conflicto-en- siria_12877428-4 Continúa la escalada de violencia en Siria. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21579055-fall-qusayr -boost-regime-far-decisive-turning-pointhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/06/10/18883427-reuters-us-wei ghs-arming-syria-rebels?litehttp://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/visuel/2013/05/23/iran-portraits-de-candidats_3386947_3218.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/world/middleeast/syria-opposition-won t-attend-talks-unless-rebels-get-arms-commander-says.html?ref=worldhttp://www.miamiherald.com/2013/05/30/3425004/syrias-assad-pledges-to -attend.html#storylink=cpyhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22852957Mueren 46 personas en atentado contra un funeral en Pakistán. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/atentado-contra-un-funeral-en-pakis tn_12878029-4 Son más de 511000 sirios refugiados en el Líbano. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/09/content_16600893.htm La ONU pide 3920 millones para ayudar a las víctimas de la guerra en Siria. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/07/actualidad/137060 4074_343489.html La premio Nobel de la Paz Suu Kyi reconoce su deseo de ser presidenta de Myanmar. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/06/world/asia/myanmar-suu-kyi-presidential-aspiration/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/06/actualidad/13705097 70_497091.html Tras largas conversaciones las dos Coreas acuerdan encuentro. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/10/content_16602536.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/world/asia/north-and-south-korea-to-di scuss-restoring-economic-and-other-ties.html?ref=worldhttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-north-korea-changes- course-20130606,0,2868588.storyhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/09/actualidad/137074 4334_514863.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/asia/koreas-tensions/index.html?hp t=wo_c2 Ataque suicida en el aeropuerto de Kabul. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2013/06/10/afghanistan-attaque- suicide-d-insurges-pres-de-l-aeroport-de-kaboul_3426919_3216.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghan-bombs-201306 04,0,2665212.storyhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/10/content_16603337.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/world/asia/attacker-in-afghanistan-hid -bomb-in-his-body.html?ref=world&gwh=A020FB85D7BBAF85C119B695F4D126F9 Crisis en Irak: ataques dejan docenas de muertos por día. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/06/10/18887438-day-long-attack s-kill-more-than-70-in-iraq?litehttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-iraq-deadly-bomb-a ttacks-20130610,0,2919168.story La oposición india aprende de sus errores. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2013/06/india-s-oppositionwww.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2013/06/10/inde-un-nationaliste-hin dou-a-la-tete-de-l-opposition_3426921_3216.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-split-indian-opp osition-party-20130610,0,7283558.storyhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-22851915 Austria retirará a sus 380 cascos azules de la zona desmilitarizada en el Golán. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/06/actualidad/1370503 365_774581.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-syria-golan-un-mission-20130606,0,6454723.story Palestina inaugura gobierno en un momento crítico para el proceso de paz. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-palestin ian-premier-20130603,0,549411.storyhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/09/actualidad/1370 781086_914560.html ÁFRICA Salud de Mandela mantiene al mundo en vilo. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/11/content_16606127.htmhttp://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/06/10/inquietudes-sur-l-etat-de -sante-de-nelson-mandela_3427099_3212.html Reino Unido compensará con 23 millones de euros a los Mau Mau de Kenia. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-britain-kenya-compensate-20130607,0,2322515.storyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/reino-unido-pagar-23-millones-de-euros- a-los-mau-mau-de-kenia_12849864-4 Aumenta la presencia de Al Qaeda en África Sahariana. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/05/28/3420983/ap-exclusive-rise-of-al- qaida.html Libia vive violentas protestas. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/world/africa/libyan-violence-threatens-t o-undercut-power-of-militias.html?ref=world Tensión entre Sudán y Sudán del Sur. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/africa/sudan-oil/index.html?hpt=wo _bn10+http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/17/content_16628556.htm OTRAS NOTICIAS El G8 apoya medidas de transparencia financiera y contra la evasión fiscal. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-06/18/content_16631685.htmhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/18/actualidad/1371568829 _378574.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/news/international/21579452-britains-leader -envisages-world-tax-compliance-and-clear-corporate-ownership Fin de pobreza extrema debe ser nuevo objetivo mundial para 2030: ONU. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/la-onu-dice-que-el-fin-de-l a-pobreza-extrema-debe-ser-nuevo-objetivo-mundial-para-2030_12845943-4 "Los Angeles Times" presenta portal sobre el crecimiento de la población mundial. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/population/ "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21579066-business-week

En la primera parte de este trabajo mencionamos que dos o mas actores poseen puntos de encuentro y acuerdo en un espacio C y en otro espacio D. Por su parte, C refleja un ámbito de tolerancia y D un ámbito de diversidad. Paso seguido, lo diverso no solo se expresa en un ámbito D sino en sucesivos Ds. El proyecto europeo ha propulsado tácitamente la aparición de distintos Ds, creados por una interacción entre partes imposible de prever ex ante.Desde la filosofía política contemporánea, el proyecto europeo puede pensarse como un diálogo crítico entre John Rawls y John Gray. Por un lado, Rawls establece un recorrido desde su clásico libro, escrito en 1971, "A Theory of Justice" hasta el último trabajo publicado en 1999, "The Laws of Peoples". El Puente analítico entre ambos es "Liberalismo Político", escrito en 1993. Rawls comienza su derrotero elaborando una teoría de justicia universal, basada en una concepción donde prevalecen los derechos individuales. "Liberalismo Político" le confiere a su teoría de justicia un ámbito en las democracias de Occidente y, por último, "The Laws of Peoples" admite la posibilidad política y ética que existan polis decentes que no asuman sus principios de justicia y que, aún así, puedan y deban ser toleradas. El proyecto europeo es un claro ejemplo de la aspiración rawlsiana desarrollada en "The Laws of Peoples". Tanto el trabajo de 1993 como el de 1999 estaban tácitamente destinados a responder las críticas a la concepción (ralwsiana) del ser (Self), críticas que había desarrollado la escuela comunitarista en los 80´s y 90´s (1).La posterior crítica de Gray es relevante para este trabajo porque sostiene que tanto el liberalismo de Ralws como el comunitarismo (desarrollado, entre otros, por Sandel, Walzer o Kymlicka) estaban discutiendo ensimismados dentro de la misma tradición liberal, perfectamente incapaces de comprender y aprehender la lógica de tradiciones de pensamiento no occidentales (2). El punto relevante aquí es que el proyecto europeo y la idea de Europa pueden funcionar como un ámbito analítico para un encuentro entre Rawls, sus críticos comunitaristas y Gray. Desde distintas tradiciones, las 3 corrientes podrían convenir, al menos por un momento, que la idea de Europa supone tanto un límite a la aspiración universal del liberalismo como un atractivo intento de superar lo meramente local para incursionar en una "filosofía regional".Es necesario repetir y re-articular el punto: el diálogo que se produce entre el liberalismo igualitario y el comunitarianismo es para Gray un monólogo dentro de la tradición liberal de Occidente. La articulación teórica que llevan a cabo los pensadores comunitaristas asume como ámbito de diálogo el construido por el liberalismo igualitario a partir de Rawls. Es por ello que las respuestas y ejemplos utilizados no rescatan la nobleza de otros modus vivendi sino la diferencia conceptual que ellos tienen en contraposición a las sociedades occidentales de la segunda parte del siglo XX. En ese sentido, los teóricos comunitaristas se ocupan de ofrecer malos ejemplos, que marcan las distancias insalvables entre distintos modos de vida, porque en realidad están pensando en la dinámica y legitimidad de las sociedades liberales y no en la mayor o menor legitimidad de las sociedades de las que toman esas experiencias comparadas. El interés de los teóricos comunitaristas no es la calidad de vida de las minorías en, por ejemplo, Lejano Oriente o África, sino demostrar que un aparato analítico desarrollado en "universidades de la costa este de los EE.UU." (como ironiza Gray) no está en condiciones de definir si "se respeta o no a esas ´minorías´". Para Gray, la discusión entre igualitaristas y comunitaristas es solo un intercambio entre pensadores de la tradición liberal contemporánea. Mas aún, no podría ser otra cosa que eso. Paso seguido, es necesario preguntarse cual es el lugar analítico para aquellos que, desde su único modus vivendi posible, aspiran desarrollar una crítica del modo de vida hegemónico en Occidente.La idea de Europa deviene un ámbito analítico posible para rescatar esta tradición de crítica. Si asumimos que la tradición comunitarista ha articulado una critica al liberalismo que solo puede ser espacial y analíticamente parcial, sería posible rescatar parte de su valor al introducir el debate dentro de Occidente pero fuera de la comunidad tradicional o Estado- Nación: es decir, en la idea de Europa. Como mencionamos, el proyecto europeo se compone de una sucesión de modus vivendi intra y supra nacional. Las discusiones sobre el lugar que determinadas comunidades tienen, o debieran tener, ha enriquecido y enriquece la construcción del proyecto europeo y la idea de Europa.Las democracias liberales contemporáneas europeas han alcanzado un ámbito C tácito donde conviven y se complementan distintos matices de libertad e igualdad. En ese ámbito C de (parcial) consenso, las democracias liberales europeas han podido conciliar sociedades que transitan hacia mayores espacios de libertad e igualdad. Por ejemplo, hemos mencionamos que en las sociedades escandinavas encontramos un Estado de Bienestar que ha desarrollado políticas universales (inclusivas-igualitarias) que han complementado e incluso potenciado los ámbitos de autonomía o libre albedrío de las personas. Por ende, una forma de la clásica tensión entre libertad e igualdad se ha visto refutada en la experiencia escandinava contemporánea. Allí, la aparición y consolidación de un Estado de Bienestar no ha provocado limitaciones a la autonomía individual sino, por el contrario, ha contribuido a generar espacios Cs y Ds donde la libertad y la igualdad se propulsan mutuamente.Es necesario notar que el espacio C ha sido tácitamente construido a lo largo de las últimas décadas. Este punto es relevante porque hay construcciones sociales que suponen acuerdos que no responden necesariamente al estado de cosas de la respectiva polis en un momento dado. La construcción de ciudadanía que se ha consolidado contemporáneamente en Escandinavia ha supuesto la aparición de derechos que, por el momento, parecen a salvo de la disputa coyuntural entre concepciones populistas y nacionalistas que aspirarían a transformar a C en un espacio para juegos de suma cero. La fortaleza de un modus vivendi alcanzado por las socialdemocracias escandinavas y expresados en un Estado de Bienestar que ha consolidado de forma inédita la virtuosa complementación entre libertad e igualdad posee, por el momento, la suficiente confianza entre sus miembros como para sentirse alejado de discusiones alejadas de la democracia liberal.Sin embargo, C (y los sucesivos Cs) poseen atributos que si bien por un lado pueden escapar a disputas coyunturales extemporáneas, por otro lado necesitan la permanencia de modus vivendi que no solo confirmen su pertenencia a la democracia liberal sino que la enriquezcan. Dentro de este elogio a la socialdemocracia desde el liberalismo, es posible cuestionar en qué medida la virtuosa relación entre libertad e igualdad en las experiencias escandinavas no solo corresponde a ámbitos Cs sino a alguna forma de distintos Ds. Si habíamos definido a C como mero ámbito de negociaciones y concesiones exitosas entre A y B, sería posible pensar que determinados acuerdos tácitos alcanzados por las sociedades escandinavas superan esa (mera) categoría y han incursionado en sofisticadas formas de consenso que reflejan empatías mayores entre sus miembros. Paso seguido, es valido contrapesar el punto anterior y pensar que el Estado de Bienestar puede, en algunas de sus expresiones, formar parte de un circulo o espacio que comprende a C y D.Cuando pensamos en D, estamos buscando expresiones o modus vivendi que trasciendan meros acuerdos, mas allá de la complejidad de estos. La consolidación y versatilidad para la reforma que han mostrado los Estados de Bienestar en Escandinavia reflejan expresiones políticas y culturales que los depositan en un camino mutuamente virtuoso entre distintos Cs y distintos Ds. En este elogio de la socialdemocracia desde el liberalismo particularizamos en una forma especifica que ha tomado D en el modus vivendi contemporáneo: el proyecto europeo y la idea de Europa.La diversidad como característica relevante en los países desarrollados (particularmente europeos) posee un obvio componente: se es diverso en un