Suchergebnisse

To analyse and compare the big powers' perspective on a Nordic country seems to require at least as much consideration for their economic as for the political interests. Whilst the British legation was predominantly concerned with Britain's economic interests the German legation focused on political issues. This does not mean that German-Finnish economic relations carried less weight but reflects a different organisation of the German foreign policy establishment and a different perception of mischief. Public opinion in Finland, culture and propaganda figure as secondary issues in both of the legations' sources. Whereas the British were apprehensive of German activity in the North the German conservative minister noted damage to the German image resulting from repugnant Nazi policy at home and abroad. Despite rising continental power German political influence in Finland suffered a substantial setback at the turn of 1936/1937. By the choice of Finnish voters a parliamentary majority on the left was established bringing to power a Centre-Left government and disposing a conservative president. The politics of the new foreign minister, Holsti, were disliked by the disposed Conservatives. The German minister in Finland, von Blücher, immediately adapted the Conservative's negative attitude. He also developed a strong personal aversion against Holsti perverting his reports continuously. Criticising Holsti's initiative to normalise strained relations with the Soviet Union Blücher aligned his position with that of Erkko – a right wing party fellow of Holsti. He had to acknowledge, however, the widely accepted political will to normalise eastern relations. The reports of the legations were characterised by opportunistic distortions. Whereas the British were quick to report a decline in German political influence, the German minister qualified the meaning of the political change in Finland by questioning the stability of the Centre-Left government and Holsti's position therein. The Germans readily acknowledged the weight of Finnish-British notably economic relations. Beyond that acknowledgement there was German frustration with the new Finnish foreign policy that did not always find its way into official reporting. In looking for the information opportune to their interests both legations had no difficulties finding influential Finns that provided the desired assessments of Finland's affairs. Central in the concern of the big powers about Finland was Finnish foreign policy. In spite of an official assertion of an unchanged foreign policy the Finnish prime minister speaking in private labelled the United Kingdom a 'protecting power'. Finns across the political spectrum, even Conservatives who traditionally stood for a close relationship with Germany, also desired a closer relationship with the UK. High-ranking political and weighty English business representatives descended in large numbers on Finland. Blücher, however, saw no sign of a formal political alignment and only acknowledged some concerns regarding future access to Finland's natural recourses. This relaxed attitude must not have been universal since the British legation perceived nervousness and distress among junior members of the German legation. According to indirect evidence the German leadership was disgruntled. The German-Finnish relationship had supporters in both countries including Göring and the grand old man of Finland, Mannerheim. While a rather forced visit of Holsti in Berlin did not solve political contradictions there were other unofficial high-level contacts that tried to alleviate stress in the relations. In observing closely and trying to influence by various means the opinion of ordinary Finns and the capital's elite a rivalry between German and British influence manifested itself. The reports about the official celebrations of the birthday of Finland's revered Mannerheim are an example of the diplomat's scrutiny. Their contrasting depictions and interpretations reveal conscious and unconscious whitewashing stemming sometimes from biased informants. Germany's perversion in the 1930s was initially perceived through the lenses of the inner-Finnish split between conservatives and social-democrats with the latter criticising fascism across Europe vigorously. As German policy became more radical – especially with the endangerment of peace in Europe during the Sudeten-Crisis, the pogroms of 1938 and the occupation of Prague – the conservative parts of the population and politicians were willing to criticise it and did so, though mostly in private. The German minister went as far as possible for a Reich's civil servant in outlining the negative repercussions for Germany's public and also more tangible interests in Finland in reporting to his foreign ministry. This is remarkable in light of previous whitewashing of reports. While there was ever more reason to criticise Germany the concurrent threat of war and entanglement which Finland wished to avoid at any price demanded a more radical interpretation of neutrality. Thus just when criticism of Nazi policy was spreading the government and the media consented to toning down their criticism of Germany in accordance with German diplomatic pressure to that end. Britain's role in the world of rising fascism enjoyed high respect in Finland. British foreign policy and the Finnish population shared the desire for maintaining peace in Europe. Absent from British official reports is how the UK's role in undermining the integrity of another small state – Czechoslovakia – in Munich marred its image temporarily. Germany went further than the UK in actually trying to shape her image in Finland. Propaganda was seen as a substitute for cooler political relations. Speedily transmitted German news items were placed in receptive Finnish conservative newspapers and used by the German minister as a basis for argumentation. Visits of outstanding speakers and the German radio's ordinary broadcasts had an effect limited to a German speaking elite which also proved ambivalent. To reach the general public the German legation promoted military visits. The German propaganda efforts attracted disproportionate attention in the British legation. Events including official German guests were carefully scrutinised and considerable room was devoted to evaluate the German propaganda's motive and effect. German propaganda was not seen as threatening but rather as futile, however. The German minister, on the other hand, was jealous at the strong interest in 'everything English' as compared to the modest efforts of Britain, whose British Council had only recently been founded. The success was disproportionate: promotion of English culture and the advent of Anglo-American cinema attracted a comparatively high degree of interest among the wider Finnish public. The establishment of an Anglo-American share in popular culture became discernible. The crises of 1938, especially the Sudeten crisis, brought about by German policy damaged the German moral reputation but served to increase her political clout also in the North. The League