marco institucional que permite la diferencia. En este sentido, la diversidad y el consenso son ámbitos analíticos y políticos necesariamente complementarios. ¿Dónde radica la particularidad de la diversidad que muestra cada sociedad? En parte tautológicamente, en el propio proceso de descubrimiento que realizan actores individuales en marcos institucionales que difieren unos de otros. Como sostiene Dani Rodrik, las recetas para el crecimiento económico y la prosperidad pueden diferir grandemente de país en país y la idea del "Consenso de Washington" ha reflejado un notable desconocimiento de la historia por parte de sus impulsores. El consenso de Copenhague refleja una (y solo una) de las formas en que las sociedades desarrolladas alcanzan consensos para implementar determinadas políticas públicas y como, a su vez, ese amplio ámbito del consenso que se construye deviene uno (o muchos ) espacio (s) público (s) por donde se consolida y florece la diversidad.Recurriendo al ejemplo citado en la primera parte de este trabajo, mencionamos una pesimista conclusión de Kuttner (3): el modelo danés es imposible de imitar por otras sociedades, incluso sociedades desarrolladas (como los EE.UU.). Sin embargo, también aparece una visión optimista: hay un modus vivendi (el danés) que ha prosperado a partir de construir consensos que, a su turno, han dado paso a la construcción de una sociedad diversa donde florecen continuamente modos de vida impensados en un pasado cercano.Este ejemplo es necesario para remarcar que el consenso no (noso) deviene del acuerdo de los iguales sino de sucesivos parciales acuerdos de los distintos, es decir, de los diversos. Si las sociedades políticas complejas conviven a través del inexorable conflicto, de la construcción del consenso y del florecimiento de la diversidad, es posible notar que la interacción entre el consenso y la diversidad es constante y creciente. Es decir, cuanto mas consenso haya (como en la experiencia danesa) mayor será en algún momento la necesidad de la diversidad, justamente porque el consenso alcanzado enfrentará el riesgo de atrofiarse. A su vez, cuanto mas diversidad haya en una sociedad política, será mas necesario que los mecanismos institucionales e informales del consenso se encuentren en permanente funcionamiento para que esa diversidad fortalezca y enriquezca a la polis.Los países desarrollados no solo se caracterizan por haber alcanzado amplios niveles de consenso sino, principalmente, por contener y ampliar civilizados marcos donde convive el disenso. Aquello que caracteriza a los países desarrollados (podríamos incluso pensar que por eso son países ricos) es que conviven en un mismo marco institucional diferentes formas de vida, en algunos casos contrapuestas que, sin embargo, se caracterizan por respetar la diversidad.Por ello, si dividimos la vida política en conflicto, consenso y disenso civilizado, es necesario marcar que el ámbito institucional mas relevante de los países desarrollados no es el del consenso sino el del disenso civilizado o diversidad, allí donde los distintos modus vivendi conviven y se fortalecen. Este es un punto central para el estudio y análisis de los países desarrollados: allí no hay que estudiar tanto las políticas e instituciones que tiene en común (como el respeto a los derechos de propiedad) sino aquellas en las que difieren y aun así prosperan, a partir del mutuo respeto de las diferencias.El desarrollo como proyecto ha sido para los gobiernos totalitarios la construcción de una sociedad donde cada ciudadano alcance la misma riqueza y posea las mismas ideas. En cambio, en las sociedades abiertas el desarrollo se alcanza allí cuando se logra una determinada calidad del disenso. La diversidad es la característica principal de los países ricos y abiertos. En esta lógica, la diversidad que significa el disenso es tan importante como el consenso. En las sociedades desarrolladas, el consenso y el disenso se complementan. El desarrollo se puede definir como sociedades donde impera un disenso civilizado o de alta calidad.Podemos pensar así que hay dos maneras complementarias de definir el desarrollo: por lo que es y por lo que no es. Los gobiernos totalitarios o autoritarios definen claramente lo que no es el desarrollo: un proyecto político basado en un líder o grupo que busca impulsar un conjunto de ideales comunes donde acuerden todos los ciudadanos. Aquel que no coincida con el proyecto se convierte en enemigo.En cambio, los países desarrollados encuentran su bienestar en la posibilidad que cada persona desarrolle su modo de vida particular. Dentro de un marco institucional común, donde se consensua un amplio conjunto de normas, lo que distingue el desarrollo es, sin embargo, la diversidad o disenso en la que conviven civilizadamente sus miembros. Es posible que en los países desarrollados los ámbitos del disenso sean incluso mayores que los del consenso. Incluso ella podría ser la razón de su mayor prosperidad.¿Qué caracteriza a las sociedades políticas que han podido desarrollar ámbitos o espacios públicos donde prevalece la diversidad por sobre el conflicto y el consenso? Estas sociedades se caracterizan por haber tenido una particular vida política y social donde los actores relevantes construyeron sus lazos de cooperación y confianza de abajo hacia arriba. Es decir, sin la presencia de actores estatales o corporativos que le indicaban, explícita o implícitamente, cual era el mejor camino para hacer florecer su diversidad. En cierto sentido, podemos pensar ello como una definición tautológica: es decir, hemos definido que el descubrimiento de la particularidad o singularidad de cada ser o actor social deviene de un proceso que debe ser necesariamente individual y propio. Mientras el proyecto europeo ha sido principalmente pensado desde arriba hacia abajo, la idea de Europa ha sido y es pensada desde abajo hacia arriba.(1) Las posiciones y discusiones se encuentran rigurosamente sintetizadas en la Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ver para Rawls http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/#FurRea. Para la crítica comunitarista, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/communitarianism/. Para la introducción a las teorías de justicia distributiva, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/communitarianism/. La notable tabla de contenidos de la Enciclopedia puede verse en http://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html. Sin embargo, no tiene (todavía) una entrada sobre John Gray, quien es mencionado en pocas entradas, entre ellas, la correspondiente a Isaiah Berlin (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berlin/). En palabras de la Enciclopedia, "Rawls viewed his own work as a practical contribution toward settling the long-standing conflict in democratic thought between liberty and equality, and toward describing the limits of civic and of international toleration. He offers the members of his own society a way of understanding themselves as free and equal citizens within a fair democratic polity, and describes a hopeful but limited vision of a stably just constitutional democracy doing its part within a peaceful international community. To individuals who are frustrated that their fellow citizens and fellow humans do not see the whole truth as they do, Rawls offers the reconciling thought that this diversity of worldviews results from, and can support, a social order with greater freedom for all." (2) Una breve síntesis puede verse en la Enciclopedia citada: "Communitarians have sought to deflate the universal pretensions of liberal theory. The main target has been Rawls description of the original position as an 'Archimedean point' from which the structure of a social system can be appraised, a position whose special virtue is that it allows us to regard the human condition 'from the perspective of eternity', from all social and temporal points of view. Whereas Rawls seemed to present his theory of justice as universally true, communitarians argued that the standards of justice must be found in forms of life and traditions of particular societies and hence can vary from context to context."(3) Ver http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/63223/robert-kuttner/the-copenhagen-consensus *Profesor Depto. Estudios Internacionales, FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay.Master en Filosofía Política, London School of Economics and Political Science.

2007/2008 ; L'inizio di secolo 21 a rivelato al mondo intero l'inizio di una guerra di piccoli dimensioni. La geopolitica e un gigante formato da una serie di 2 giocatori di scacchi , di cui questi giocatori cercano di ottenere vantaggi di posizione. In questo gioco e cruciale di conoscere le regole attuali che governano questi movimenti. I cavalieri non può muoversi in diagonale. Dal 1945 fino al 1989, il gioco principale sulla scacchiere e stato tra gli Stati Uniti e l'Unione Sovietica, è stato chiamato "La Guerre Fredda". Oggi, il gioco e tra l'Unione Europea e Russia , e metaforicamente è stato chiamato "La Guerre Fredda del Gas". La sicurezza energetica europea confronta una serie di sfide per quanto riguarda la dipendenza dell'Unione Europea delle risorse energetiche russe e della necessità di diversificazione dei mezzi di trasporto su le risorse energetiche, si fa riferimento principalmente a gas naturale. Lo scopo di questa tesi di dottorato e quello di indagare la situazione attuale, a partire da l'idea che ci sono gravi preoccupazioni in Europa per quanto riguarda il fatto che la Russia potrebbe utilizzare le sue esportazioni di energia come arma politica per poter finalizzare la sua supremazia politica . Questa tesi si concentra sull'identificazione di una soluzione per quanto riguarda le maggiori preoccupazioni dei europei - la sicurezza dell'approvvigionamento energetico, iniziando a sviluppare nuovi vie di acceso alle risorse energetiche. Per una migliore comprensione, ho pensato la mia tesi come una scacchiera, avendo come scommessa - il sviluppo di nuovi gasdotti, con due giocatori principali (l'Unione Europea e la Russia), un giocatore chiave - La Regione del Mar Nero - e, naturalmente, con una soluzione. Le principale domande di questa ricerca sono: Nell'Unione Europea allargata può essere vero che la Russia potrebbe tentare di utilizzare le sue esportazioni di energia come un'arma politica per raggiungere la supremazia? Per vincere sarà utilizzato il prezzo dell'energia per ottenere questo vantaggio? Per poter rispondere a queste due domande se deve prima capire le relazioni tra l'Unione Europea e la Russia, e qual è il ruolo che il Mar Nero svolge in questo problema. Questo tipo di ricerca proporre un quadro teorico d'analisi, avendo come metodo di analisi, un metodo quantitativo ( di contenuto ) e un metodo qualitativo ( le discussioni informali con gli esperti di questo settore ). Per poter essere più precisa, per quanto riguarda l'ipotesi della tesi, ho avuto alcune discussioni informale con gli esperti del settore energetico e dei affari europee, in Europa, della zona del Mar Nero e della zona Caspio, paesi che sono direttamente coinvolti nel problema energetico, per discutere e analizzare l'impatto che ha la politica estera energetica russa, che se trova in pieno sviluppo sul Europa e sulla sicurezza europee, a partire dalla crisi del gas provocata dalla Russia, che ha avuto un impatto reale, influenzando considerevole l'economie europee a partire dal 2006 fino ad oggi. Il mio punto di vista è che la Russia cercherà attraverso vari mezzi di consolidare la dominazione come Leader Mondiale, usando i mezzi che gli ha - il prezzo d'energia, e il mio parere e che l'unico modo per risolvere questo problema e di cominciare a diversificare l'accesso alle risorse energetiche, sviluppando una strategia in piano energetico che collegano l'Europa dal bacino del Mar Caspio attraverso la regione del Mar Nero. Se questa strategia avrà successo, l'Europa sarà in grado di ridurre l'influenza della Russia e di creare un clima sicuro dal punto di vista energetico. Per quanto riguarda il metodo di analisi quantitativo, la teoria è basata sulla lettura di alcuni libri di riferimento dal settore energetico e quello di relazioni internazionali, con la partecipazione a conferenze e seminari sia in Romania e all'estero, compreso uno stage di formazione alla Direzione di Energia e Trasporti della Commissione Europea , il monitoraggio delle notizie e degli articoli di stampa di questo settore ( Mediafax ,Journal of European Public Policy , Euractiv , Eurobserver , Eupolitix , CNN , BBC , Euronews ). A partire da una ricca esperienza in questo settore energetico e da una cooperazione transfrontaliera, la mia tesi desidera sottolineare l'importanza di una sicurezza energetica europea in quello che riguarda l'approvvigionamento dell'Europa con l'energie. Nei seguenti capitoli di questa tesi ho studiato alcuni aspetti guardando la dipendenza energetica europea nei confronti della Russia e il ruolo dalla regione del Mar Nero, come un ponte di accesso alle fonti alternative di energia, diverse da quelle russe. Il primo capitolo inizia con due opinioni sulla sicurezza energetica e economica europea,che rivela la vulnerabilità dell'Europa, pero anche il suo potenziale che si divide tra l'Europa e gli stati dell'Eurasia Centrale. La tesi discuterà del ruolo di Gasprom sia nella politica interna e nella estera russa, che rivela una cattiva immagine della diplomazia energetica russe. Seguendo questa rotta, il obiettivo si muove da sud a est. Un capitolo parla del ruolo determinato che lo ha la regione del Mar Nero come un ponte di accesso nella sicurezza energetica europea , seguita da capitoli destinati a rivelare il ruolo specifico della Turchia in questo problema. Nel piano secondario, due progetti specifici di infrastrutture sono studiati - Nabucco e Il Gasdotto South Stream, finendo con una soluzione su un gasdotto Trans-Caspian. La tesi si conclude con l'indicazione di una strategia sulla diversificazione delle vie d'accesso energetiche. In questo momento, possiamo dire che lo scopo di questa ricerca è stato quello di definire una possibile soluzione per poter uscire da sotto la dominazione russa, quella di sviluppare una strategia comune al livello europeo sulla diversificazione del accesso alle risorse energetiche dalla regione Caspio al Mar Nero in Europa. In questo senso, la strategia energetica europea si prevede di continuare a raggiungere di tali obiettivi promuovendo nuove rotte di trasporto sicuro e al sviluppo economico territoriale, trasformando l'Europa più sicura nel accesso alle risorse energetiche. L'Unione Europea detiene in questo momento tutti gli strumenti di una politica estera per promuovere la stabilità politica e la riforma economica, per il sviluppo e il rafforzamento della democrazia e delle legislazioni nazionali, e aumentare i diritti e le libertà umane nei paesi della regione del Mar Caspio. Il più importante, le relazioni europeo - Mar Caspio , dovrebbero essere estese per quanto riguarda le dimensioni bilaterale e regionale dal punto di visto economico e commerciale e al livello diplomatico. L'ultimi eventi che sono stati sulla scacchiera energetica fornisce una vera e propria importanza alla regione del Mar Caspio per esercitare una notevole importanza come uno centrale geo-strategico, e all'Unione Europea per poter esercitare il ruolo del Leader Mondiale nella regione . Comunque per rendere reale ( per effettuare ) questo compito difficile, l'Europa deve rispettare alcuni consigli per poter formulare una strategia energetica comune nella zona del Mar Caspio , come :  di eliminare gradualmente la dominazione Gasprom da Azerbaijan .  di offrire supporto economico e politico allo scopo di costruire il progetto Nabucco e di costringere alla costruzione di un gasdotto Trans-Capian , intervenire sul mercato per assicurare la diversità e di impedire il monopolio della fornitura delle risorse energetiche verso l'est d'Europa .  di garantire la stabilità e la sicurezza nei paesi di transito e di risolvere il conflitto di Nagorno Karahbak , e imporre dei impegni più grandi sul processo di Minsk  di pensare seriamente come negoziare con Turkmenistan, mettendo nella bilancia l'apertura energetica con una generosa offerta, pero senza un coinvolgimento troppo grande sulle riforme politiche e economiche. Questo farà una chiamata alla diplomazia e tatto, e alla superiorità tecnologica e tecnica del ovest di poter pagare. Come una conclusione finale, l'Ovest , incluso l'Unione Europea e gli Stati Uniti, deve ripensare il più rapido possibile le sue politiche energetiche e non-energetiche nei confronti di Russia . Cosi come possiamo osservare in questa tesi , l'Ovest detiene veramente il vantaggio economico e politico di poter costringere la Russia per diventare più trasparente e commerciale nei confronti delle sue politiche energetiche estere . Non può più permettere a Mosca di minacciare la sicurezza energetica d'Europa , avendo la possibilità insieme al entrata dalla Romania e Bulgaria nell'Unione Europea in gennaio 2007 di sviluppare nuove rotte sul accesso alle risorse di gas dalla zona Caspio attraverso il Mar Nero in Europa. ; The beginning of 21st century revealed to the world the beginning of a small war proportion. Geopolitics is a gigantic series of two player chess games, in which the players seek positional advantage. In these games it is crucial to know the current rules that govern the moves. Knights are not allowed to move diagonally. From 1945 to 1989, the principal chess game was the one between the United States and the Soviet Union and it was called the "Cold War". Nowadays, the chess game is between European Union and Russia and it is called metaphorically the "Gas Cold War". European energy security is facing a set of serious challenges connected to Europe's dependence on Russian energy and the need for diversifying energy supply sources. Now days, European Union and Russia arrived at a crossroad regarding their agreements on energy matters. The target of this PhD is to explore the current situation, leaving from the fact that are serious concerns in Europe that Russia may try to use its energy exports as a political lever in order to settle its supremacy on the political board. This thesis focuses on finding a solution towards the European's major concern – energy security of supply, by start building new routes of gas supply. For a better understanding, I structured my paper like a chase board, with a stake – new routes of gas supply, with two major players – European Union and Russia, one key actor – The Black Sea Region and of course with a solution. The main research questions of this thesis are: In the enlarged European Union it could be true that Russia may try to use its energy exports as a political lever in order to settle its supremacy? And, in order to be successful it will use the energy price to obtain the leverage? To answer these questions a first step is to understand the relations between EU and Russia and the role that, the Black sea region plays in this meter. The research proposes a theoretical framework, using a quantitative analyze method (analysis of content) and a qualitative analyze method (informal discussions with experts from this area). In order to be more precisely with my thesis assumption, I carry out some informal discussions with experts from energy and international affairs area, from Europe, Black sea and the Caspian region, countries who were involved in the energy case, to discuss and to analyze the impact of Russia's increasingly assertive foreign energy policy on Europe and European security, started from the gas crises launched by Russia that have a real affect on Europe economy from 2006 till nowadays. My point of view is that Russia will try through different ways to consolidate its dominance as a Global leader, using its most convenient means – the "energy price" and my believes were that the only way to solve the problem is by start building a diversification supply strategy that could link Europe to the Caspian basin through the Black sea region. If this strategy will succeed, Europe will be able to reduce the Russian influence and to create a safer life climate. Regarding the quantitative analyze method, the theoretical framework was foundated by reading some record books in the international relations and energy field, by participating to conference and seminars in Romania and outside the country, including a stage at the European Commission on energy matters, monitoring the news and the press articles in this field (Mediafax, Journal of European Public Policy, Euractiv, Eurobserver, Eupolitix, CNN, BBC, Euronews). Starting from the successful work experience in the energy field and cross-border cooperation, my thesis aims to deepen the understanding of the European Union energy security of supply. In the fallowing chapters of my thesis, I studied several aspects of Europe's energy dependence on Russia, and the role of the Black Sea region as a source of alternative supplies. The first chapter begins with two overviews of Europe's economic and energy security, which show Europe's vulnerability, but also the potential lying in the complementarities between Europe and the states of Central Eurasia. The paper then proceeds to discuss the role of Gazprom in both Russian domestic and foreign policy, respectively, which provide a disturbing picture of the emerging Russian energy diplomacy. Following this, the focus shifts south and east. A chapter puts forward the role of the emerging Black Sea region as a hub in European energy security, followed by chapters devoted to the specific role of Turkey. Subsequently, two specifically important infrastructural projects are studied – the Nabucco and the South stream pipelines, ending with a pipeline solution as a Trans-Caspian pipeline. The paper final concludes with the outlining of a supply diversification strategy. At this point we can say that the aim of this paper-study was to define what might be a solution to get out under the Russian dominance and to offer as a possible solution the developing of a common European energy supply strategy from the Caspian region thorough the Black Sea into the European Union. In this sense, the EU energy supply strategy is expecting to contribute to achieving these objectives by promoting new safe routes of supply and a balanced and sustainable development of the territory, making European Union safer concerning its energy supplies. The EU holds all the foreign policy instruments required to promote political stability and economic reform, develop and straighten democracy and the rule of law, and enhance the respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the countries of the Caspian region. Most importantly, the EU-Caspian relations need to be further expanding in the bilateral and regional dimensions of economy and trade, as well as at diplomatic level. The last events that occurred in the energy chess board had give a real chance to the Caspian region to exert its importance as a significant geo-strategic pivot, as well as to the EU to play a global role in the region. However, making this a reality is fraught with difficulty and Europe must respect some recommendations in order to formulate a common energy strategy in the Caspian area, such as:  move swiftly to thwart Gazprom's overtures to Azerbaijan.  give the political and economic backing to get Nabucco built and push for the creation of the trans-Caspian, intervening in the market to ensure diversity and prevent a monopoly of supply to Eastern Europe.  ensure stability of transit countries, push to resolve Nagorno Karahbak, greater commitment to the Minsk process.  think seriously about how to deal with Turkmenistan, balancing energy overtures with generous but not overbearing support for political and economic reforms. This will require concerted diplomacy and reassertion of western technological and technical superiority and ability to pay. As a final conclusion, the West, including the EU and the United States, needs to quickly rethink its energy and non-energy policies towards Russia. As we can see in this paper, the West does have the economic and political leverage to force Russia to become more transparent and commercial in its foreign energy policies. It cannot allow Moscow to threaten the energy security of Europe anymore, having the possibility since the accession of Romania and Bulgaria to the EU in January 2007 to develop new routes of gas supply from the Caspian area through the Black sea into Europe ; XX Ciclo

The Schelde is a lowland river originating in the northern part of France (St. Quentin), and entering the North Sea near Vlissingen, The Netherlands. The estuary covers about half of its length (355 km) as the tidal influence is stopped by sluices near Gent 160 km upstream. We focused on the Zeeschelde, the estuarine part in Flanders comprising a mesohaline, an oligohaline and a freshwater tidal zone. The Zeeschelde is subject to severe eutrophication as it receives high inputs from domestic, industrial and agricultural activities. The ecological values and nature conservation interests of the Zeeschelde are taken into consideration by a series of (inter)national policy instruments, aiming at a sustainable management and conservation of this aquatic environment. As a result several management plans apply also to the Zeeschelde or to parts of it. The most far-reaching plans are the Long Term Vision for the Schelde estuary (LTVS) and the updated Sigmaplan which combine ecological rehabilitation and sustainable habitat creation with flood control measures and navigation requisites. Compliance with almost all national and international agreements requires monitoring of biota. In the WFD fish is one of the biotic quality elements to be used in order to assess the ecological status of transitional waters. Species composition, abundance and the proportion of disturbance-sensitive species should be quantified. Any distortion attributable to anthropogenic impact is calculated by means of the Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR), representing the difference between monitored data and reference conditions. The fish-based assessment tool that we developed was designed to comply with these criteria. In addition it can be used on a metric level to assess fish species of special interest under the Habitats Directive. The fish assemblages in the Zeeschelde were described based on sampling results recorded over a period of 13 years. An overview was provided of the temporal and spatial variation in those assemblages along the salinity gradient in the Zeeschelde estuary (Chapter 2). The species richness and abundance increased over these years in the different salinity zones of the Zeeschelde. Between 1991 and 2008 a total of 71 fish species were recorded within this part of the estuary. Each salinity zone is characterised by a typical fish assemblage, although some species are shared between all three zones. The observed increase since 2007 in species richness in the freshwater and oligohaline zones coincides with a remarkable increase in dissolved oxygen. Guild specific qualitative Maximal and Good Ecological Potential (MEP/GEP) lists were composed for the different zones within the Zeeschelde estuary and its tidal tributaries (Chapter 3). The geographical range and ecological demands of the detected fish species were assessed. The outcome was decisive for acceptance within these lists, which served to develop a fish-based index for the Zeeschelde. In chapter 4 the ecological goals and associated habitat needs were described for fish populations in estuaries. The Zeeschelde was presented as a case study for the description of ecological goals for the fish species listed in the MEP/GEP lists. In order to make the method more widely applicable we first classified fishes into guilds, relevant for the formulation of ecological goals. Next we described guild-specific ecological goals and defined habitat needs linked with a proper functioning of the estuarine ecosystem. The habitat needs ensure the completion of all lifecycle stages: spawning, breeding, feeding and growth to maturity. A hierarchical approach was adopted to define the goals and habitat needs: from a regional scale to habitat level. On a regional and basin wide scale the essential habitat need is connectivity, on an estuarine scale this is space and on a habitat scale diversity is most important. The proposed ecological goals need further quantification. However in general the rehabilitation of marshes and mudflats and the enhancement of flood control areas as fish habitats, with special attention for connectivity with the estuary, will significantly increase the carrying capacity of the Zeeschelde for most of the relevant populations. In Chapters 5 and 6 two essential habitat needs are discussed in detail. In chapter 5, we modelled the environmental constraints controlling the movements of anadromous and catadromous fish populations that migrate through the tidal watershed of the river Schelde. For remaining diadromous populations (flounder, three-spined stickleback, twaite shad, thinlip mullet, European eel and European smelt) a data driven logistic model was parameterized. We modelled the presence/absence of fish species in samples taken between 1995 and 2004 as a function of temperature, dissolved oxygen, river flow and season. We demonstrated that it is possible to make acceptable predictions about the future spatiotemporal distribution of migrant fishes, even if only relatively limited information is available. An important management issue that derived from our study is that it is essential to avoid at all times DO concentrations below 5 mg l-1 in the freshwater and brackish tidal estuary of the watershed. Restoration of habitats such as marshes and mudflat areas will enhance aeration of the water and help to avoid severe DO drops. The use of tidal marshes for fish and the influence of creek characteristics on the visiting fish assemblages were assessed (Chapter 6). As expected the influence of the salinity gradient is reflected in the different fish assemblages. We caught a high proportion of juveniles suggesting that the creeks are a juvenile habitat. The highest fish abundance was recorded in summer (after hatching) because then juveniles seek shelter in the creeks. It was also observed that the visit frequency was related to creek dimensions and inundation time. Larger creeks, lower in the tidal frame and with a more complex structure, as they include side creeks and permanent pools, are of higher interest for fish. We also observed a positive effect of rivulets on the mudflat adjoining the tidal marsh as they guide the fish towards the creeks. These observations are important for the design of tidal wetland restoration projects. In chapters 7 and 8 different approaches to define a fish-based evaluation tool to assess the ecological quality status of an estuary (the Zeeschelde) were described. The fish index comprises metrics which are ecologically relevant variables that are sensitive to human pressures. A first step in the selection of these metrics consisted in assessing how they evolve along a pressure gradient (graphical selection). In chapter 7 a new concept in the index development was introduced i.e. the balance between type I (false positive) and type II (false negative) errors. The magnitude of these errors was expressed as the area under the curve (AUC). Graphical screening assured the selection of metrics responsive to anthropogenic degradation. We scored metrics by judging the metric value variation in the best available site (quintiles). A forward stepwise regression selected the metric with the best balance between the type I and type II error. Metric selection was continued until the lowest AUC was obtained. To define the EBI thresholds we fixed the maximum type I error of each integrity class threshold at 10%. It was a major concern that not all quality classes can be discriminated because of unbalanced pre-classification data. Secondly the final index had a high type II error, although we believe both types of error should be small. Therefore in the next chapter a different approach was used in order to obtain a better index. In chapter 8 we described the development of a Zone specific fish-based multimetric Estuarine index of Biotic Integrity (Z-EBI) based on fish surveys data from the Zeeschelde estuary (Chapter 2). Again we pre-classified sites using indicators of anthropogenic impact and selected metrics showing a monotone response with pressure classes for further analysis. Metric values were calculated using pooled annual data within one salinity zone and expressed as catch per unit effort. Metrics were selected using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) combined with a redundancy test. We defined thresholds for the Good Ecological Potential (GEP) from salinity zone specific references developed in chapter 3. andapplied a modified trisection for the other thresholds (moderate, poor and bad). The Z-EBI is defined by the average of the metric scores calculated over a one year period within each zone and translated into an Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR) to comply with the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). The indices integrate structural and functional qualities of the estuarine fish communities and can be used to assess the ecological quality of the Zeeschelde. We successfully validated the Z-EBI performances for habitat degradation in the various habitat zones. With this new index we encompass small temporal and spatial variations within the estuary. It accounts for the seasonal variation and covers the complete salinity zone, which is an improvement compared to the previous index. The developed indices are able to make the distinction between impacted and unimpacted (GEP) status. Our results showed that the ecological status of the Zeeschelde at present varies from bad to moderate. A comparison of the average scores obtained with EBI and Z-EBI indicated that in those cases where a different appreciation appeared, the EBI scores lower. This confirms our view that local and temporal appreciations are too sensitive to small variations, which do not necessarily represent an overall negative impact on the ecosystem functioning. Implementing rehabilitation and conservation measures will improve the ecological quality status of the Zeeschelde. At present the Z-EBI corresponds best with the demands from the different legislations and provides the most holistic information from an ecological point of view. ; De Schelde ontspringt in St. Quentin (Frankrijk) en mondt 355 km verder uit in de Noordzee nabij Vlissingen (Nederland). Tussen Gent en de monding is de Schelde over zowat 160 km onderhevig aan getijdewerking. In deze studie concentreerden we ons op de Zeeschelde (Belgisch estuarium) met haar drie saliniteit zones: een mesohaline zone, een oligohaline zone (inclusief de Rupel) en een zoetwater zone (inclusief de Durme, Dijle, Zenne, Grote en Kleine Nete). De Zeeschelde wordt vervuild door huishoudelijk en industrieel afval en ten gevolge van landbouwactiviteiten. Toch heeft de Zeeschelde een hoog ecologisch potentieel en een natuurwaarde die door nationale en internationale richtlijnen worden gewaarborgd. Voor het verzekeren van natuurherstel, gecombineerd met veiligheid en toegankelijkheid, werd gekozen voor het wenselijk alternatief van het geactualiseerd Sigmaplan. Als onderdeel van de studies die nagaan of aan de verschillende richtlijnen wordt voldaan, is in de meeste gevallen ook een beoordeling vereist van de status van biota. In de Kaderrichtlijn Water wordt vis vooropgesteld als een kwaliteitselement voor het beoordelen van de ecologische status van overgangswater. Een verschuiving tengevolge van menselijke activiteiten in de soortensamenstelling, abundantie en aantal gevoelige soorten wordt weergegeven in een ecologische kwaliteitsratio, die het verschil aantoont tussen de actuele en de referentietoestand. Daarom ontwikkelden we een visindex die gevoelig is voor dergelijke verschuivingen en die tevens elementen opneemt die van belang zijn voor de habitatrichtlijn. Op basis van vangstgegevens, verzameld over 13 jaar, beschreven we de vissamenstelling in de Zeeschelde langsheen de zoutgradiënt (Hoofdstuk 2). In totaal vingen we voor de drie saliniteitszones 71 verschillende soorten. Elke zone was gekenmerkt door een typische visgemeenschap, die we verder onderverdeelden in gildes of ecologische groepen. De toename van het aantal soorten in de verschillende zones viel samen met een verbetering van de waterkwaliteit (opgeloste zuurstof). Op basis van de recente en historische visstandgegevens stelden we referentielijsten samen diebeantwoorden aan het Maximaal Ecologisch Potentieel (MEP) en het Goed Ecologisch Potentieel (GEP) van de drie saliniteitzones in de Zeeschelde vis (Hoofdstuk 3). De geografische spreiding en ecologische vereisten van elke vissoort waren bepalend om deze al dan niet in de lijst op te nemen. Deze referentielijsten werden gebruikt voor het ontwikkelen van een zone specifieke visindex voor het Zeeschelde estuarium. We groepeerden de vissen uit de referentielijsten in gildes en expliciteerden hun ecologische doelstellingen en de ermee geassocieerde habitateisen (Hoofdstuk 4). De aanwezigheid van de vereiste habitatten garandeert dat de betrokken vissen hun levenscyclus kunnen voltooien. Op regionale en bekkenschaal houdt dat ondermeer ecologische connectiviteit in, op estuariene schaal is dat voornamelijk ruimte en op habitatniveau diversiteit. De bescherming en de maatregelen natuurherstel waarbij slikken, schorren en gecontroleerde overstromingsvlaktes worden gerealiseerd, verhogen de draagkracht van de Zeeschelde voor vis. De habitateisen beschreven in hoofdstuk 4 zijn kwalitatief. Om de connectiviteit te kwantificeren modelleerden we omgevingsvariabelen die een belangrijke invloed uitoefenen op de migratie van diadrome vispopulaties in de Zeeschelde (Hoofdstuk 5). Zo modelleerden we de aan- en afwezigheid van migratoren in de Schelde in functie van temperatuur, opgeloste zuurstof, stroomsnelheid en seizoen. We toonden aan dat met relatief weinig informatie aanvaardbare voorspellingen konden gemaakt worden van de ruimtelijke en tijdelijke verspreiding van migrerende vissoorten. Dat in het zoetwater- en brakwatergedeelte een zuurstofconcentratie van minstens 5 mg l-1 een noodzakelijke habitatvereiste blijkt te zijn, is belangrijk voor het estuariumbeheer. De realisatie en bescherming van afdoende oppervlakten slikken en schorren zijn noodzakelijk om de zuurstofuitwisseling te verbeteren. Het gebruik van schorren door vissen en het belang van kreekeigenschappen voor de bezoekende visgemeenschappen verduidelijkten we in hoofdstuk 6. Naargelang het zoutgehalte troffen we in de schorkreken andere visgemeenschappen aan. In alle schorkreken vingen we hoofdzakelijk juveniele exemplaren met een piek in de zomer. De positie van de kreek in het getijdevenster beïnvloedt de bezoekfrequentie van de vissen, dit is ook het geval bij aanwezigheid van een geul op het slik vóór het schor. Kreken die relatief lager liggen, breed zijn en vertakkingen hebben met permanente poelen worden het meest bezocht door vissen. In hoofdstuk 7 beschreven we de ontwikkeling van een op vis gebaseerd scoresysteem: de visindex (EBI). Deze visindex bevat metrieken of ecologisch relevante variabelen die gevoelig zijn voor verstoring. Een metriek die een staalnameplaats bijna altijd een zelfde status geeft als deze bepaald op basis van de omgevingsindicatoren is een goede metriek met een kleine foutenmarge. Het evenwicht tussen type I- en type II- fout kan met een curve weergegeven worden en het oppervlak onder deze lijn (AUC: area under the curve) is een maat voor de performantie van de metriek: hoe kleiner de oppervlakte hoe performanter. Met een stapsgewijze regressieanalyse selecteerden we eerst de metriek met de laagste AUC, waarna we de volgende metriek selecteerden die in combinatie met de eerste een nog kleinere AUC geeft tot uiteindelijk de AUC niet verder afnam. Finaal selecteerden we vijf metrieken en de spreiding van hun gemiddelde waarde werd gebruikt om de grenswaarden van de index te bepalen. Deze index is in staat op basis van één afvissing de kwaliteit van een staalnameplaats vast te leggen. Hij vertoont echter nog enkele tekortkomingen en daarom ontwikkelden wemet een alternatieve benadering nog een andere visindex voor de Zeeschelde (Hoofdstuk 8). Bij de alternatieve benadering opteerden we om voor het berekenen van de metriekwaarden alle gegevens per jaar binnen één zone te combineren. Dat impliceerde dat de resulterende index (Z-EBI) de Zeeschelde per saliniteitzone evalueert, gebaseerd op jaargegevens. Metrieken werden geselecteerd met behulp van statistische analyses, gecombineerd met ecologische achtergrondkennis. De referentielijsten werden gebruikt om grenswaarden voorelke geselecteerde metriek te bepalen. Het gemiddelde van de metriek scores berekend voor één jaar gaf de indexwaarde aan. Deze werd vertaald in een ecologische kwaliteitsratio (EQR) in overeenstemming met de Kaderrichtlijn Water. In elke zone beoordeelt de index structurele en functionele kwaliteiten en bepaalt hij de staat van de ecologische kwaliteit van de Zeeschelde. Door het gebruik van jaargegevens hielden we rekening met seizoensverschillen en door het beoordelen van een totale zone werden eveneens ruimtelijke verschillengeïntegreerd. De indexwaarden toonden aan dat de ecologische status van de Zeeschelde naargelang de zone varieert tussen slecht en matig. Bij een vergelijking van de EBI en Z-EBI scores stelden we vast dat bij een verschil de EBI steeds lager scoorde. Dit bevestigde onze hypothese dat het gebruik van locale en tijdelijke beoordelingen te gevoelig is voor kleine veranderingen die daarenboven niet noodzakelijk een negatieve invloed hebben op het functioneren van het ecosysteem. Momenteel beantwoordt de Z-EBI het best aan de criteria van verschillende richtlijnen en vanuit een ecologisch perspectief verschaft ze de meest holistische beoordeling.

1. Contextual outline of the PhD Research Climate change is today often seen as one of the most challenging issue that our civilisation will have to face during the 21st century. This is especially so now that the most recent scientific data have led to the conclusion that the globally averaged net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming (IPCC 2007, p. 5) and that continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming (IPCC, 2007 p. 13). This unequivocal link between climate change and anthropogenic activities requires an urgent, world-wide shift towards a low carbon economy (STERN 2006 p. iv) and coordinated policies and measures to manage this transition. The climate issue is undoubtedly a typical policy question and as such, is considered amenable to economic scrutiny. Indeed, in today's world economics is inevitable when it comes to arbitrages in the field of policy making. From the very beginning of international talks on climate change, up until the most recent discussions on a post-Kyoto international framework, economic arguments have turned out to be crucial elements of the analysis that shapes policy responses to the climate threat. This can be illustrated by the prominent role that economics has played in the different analyses produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to assess the impact of climate change on society. The starting point and the core idea of this PhD research is the long-held observation that the threat of climate change calls for a change of climate in economics. Borrowing from the jargon used in climate policy, adaptation measures could also usefully target the academic discipline of economics. Given that inherent characteristics of the climate problem (e.g. complexity, irreversibility, deep uncertainty, etc.) challenge core economic assumptions, mainstream economic theory does not appear as appropriately equipped to deal with this crucial issue. This makes that new assumptions and analyses are needed in economics in order to comprehend and respond to the problem of climate change. In parallel (and without environmental considerations being specifically the driving force to it), the mainstream model in economics has also long been (and still is) strongly criticised and disputed by numerous scholars - both from within and outside the field of economics. For the sake of functionality, these criticisms - whether they relate to theoretical inconsistencies or are empirically-based - can be subsumed as all challenging part of the Cartesian/Newtonian legacy of economics. This legacy can be shown to have led to a model imprinted with what could be called "mechanistic reductionism". The mechanistic side refers to the Homo oeconomicus construct while reductionism refers to the quest for micro-foundations materialised with the representative agent hypothesis. These two hypotheses constitute, together with the conjecture of perfect markets, the building blocks of the framework of general equilibrium economics. Even though it is functional for the purpose of this work to present them separately, the flaws of economics in dealing with the specificities of the climate issue are not considered independent from the fundamental objections made to the theoretical framework of mainstream economics. The former only make the latter seem more pregnant while the current failure of traditional climate policies informed by mainstream economics render the need for complementary approaches more urgent. 2. Overview of the approach and its main insights for climate policy Starting from this observation, the main objective of this PhD is thus to assess the implications for climate policy that arise from adopting an alternative analytical economic framework. The stance is that the coupling of insights from the framework of evolutionary economics with the perspective of ecological economics provides a promising way forward both theoretically as well as on a more applied basis with respect to a better comprehension of the socioeconomic aspects related to the climate problem. As claimed in van den Bergh (2007, p. 521), ecological economics and evolutionary economics "share many characteristics and can be combined in a fruitful way" - which renders the coupling approach both legitimate and promising. The choice of an evolutionary line of thought initially stems from its core characteristic: given its focus on innovation and system change it provides a useful approach to start with for assessing and managing the needed transition towards a low carbon economy. Besides, its shift of focus towards a better understanding of economic dynamics together with its departure from the perfect rationality hypothesis renders evolutionary economics a suitable theoretical complement for designing environmental policies. The notions of path-dependence and lock-in can be seen as the core elements from this PhD research. They arise from adopting a framework which is founded on a different view of individual rationality and that allows for richer and more complex causalities to be accounted for. In a quest for surmounting the above-mentioned problem of reductionism, our framework builds on the idea of 'multi-level selection'. This means that our analytical framework should be able to accommodate not only for upward but also for downward causation, without giving analytical priority to any level over the other. One crucial implication of such a framework is that the notion of circularity becomes the core dynamic, highlighting the importance of historicity, feedbacks and emergent properties. More precisely, the added value of the perspective adopted in this PhD research is that it highlights the role played by inertia and path-dependence. Obviously, it is essential to have a good understanding of the underlying causes of that inertia prior to devising on how to enforce a change. Providing a clear picture of the socio-economic processes at play in shaping socio-technical systems is thus a necessary first step in order to usefully complement policy-making in the field of energy and climate change. In providing an analytical basis for this important diagnosis to be performed, the use of the evolutionary framework sheds a new light on the transition towards low-carbon socio-technical systems. The objective is to suggest strategies that could prove efficient in triggering the needed transition such as it has been the case in past "lock-in" stories. Most notably, the evolutionary framework allows us to depict the presence of two sources of inertia (i.e at the levels of individuals through "habits" and at the level of socio-technical systems) that mutually reinforce each other in a path-dependent manner. Within the broad perspective on path dependence and lock-in, this PhD research has first sketched the implications for climate policy of applying the concept of 'technological lock-in' in a systemic perspective. We then investigated in more details the notion of habits. This is important as the 'behavioural' part of the lock-in process, although explicitly acknowledged in the pioneer work of Paul David (David, 1985, p. 336), has been neglected in most of subsequent analyses. Throughout this study, the notion of habits has been studied at both the theoretical and applied level of analysis as well as from an empirical perspective. As shown in the first chapters of the PhD, the advantage of our approach is that it can incorporate theories that so far have been presented opposite, partial and incomplete perspectives. For instance, it is shown that our evolutionary approach not only is able to provide explanation to some of the puzzling questions in economics (e.g. the problem of strong reciprocity displayed by individual in anonymous one-shot situations) but also is very helpful in bringing a complementary explanation with respect to the famous debate on the 'no-regret' emission reduction potential which agitates the experts of climate policy. An emission reduction potential is said to be "no regret" when the costs of implementing a measure are more than offset by the benefits it generates such as, for instance, reduced energy bills. In explaining why individuals do not spontaneously implement those highly profitable energy-efficient investments , it appears that most prior analyses have neglected the importance of non-economic obstacle. They are often referred to as "barriers" and partly relate to the 'bounded rationality' of economic agent. As developed in the different chapters of this PhD research, the framework of evolutionary economics is very useful in that it is able to provide a two-fold account (i.e. relying on both individual and socio-technical sources of inertia) of this limited rationality that prevent individuals to act as purely optimising agents. Bearing this context in mind, the concept of habits, as defined and developed in this study, is essential in analysing the determinants of energy consumption. Indeed, this concept sheds an insightful light on the puzzling question of why energy consumption keeps rising even though there is an evident increase of awareness and concern about energy-related environmental issues such as climate change. Indeed, if we subscribe to the idea that energy-consuming behaviours are often guided by habits and that deeply ingrained habits can become "counter-intentional", it then follows that people may often display "locked-in" practices in their daily energy consumption behaviour. This hypothesis has been assessed in our empirical analysis whose results show how the presence of strong energy-consuming habitual practices can reduce the effectiveness of economic incentives such as energy subsidies. One additional delicate factor that appears crucial for our purpose is that habits are not fully conscious forms of behaviours. This makes that individuals do not really see habits as a problem given that it is viewed as easily changed. In sum, based on our evolutionary account of the situation, it follows that, to be more efficient, climate policies would have to both shift the incumbent carbon-based socio-technical systems (for it to shape decisions towards a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions) and also deconstruct habits that this same socio-technical has forged with time (as increased environmental awareness and intentions formulated accordingly are not sufficient in the presence of strong habits). Accordingly, decision-makers should design measures (e.g. commitment strategies, niche management, etc.) that, as explained in this research, specifically target those change-resisting factors and their key features. This is essential as these factors tend to reduce the efficiency of traditional instruments. Micro-level interventions are thus needed as much as macro-level ones. For instance, it is often the case that external improvements of energy efficiency do not lead to lower energy consumption due to the rebound effect arising from unchanged energy-consuming habits. Bearing this in mind and building on the insights from the evolutionary approach, policy-makers should go beyond the mere subsidisation of technologies. They should instead create conditions enabling the use of the multi-layered, cumulative and self-reinforcing character of economic change highlighted by evolutionary analyses. This means supporting both social and physical technologies with the aim of influencing the selection environment so that only the low-carbon technologies and practices will survive. ; De nos jours, la science économique est devenue une discipline incontournable dans le domaine de l'analyse politique. Les politiques environnementales, et notamment la politique de lutte contre le réchauffement climatique, n'échappent pas à la règle. Or, la théorie économique traditionnelle repose sur des postulats fortement contestés par de nombreux auteurs, tant du point de vue théorique que du point de vue empirique. Dans ce contexte, l'idée de la thèse est de voir quelles seraient les implications de l'adoption d'une grille de lecture économique alternative sur le processus de décision dans le domaine de la politique climatique. Le choix d'un autre modèle s'est porté logiquement sur l'économie évolutionniste dans la mesure où, d'une part, ce courant s'est construit sur l'idée qu'il fallait réconcilier la caractérisation de l'agent économique avec l'abondante littérature empirique et, d'autre part, il a opté pour la logique biologique, plus en phase les rythmes écologiques, comme métaphore inspiratrice. De par la nature même de la réflexion sous-tendant ses fondements théoriques, l'économie évolutionniste s'intéresse aux dynamiques économiques résultant des processus d'innovation, sélection et accumulation. En fait, ce qui est considéré comme exogène dans le modèle traditionnel, constitue le « cœur conceptuel » du modèle évolutionniste. Le choix de cette nouvelle grille de lecture a inévitablement comme conséquence d'envisager d'une autre manière l'économie politique portant sur les questions environnementales. La première partie de la recherche est consacrée à une analyse approfondie des critiques formulées à l'encontre du modèle économique traditionnel. Cette analyse, dont l'objectif est de contribuer à l'élaboration du cadre conceptuel de la thèse, consiste en l'exploration parallèle du champ de recherche concernant le fonctionnement des agents économiques et de la philosophie évolutionniste en général. Cette investigation conjointe, doublée d'un cadrage portant sur l'histoire et l'évolution de la science économique, permet d'aborder de front les deux faiblesses principales du modèle traditionnel, à savoir l'irréalisme empirique du paradigme de l'Homo Oeconomicus et le problème de la simple agrégation sous la forme de l'agent représentatif. Cette phase aboutit à la formulation d'un schéma analytique alternatif fondé sur le concept de « rationalité limitée » articulé dans un cadre reposant sur la notion d'évolution, définie comme un processus à causalité cumulative, double (ascendante et descendante) et interactive illustrant l'importance jouée par le niveau de groupe pour expliquer le fonctionnement des individus. Ce cadre et les préceptes qui en découlent seront utilisés d'une part, pour tenter d'apporter un éclairage différent sur la question du « paradoxe énergétique » et, d'autre part, pour analyser l'évolution technologique, élément central de la problématique du climat. Par exemple, la notion de causalité cumulative et interactive appliquée à la question de l'évolution technologique met lumière celle de « dépendance du sentier » qui exprime l'idée selon laquelle des évènements aléatoires insignifiants influencent fortement la direction et l'orientation d'une trajectoire technologique. De même, l'importance de la contingence historique et des interdépendances systémiques, qui découlent de notre choix d'adopter une approche évolutionniste, servent à expliquer le processus via lequel on a abouti à ce que l'on peut appeler le « carbon lock-in », selon lequel notre économie serait enfermée dans un régime sociotechnique « carbone » tant nos habitudes, nos institutions et nos réseaux technologiques sont adaptés à l'utilisation de combustibles fossiles (principale cause du problème de l'effet de serre). Cette notion d'enfermement technologique à laquelle notre analyse a mené est importante dans le sens où elle requiert des décideurs politiques de mettre en œuvre des mesures propres à déverrouiller nos trajectoires technologiques, si on veut respecter les engagements pris dans le cadre du Protocole de Kyoto. En conclusion, l'adoption d'une approche évolutionniste est susceptible de faire évoluer sensiblement le type de politiques et instrument utilisés pour lutter contre le problème du réchauffement. Notamment, elle questionne la pertinence des instruments économiques actuels, comme l'échange de quotas d'émissions, qui proviennent du modèle traditionnel (mettant l'accent sur l'efficience et reposant sur la parfaite rationalité des acteurs), dans la mesure où ils ne traitent pas des barrières structurelles responsables de l'enfermement technologique dans la filière fossile. Comme le souligne notre recherche, les politiques climatiques devraient plutôt créer un environnement permettant d'utiliser la nature cumulative et auto-renforçante de l'évolution des technologies.

Continúan las duras consecuencias del terremoto que azotó a ChinaEl número de víctimas fatales y desaparecidos por el sismo de magnitud 7,9 en la escala de Richter llega a 74.000. Las autoridades chinas ordenaron la evacuación de miles de personas en la provincia de Sichuan por miedo a que los lagos formados en los ríos bloqueados por los desprendimientos de tierra durante terremoto se desborden. Continua el trabajo de rescate, la ayuda internacional, el problema de los refugiados, el temor por posibles inundaciones y nuevos temblores. Varios medios informan al respecto:"People Dialy",diario oficial del Partido Comunista, informa: " China to allocate 70 bln yuan for reconstruction of quake-hit regions":http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/6415671.html"People Dialy",diario oficial del Partido Comunista: "China offers temporary allowance for quake victims":http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6414922.html"China Daily :"ll rises to 41,353; donations hit $2.2B":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-05/21/content_6701114.htm"China Daily": "Central gov't to slash spending for quake relief":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-05/22/content_6701567.htm"China Daily": "Woman rescued nine days after quake":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-05/21/content_6701235.htm"MSNBC": "Post-quake challenge: 5 million homeless. 3 million tents needed; Chinese authorities fear possible disease outbreak": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24732245/"El Universal" de Méjico: "China: amenazan inundaciones": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/57771.html"El Mercurio" de Chile: "Avalanchas sepultan a más de 200 rescatistas en China": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/20/internacional/_portada/noticias/B0BF9587-4285-4A8C-8D0A-89073FAF95D4.htm?id={B0BF9587-4285-4A8C-8D0A-89073FAF95D4}"The Economist": "China's earthquake.Days of disaster": http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11376935"New York Times" : "Hopes Fading in Search for Survivors of China Quake":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/19/world/asia/19quake.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin"New York Times": "Chinese Soldiers Work to Restore a Winding Lifeline":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/world/asia/18sichuan.html?ref=world"El País" de Madrid: "China eleva la cifra oficial de muertos por el seísmo a más de 32.000. Las autoridades chinas buscan más cadáveres bajo los escombros.- Los temblores no cesan y miles de personas son evacuadas": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/China/eleva/cifra/oficial/muertos/seismo/32000/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_4/Tes"El País" de Madrid: "China evacua a miles de personas por miedo a inundaciones tras el seísmo. El Gobierno teme que los ríos taponados por el terremoto se desborden"http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/China/evacua/miles/personas/miedo/inundaciones/seismo/elpepuint/20080518elpepiint_5/Tes"Time": "The China Quake's Homeless Victims":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1807520,00.html"Time": "China's Heaviest Toll: Schoolchildren":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1807137,00.html"CNN": "China to mourn quake victims as toll mounts":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/18/china.quake/index.html"El País" de Madrid: "China investigará los edificios desplomados por el seísmo. La cifra de muertos y desaparecidos alcanza los 74.000.- Las familias de los miles de niños sepultados exigen una investigación de las construcciones derribadas":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/China/investigara/edificios/desplomados/seismo/elpepuint/20080521elpepuint_17/Tes"CNN": "Stadium becomes tent city after China quake":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/21/china.refugee.center/index.html"CNN": "Aftershock rattles China rescue efforts":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/17/china.quake/index.html"CNN": "Millions left homeless by China quake":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/16/china.quake/index.html"Times": "China works flat out to prevent dam flood":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article3972785.ece"MSNBC": "Woman freed after 9 days under quake rubble. Survivor found in tunnel; grieving parents protest over collapsed schools":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24717558/ AMERICA LATINAMerkel se compromete a apoyar a Uribe en la lucha contra el narcotráfico. Alemania cooperará en programas para la erradicación de cultivos ilegales y para que las víctimas de los paramilitares sean indemnizadas, "El País" de Madrid publica: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Merkel/compromete/apoyar/Uribe/lucha/narcotrafico/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_2/Tes"El Mercurio" de Méjico informa: "Karina", ex miembro de las FARC: Jefa rebelde colombiana niega haber asesinado al padre de Álvaro Uribe":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/20/internacional/_portada/noticias/8EB943E9-AF57-462F-976C-95E3EAB8A15D.htm?id={8EB943E9-AF57-462F-976C-95E3EAB8A15DLos presidentes de Perú y Brasil, que han mantenido una reunión bilateral posterior al encuentro del pasado viernes en Lima, acuerdan la puesta en marcha un ambicioso proyecto petroquímico, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Lula/Alan/Garcia/terminan/cumbre/tocando/cajones/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_1/TesEl presidente dominicano Leonel Fernández, candidato del Partido de la Liberación Dominicana (PLD) obtuvo el 53.72% de los votos, en las elecciones presidenciales del viernes, con la que se convirtió en el primer gobernante en lograr la renovación de su mandato en los últimos 14 años. Nos informan al respecto:"CNN": "Dominican president wins 3rd term":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/05/17/dominican.election/index.html"El Universal" de Méjico: "Confirman triunfo de Leonel Fernández":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/57770.html"CNN": "Dominican incumbent eyes legacy in bid for third term":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/05/15/dominican.vote/index.html"El Universal " de México publica: "Pide EU explicaciones a Chávez por supuesto apoyo a las FARC":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/507624.html"CNN" informa: "Chavez: Interpol report a 'clown show'":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/05/15/colombia.computers/index.html"Time" publica: "The US Dilemma Over Chavez":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1807217,00.html"Time" informa:" Interpol: Chavez Has Arms Buildup":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1807161,00.html"El Universal " de México informa: "Va otra vez Correa contra Colombia":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/57768.html"El Mercurio" de Chile publica: "De cara al referéndum revocatorio: Prensa denuncia millonaria campaña electoral de Morales":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/116F14E3-0201-4969-8E33-BCC1CE39E6EC.htm?id={116F14E3-0201-4969-8E33-BCC1CE39E6EC"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Huelga de sector rural en Argentina: Productores levantan paro para dialogar con gobierno":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/B78C8189-132F-4349-A92A-1BC629EAF6DD.htm?id={B78C8189-132F-4349-A92A-1BC629EAF6DD}"The Economist" publica: "Drug violence in Mexico. Can the army out-gun the drug lords?"http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11376335Violence erupts in Mexico's drugs heartland, Three-way battle between rival gangs and security forces, "MSNBC" publica:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24726572/Investigan un gran incendio en San Pablo. Una fábrica de colchones, que ocupa una manzana, arde mientras decenas de dotaciones de bomberos luchan contra las llamas; hubo temor por el choque de un avión, "La Nación" informa:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014190ESTADOS UNIDOS/CANADÁ Bush en Medio Oriente:"New York Times" informa: "Bush Presses Arab Leaders on Reform":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/19/world/middleeast/19prexy.html?ref=world"CNN" publica: "Bush to Arab world: Give citizens more freedoms":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/05/18/bush.mideast.ap/index.htmlBush pide a Israel que "suavice las restricciones a los palestinos". La Casa Blanca filtra el discurso que el presidente de EE UU dará en el Foro Económico Mundial en Sharm el Sheij.- Bush evitó hablar del tema en Jerusalén.- También pedirá apoyos contra "las ambiciones nucleares de Irán", "El País" de Madrid publica: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Bush/pide/Israel/suavice/restricciones/palestinos/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_5/TesVarios medios informan sobre la campaña electoral en los Estados Unidos:"Time": "Bush Starts a McCain-Obama Brawl":http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1807377,00.html"El Universal": "Prevén "encontronazo" entre Obama y McCain en Miami":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/507619.html"El Mercurio": "Contienda demócrata por la nominación a la Casa Blanca: Obama se alista para la victoria, pero Clinton le advierte que la pelea por la candidatura todavía no ha terminado":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/20/internacional/_portada/noticias/542ED523-3541-4BE4-9ABF-64D8EF3B7550.htm?id={542ED523-3541-4BE4-9ABF-64D8EF3B7550}"The Economist" en su informe semanal: "On the campaign trail: Primary colour":http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11376269"The Economist" publica: "West Virginia.The phoney war continues":http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11376262"La Nación": "Clinton vencen en Kentucky y Obama espera. El senador por Illinois confía en que las primarias que se desarrollan en Oregón apuntalen su triunfo; Hillary dijo que no se baja y que peleará hasta el final":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014077"El Universal" analiza: "La estrategia de John McCain":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/57769.html Ted Kennedy padece un tumor cerebral.El senador estadounidense y último hermano vivo del asesinado ex presidente John F. Kennedy tiene un glioma maligno; consternación de Bush y otros políticos, "La Nación" informa:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014167"Time" publica: "In the Senate, Ted Kennedy Still Rules":http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1807447,00.htmlEUROPA Los problemas de los inmigrantes .20.000 'sin papeles' en centros de la UE.Los inmigrantes permanecen detenidos en condiciones a veces peores que en las cárceles, analiza "El País" de Madrid: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/20000/papeles/centros/UE/elpepuint/20080518elpepiint_2/Tes"The Economist" analiza: "Gordon Brown's woes: A flimsy fightback": http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11377022"MSNBC" informa: "Noriega takes extradition fight to appeals court. France wants former Panamanian dictator on money-laundering charges":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24731070/"The Economist" analiza: "France's cost of living. Purchasing-power disparity":http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11376708La amenaza terrorista. Detienen en Francia a número uno de ETA. Se trata de Francisco Javier López Peña, alias "Thierry", a quien se lo señala como el responsable del fin de la tregua de 14 meses de la organización separatista, "La Nación" informa: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014226Detenido el 'número uno' de ETA en Burdeos. Junto a Francisco Javier López Peña, jefe militar y político de la banda, han sido detenidos Ainhoa Ozaeta, Jon Salabarria e Igor Suberbiola, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Detenido/numero/ETA/Burdeos/elpepuesp/20080521elpepunac_1/Tes"La Nación" publica: "Zapatero volvió a oponerse al referéndum vasco.":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014082"MSNBC" analiza: "New leaders unlikely to ease U.S.-Russia strains: Medvedev, next U.S. president unlikely to have power, will to push change":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24677039/"La Nación" informa: "Extinguen el incendio en la Filarmónica de Berlín: más de 170 bomberos trabajaron para sofocar las llamas y desalojar un ensayo con 720 personas adentro; salvaron valiosos instrumentos y piezas de museo":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014084"El País" de Madrid publica: "Controlado el incendio en la Filarmónica de Berlín.":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/Controlado/incendio/Filarmonica/Berlin/elpepucul/20080520elpepucul_7/TesASIA – PACÍFICO Y MEDIO ORIENTE"New York Times" informa: "Hezbollah Actions Ignite Sectarian Fuse in Lebanon":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/world/middleeast/18lebanon.html?ref=world"MSNBC" informa: "U.N. stymied in Iran nuclear investigation. A report to be released Friday will detail the lack of progress":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24735923/"El País" de Madrid informa: "Al menos 13 muertos y 22 heridos en un atentado suicida en Pakistán. El objetivo del ataque ha sido una panadería de la ciudad noroccidental de Mardan, cerca de un centro del Ejército": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/muertos/22/heridos/atentado/suicida/Pakistan/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_9/Tes"CNN" informa: "Myanmar's junta leader visits cyclone refugees":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/18/myanmar/index.htmlPresiones a junta militar en Myanmar "New York Times" publica: "International Pressure on Myanmar Junta Is Building":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/world/asia/18myanmar.html?ref=worldBan Ki-moon viajará a Myanmar para presionar a la Junta militar. La ONU pide la entrada de cooperantes extranjeros.- El presidente Than Shwe, hasta ahora impasible a la presión internacional, visita la zona más afectada dos semanas después del azote del ciclón, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Ban/Ki-moon/viajara/Myanmar/presionar/Junta/militar/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_7/Tes"La Nación" informa: "Con una política de unificación china. Asumió el presidente de Taiwán: se trata de Ma Ying-jeou, a quien se lo ve como promotor de la cooperación con Pekín y con los EE.UU.; así terminaría con seis décadas de rivalidad":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014049Evacuadas unas 16.000 personas en Japón por una bomba de la II Guerra Mundial. Las fuerzas de seguridad japonesas desactivan un proyectil en una ciudad al oeste de Tokio, que pudo ser lanzado por aviones de EE UUhttp://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Evacuadas/16000/personas/Japon/bomba/II/Guerra/Mundial/elpepuint/20080518elpepuint_6/TesÁFRICA"CNN" informa: "Mugabe rival fears 'assassination' plot":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/17/zimbabwe/index.html"CNN" publica: "Thousands remain displaced months after Kenyan violence":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/16/kenya.displaced/index.htmlAtaques Xenófobos en Sudáfrica: Miles de extranjeros huyeron a refugios desde que el 11 de mayo comenzó la violencia en el municipio de Alexandra. Varios extranjeros fueron quemados vivos y decenas de comercios y viviendas saqueadas. El brote xenófobo comenzó hace una semana, en el periférico barrio de Alexandra, cuando un grupo de sudafricanos atacó a varios inmigrantes de Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi y Mozambique. Diferentes medios informan al respecto:"The Economist": "Xenophobic violence rocks South Africa's biggest city":http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11399350&source=features_box_main"La Nación": "Extreman medidas de seguridad en Sudáfrica.La policía aumentó su presencia en las calles para intentar frenar la ola de ataques xenófobos que ya causó 24 muertos; temen que afecte al turismo":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014070"MSNBC": "Groups rush to help South Africa immigrants. Thousands chased from their homes during wave of violence": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24731834/"El País" de Madrid: "Suráfrica despliega unidades especiales de policía contra la violencia xenófoba. El Ejército, a un paso de ser movilizado.- La oposición propone la construcción de campos de refugiados para acoger a los inmigrantes atacados":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Surafrica/despliega/unidades/especiales/policia/violencia/xenofoba/elpepuint/20080520elpepuint_19/Tes"CNN": "Police patrol South Africa riot zone":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/20/southafrica.violence/index.html"El País" de Madrid: "La ola xenófoba de Suráfrica fuerza la huida de miles de inmigrantes.":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ola/xenofoba/Surafrica/fuerza/huida/miles/inmigrantes/elpepuint/20080520elpepiint_11/Tes"New York Times": "South Africans Take Out Rage on Immigrants":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/world/africa/20safrica.html?hp"Le Monde": "En Afrique du Sud, la vague de violence xénophobe a fait au moins 42 morts":http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2008/05/21/en-afrique-du-sud-la-vague-de-violence-xenophobe-a-fait-au-moins-42-morts_1047971_3212.html#ens_id=1046651 ECONOMIA "The Economist" en su informe semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11377101&CFID=6367298&CFTOKEN=64782268OTRAS NOTICIAS Climate change : A moment of truth, analiza "The Economist": http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11376587"La Nación" publica: "Tras el paso devastador del ciclón Nargis, el Banco Mundial anunció que no enviará ayuda financiera a Myanmar: Reveló que "no puede legalmente desbloquear los fondos" ya que el país "acumula retrasos en los pagos desde 1998"":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1014051

Conflicto en Argentina: Campo versus Gobierno. A Casi 100 días del paro del campo, Argentina vive en una ambiente de inestabilidad dominado por una crisis de abastecimiento, piquetes, inflación, cacerolazos, actos, discursos, lucha de poder y amenaza al uso de la fuerza. "El País" de Madrid informa: "Las protestas y los bloqueos de carreteras se han repetido por todo el país en medio de un grave conflicto con el Gobierno":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/campo/argentino/amenaza/alargar/paro/dias/necesario/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_3/Tes"CNN" publica: "Traffic snarls are latest bump in Argentine farm crisis":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/04/argentina.farmers/index.html"El País" de Madrid analiza: "Crisis social en Argentina: ¿Quién manda en Argentina?":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Quien/manda/Argentina/elpepuint/20080616elpepiint_3/Tes"New York Times" informa: "Argentine President Seeks to Quell Criticism":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/18/world/americas/18argentina.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin"El País" de Madrid informa: "La presidenta argentina recurre al Parlamento para aliviar la crisis con el campo: Néstor Kirchner acusa de "extorsión" al campo argentino y culpa a la prensa de alentar las protestas":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/presidenta/argentina/recurre/Parlamento/aliviar/crisis/campo/elpepuint/20080618elpepuint_6/Tes"El País" de Madrid informa: "Cacerolada masiva en Argentina contra la gestión del Gobierno de FernándezMiles de manifestantes muestran su malestar en la capital y otras ciudades del interior - La falta de combustibles agudiza el conflicto "http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Cacerolada/masiva/Argentina/gestion/Gobierno/Fernandez/elpepuint/20080617elpepuint_7/Tes"CNN" informa: "Argentina, in farm crisis, misses bonanza":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/08/argentina.crisis.ap/index.html "CNN" anuncia: "Fernandez defends Argentine grain export tax":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/17/argentina.farmers/index.html"La Nación" publica: "El Gobierno ratifica el acto y Cristina enviará un mensaje por cadena nacional. Randazzo defendió la convocatoria a Plaza de Mayo, en medio de la fuerte presión para levantarla; De Vido reiteró que "no es momento para tibios"; la Presidenta hablará a las 17; antes, lo hará Kirchner":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022210"The Economist" analiza situación en Argentina: "Hocus-pocus: The real-world consequences of producing unreal inflation numbers":http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11546117"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Conflicto político-social de Argentina: Grupo de disidencia interna del PJ forma una alternativa a los Kirchner":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/17/internacional/_portada/noticias/6D000C85-0908-47B5-AAB4-EFCFFD89C404.htm?id={6D000C85-0908-47B5-AAB4-EFCFFD89C404}"La Nación" publica: "No cede la presión de dirigentes para diluir el conflicto: Desde el PJ piden que se desactive el acto y que se revisen las retenciones; nuevas críticas opositoras":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022246"El Mercurio de Chile anuncia: "Mandataria argentina formuló el anuncio por cadena nacional de radio y televisión: Cristina Fernández opta por radicar discusión del impuesto al agro en el Poder Legislativo":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/18/internacional/_portada/noticias/EF165870-B83A-4E6B-AFBE-DF01DE842204.htm?id={EF165870-B83A-4E6B-AFBE-DF01DE842204}"La Nación publica: "El día después, en el interior. Persisten los faltantes y los cortes de ruta en varios puntos; la protesta de ayer abarcó a todas las provincias":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022219"La Nación" publica: "No cede la presión de dirigentes para diluir el conflicto: Desde el PJ piden que se desactive el acto y que se revisen las retenciones; nuevas críticas opositoras":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022246"CNN" publica: "Argentina farm strike turns violent":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/14/argentina.violence/index.html"CNN" informa: "Controversial tax to fund Argentina's social programs":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/10/argentina.tax/index.html"CNN" publica: "Argentina farm strike turns violent":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/14/argentina.violence/index.html "La Nación"analiza: "El reclamo popular, bajo la lupa de los analistas: Especialistas consultados por LANACION.com evaluaron similitudes y diferencias entre los cacerolazos de anoche y los de 2001":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022220 "CNN" informa: "Argentine farmers renew protests":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/06/15/argentina.farmers.ap/index.html"La Nación" publica: "No cede la presión de dirigentes para diluir el conflicto: Desde el PJ piden que se desactive el acto y que se revisen las retenciones; nuevas críticas opositoras":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022246"El Tiempo" de Colombia publica: "Cristina Kirchner cede ante el ruido de las cacerolas":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/latinoamerica/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4304824.html"La Nación" publica: "El día después, en el interior. Persisten los faltantes y los cortes de ruta en varios puntos; la protesta de ayer abarcó a todas las provincias":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/nota.asp?nota_id=1022219AMERICA LATINA"El País" de Madrid anuncia: "Brasil admite la falta de preparación de los controladores aéreos: Las autoridades reconocen que los técnicos no saben inglés y que esto representa un "peligro real"":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Brasil/admite/falta/preparacion/controladores/aereos/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_1/Tes"La Nación" informa: "Matan en Venezuela a otro periodista:Pertenecía a un canal opositor":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022094"La Nación" publica: "Chávez llegó a Cuba para reunirse con Fidel:Afirmó que el convaleciente líder está "vivito y coleando"":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022161"The Economist" analiza: "Hugo Chávez: Master tactician or failing bungler?: Latin America's self-styled Bolivarian hero may be losing his populist touch":http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11541336"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Primera visita en 10 años de un Mandatario de ese país: Gira de Presidente uruguayo a Cuba genera malestar opositor":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/17/internacional/internacional/noticias/5BC2BAFE-C73D-4D2F-A73E-81618A1ECBD0.htm?id={5BC2BAFE-C73D-4D2F-A73E-81618A1ECBD0}"El Mercurio" de Chile publica: "Periodista de RCTV fue asesinado a puñaladas":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/17/internacional/internacional/noticias/C270F560-C362-4594-A18A-E87D4E63EB35.htm?id={C270F560-C362-4594-A18A-E87D4E63EB35}"El Universal" de México publica: "Hablan Chávez y Castro de situación mundial y crisis energética: Ambos se reunieron en privado en un encuentro de tres horas de duración en La Habana, dijeron medios estatales este martes":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/515481.html"MSNBC" informa: "U.N.: 'Shock' rise in Colombia coca growth":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25242986/"MSNBC" analiza: "Ailing Castro makes first appearance in months: New images show former Cuban leader meeting with brother and Chavez":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25237677/"Miami Herald" informa: "Cuban TV shows new images of ailing Fidel Castro":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/AP/story/573820.htmlESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADA"Time" analiza: "Leaving Europe, Bush Eyes Legacy":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1815259,00.html"La Nación" informa: "Obama suma el apoyo de otro cacique demócrata: Al Gore":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/EdicionImpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022093"El Tiempo" de Colombia publica: "Obama tiene ventaja de seis puntos sobre McCain, según encuesta publicada por The Washington Post":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/euycanada/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4300123.html"El Tiempo" de Colombia informa: "24 mil evacuados por inundaciones en Iowa":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/euycanada/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4284544.html"The Economist" informa: "The American election and Iraq: The war for the White House":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11546716"The Economist" analiza: "The new Democratic establishment : Who's who in Obamaworld": http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11551686 "The Economist" analiza situación de los demócratas :"The Democrats unite: All together now":http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11551760"MSNBC" publica: "U.S., activists decry genocide in Sudan: They slam failed international efforts to stop war that's left 2 million dead":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25236102/EUROPAEL No de Irlanda: la población de Irlanda votó un NO en el referéndum sobre el Tratado de Lisboa , con el que la Unión Europea busca agilizar la toma de decisiones. Ésta se encuentra en una encrucijada: la diplomacia europea teme que la crisis abierta provoque un considerable retraso en las reformas internas, que desde hace más de cinco años pugna por adaptar sus instituciones a la nueva realidad de un bloque ampliado."El País" de Madrid informa: "Los Veintisiete instan a continuar con la ratificación del Tratado de Lisboa: La mayoría de ministros de Exteriores piden seguir adelante con el proceso pese al 'no' irlandés.- Dublín pide soluciones conjuntas.- La Presidencia eslovena cree que la UE debe "reflexionar" ":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Veintisiete/instan/continuar/ratificacion/Tratado/Lisboa/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_7/Tes"La Nación" informa: "Pese al no irlandés, la UE avanzará con el Tratado de Lisboa: Continuará el proceso de ratificación":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022073"El País" de Madrid publica: "Los ministros de la UE aplazan el debate sobre las sanciones a CubaLos titulares de Exteriores se centran en el 'no' irlandés al Tratado de Lisboa y dejan la decisión para el Consejo Europeo de finales de semana":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ministros/UE/aplazan/debate/sanciones/Cuba/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_8/Tes"El País" de Madrid informa: "La UE arranca la semana más crítica: Irlanda pide ayuda para salvar la crisis tras el rechazo al Tratado de Lisboa - Bruselas teme que el 'no' se contagie a República Checa y Reino Unido":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/UE/arranca/semana/critica/elpepuint/20080616elpepiint_4/Tes"New York Times" informa: "Brown Says Europe Will Tighten Iran Sanctions":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/17/world/17prexy.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin"CNN" publica: "British mercenary could face execution":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/06/17/mann.trial/index.html"El País" de Madrid informa: "Londres presionará a Europa para endurecer las sanciones contra Irán: Gordon Brown y George W. Bush se reúnen en la residencia del 'premier'.- El líder británico anuncia más tropas para Afganistán y desmiente un calendario de retirada de Irak":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Londres/presionara/Europa/endurecer/sanciones/Iran/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_9/Tes"La Nación" informa: "Anunció Brown más sanciones contra Irán":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022154"CNN" informa: "Osama bin Laden ally' freed in UK on bail":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/06/17/qatada.free.ap/index.html?iref=topnews"La Nación" informa: "Sarkozy imprime un drástico giro en la doctrina militar, Recortes de personal y más inteligencia":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022091"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Premier italiano tiene un proceso por soborno: El Gobierno presenta proyecto de ley que aplazaría un juicio contra Berlusconi":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/06/17/internacional/internacional/noticias/5BC2BAFE-C73D-4D2F-A73E-81618A1ECBD0.htm?id={5BC2BAFE-C73D-4D2F-A73E-81618A1ECBD0}"La Nación" publica: "Polémica por otra ley a medida de Berlusconi: El gobierno busca desacelerar los procesos judiciales de "cuello blanco", como los que afectan al premier":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022155"El País" de Madrid publica: "El drama de la inmigración clandestina se representa en las costas italianas: 123 inmigrantes han desaparecido y otros 21 han muerto al naufragar una embarcación que se dirigía a Italia; otras 454 personas han llegado a Lampedusa, donde los centros de internamiento están colapsados":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/drama/inmigracion/clandestina/representa/costas/italianas/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_13/Tes"La popularidad de Zapatero, en su nivel más bajo por los problemas económicos: Cayó al 44%, por primera vez en cuatro años; la economía se convirtió en la mayor preocupación","La Nación" informa:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022152"El País" de Madrid informa: "Kosovo estrena la Constitución que lo define como Estado":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Kosovo/estrena/Constitucion/define/Estado/elpepuint/20080616elpepiint_5/Tes"New York Times" publica: "Kosovo's New Constitution Takes Effect":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/16/world/europe/16kosovo.html?ref=worldAsia – Pacífico /Medio OrieNTE"New York Times" publica: : "Iran's Nuclear Program":http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/iran/nuclear_program/index.html"CNN" informa: "Iraq war sends refugee numbers soaring, U.N. warns":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/06/17/iraq.main/index.html"Time": "Car Bomb at Baghdad Market Kills 11":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1815367,00.html"CNN" informa: " Iraqi foreign minister: Al-Sadr threats 'unacceptable'":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/06/15/iraq.main/index.html"El País" de Madrid informa: "La OTAN envía refuerzos a Kandahar tras la fuga de cientos de presos talibanes: Al Yazira asegura que los islamistas han tomado varias localidades y quieren recuperar la segunda ciudad del país":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/OTAN/envia/refuerzos/Kandahar/fuga/cientos/presos/talibanes/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_11/Tes"CNN" informa: "Hamas sources say truce with Israel near":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/06/17/israel.hamas/index.html"El País" de Madrid publica: "El Gobierno levanta 1.300 casas más en la Jerusalén ocupada":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/levanta/1300/casas/Jerusalen/ocupada/elpepuint/20080616elpepiint_11/Tes"MSNBC" informa: "Israel confirms six-month truce with Hamas: Cease-fire deal with militant group aims to end violence in Gaza":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25207411/`"La NAcion" publica: "Hamas e Israel acuerdan una tregua: El pacto, que prevé el cese de los ataques, entrará en vigor el jueves":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022243"El Tiempo" de Colombia informa: "Hamas confirmó que aceptó hacer tregua en ataques contra Israel a partir del jueves":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/orientemedio/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4300364.html"MSNBC" publica: "Indian army wants military space program: Regional race between Asian giants could accelerate militarization of space": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25216230/"El País" de Madrid informa: "China asegura que el ascenso de Obama confirma la división racial en EE UU: El Gobierno opina por primera vez, a través de un periódico estatal, sobre el candidato demócrata a la Casa Blanca":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/China/asegura/ascenso/Obama/confirma/division/racial/EE/UU/elpepuint/20080616elpepuint_6/Tes"Time" publica: "Olympic Torch Lands in Xinjiang":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1815245,00.html"China Daily" informa: "Vice President leaves for five-Asian-nation visit":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-06/17/content_6766512.htm"MSNBC" publica: "China floods reportedly kill 63 this month: Soldiers scramble to shore up soggy levies with sandbags as thousands flee":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25203804/"China Daily" informa: "Floods take a toll on life, kill 171 people":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-06/17/content_6765159.htm"Time" publica: "1 Million Homeless in China Floods":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1815055,00.htmlAFRICA"New York Times" publica: "After 15 Years, Hints of Peace in Burundi":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/16/world/africa/16burundi.html?ref=world"CNN" informa: "Plane crashes carrying Kenya minister":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/06/10/kenya.crash/index.html"The Economist" analiza: "Ethipia: Will it ever be able to stave off starvation?: Famine is once again threatening the continent's second-most-populous country and once again its government is partly to blame":http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11549764"CNN" publica: "Junta rules Zimbabwe, opposition leader says":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/06/10/zimbabwe.junta/index.html"MSNBC" informa: "I not cede power: mbabwe president says he won't give in to Western-backed opponents":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25192724/"The Economist" analiza: "South Africa: After the storm": http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11550959 ECONOMIA"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11556710&CFID=10091822&CFTOKEN=11995213 OTRAS NOTICIAS"El País" de Madrid informa:"300 alcaldes tienden puentes por la paz: Regidores de ciudades conflictivas de 70 países aprenden en La Haya a superar juntos sus problemas":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/300/alcaldes/tienden/puentes/paz/elpepuint/20080616elpepiint_7/Tes"La Nación" informa: "Récord de refugiados en el mundo: Ya son 37,4 millones y representan la cifra más alta":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1022225