of Nations- and UK-orientated foreign policy of the despised Finnish foreign minister Holsti and came under attack by the still formidable conservative opposition. His position seemed increasingly unstable. A renewed commitment to western values by the Finnish Prime Minister in the run-up to the Sudeten crisis did not save him. The German minister seized upon the political constellation and helped to bring Holsti down. The minister's subsequent euphoria was understandable in light of his long-harboured aversion against Holsti and close relationship with Holsti's successor, Erkko. Such euphoria, however, proved not justifiable. Instead the German minister had to avoid inconsequential criticism of Erkko's anglophile policies as he was told frankly that English desire for increased exports was well founded. The British had no reason to worry. Erkko promised to defend the independence of the Finnish media against German pressure and put all his considerable clout behind supporting Finnish purchase of English goods. The gross predominance of economic issues in British reports is contrasted by the German ministers almost complete disinterest in the issue. British economic difficulties in the thirties made trade a contentious issue that received much more attention than politics. Most noted was the contribution of trade with Finland to the general trade-deficit which seemed enormous considering the size of the countries' respective markets. Meanwhile German-Finnish trade grew in volume while British-Finnish trade stagnated. British industrialists highlighted the unfair methods that Germany employed for steering trade. The possibility of their subsequent demands for protectionism and control of trade being adapted by British politicians frightened Finnish industry. Some British officials were willing to employ scare tactics but diplomats on the ground recognised that the competitive disadvantages were home-grown. However, they eagerly supported their exporters. Pressure was exercised to influence public spending whenever the legation learned about planned acquisitions. Finnish politicians tried to meet such demands although this often meant paying more than for comparable German goods. Diplomats reported correctly that interventions in the public sector worked due to the Finns' willing co-operation. Germany's efforts to secure rights of usage to a Finnish harbour in the polar sea were rejected. The most efficient contact person for economic interventions was the new and more powerful foreign minister to whose the Germans ironically had helped by bringing his predecessor down. Public spending was, however, too small a factor to revert the general trend in favour of German industry. A high frequency of mutual visits by traders and industrialists was a sign of willingness to widen economic relations. They resulted in declarations of good-will but were sometimes overshadowed by protectionist grumbling of English traders. Given a protectionist penchant in the Foreign Office and the difficulty of directing trade by mere declarations of good will the legation did a superb job in preventing conflict. The legation gave its reports a positive spin, alerted their superiors to the sensibilities of Finnish partners and sometimes meditated carefully between British and Finnish parties. A last high-level political visit of a Finnish cabinet minister in Finland passed smoothly in contrast to his visit in Sweden. By virtue of foreign minister Erkko, liked both with the German and the British ministers, Finland was well positioned to avoid being caught in the differences between Germany and the western powers. This ability to stay neutral was put on test in 1939 when Germany offered a non-aggression pact to serve its propaganda aims at a time when no country wanted to be closely associated with her, least of all neutrality-minded Finland. The Finns put Scandinavian unity over adherence to Germany's wishes by declining the offer. The legation could not avoid dissatisfaction at home. At the same time Finnish-British political relations began to suffer from talks on guaranteeing Finland in alliance with the Soviet Union. Finland's vehement opposition was a far more serious concern to the British than the symbolic German pact offer. In analogy to the pattern in dealing with economic relations it was the legation that defended Finnish interests whereas the London Foreign Office argued in favour of the Soviet alliance. Before the German minister could rejoice in the discontent the British created by negotiating with Moscow his own country signed Finland away in the Hitler-Stalin Pact without even informing him. From now on the threat of entanglement in a war forced Finland to heed German demands scrupulously. A purely political analysis is insufficient and economic relations are essential for a comprehensive and proper history of the big powers policy towards Finland in the time between the wars. On the purely political plane German influence grew relentlessly although orientation towards Germany was not desired by the Finnish government. The stronger Germany grew the more its demands for absolute political neutrality had to be heeded. On the other hand, a look at Finnish-British economic relations reveals a squarely pro-British orientation. Germany by contrast was denied access to the Finnish polar sea port of Petsamo. For the UK with its vast trade deficit increased exports to Finland were of paramount importance. Especially the reshaped Finnish government with Erkko as foreign minister directed public expenditure in favour of English industry wherever possible. Even Finnish conservatives who appreciated the value of retaining close ties with Germany were not opposed to expand Finnish-British relations. A comprehensive look at economics, politics and culture makes German pressure on Finland appear like a futile effort to prevent an outdated state of international relations by intimidation and control.

Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit zeigt die Ursachen und Folgeprobleme von Landnutzungsänderungen, die in den letzten 40 Jahren auf den Naturraum von Almonte wirkten. Dieser im Südwesten von Andalusien in Spanien gelegenen ca. 86.000 ha großen Gemeindefläche kommt eine besondere Bedeutung zu. Im Westen grenzt die Nutzfläche an den Nationalpark Doñana, einem international bekannten Feuchtgebiet. Veränderungen in der Landnutzung können dadurch unmittelbar auf dieses Schutzgebiet wirken. Darüber hinaus stehen die Entwicklungen, die in Almonte einen Wandel hervorriefen beispielhaft für die Landschaften in der Küstenregion der Provinz Huelva. Die Ausdehnung des bewässerten Anbaus, vor allem für den Anbau von Erdbeeren, führte dazu, dass sich diese Region zur Erdbeerkammer Europas entwickelte. Zusammen mit der Bevölkerungszunahme und dem Ausbau des Tourismus belasten diese Veränderungen zunehmend den Aquifer Almonte-Marismas. Mittlerweile werden mit seinem Wasser ca. 250.000 Menschen versorgt und auf seiner Fläche ca. 14.000 ha Land bewässert. Nicht nur durch den bewässerten Anbau sondern auch den Beitritt zur EU- erfuhr dieser einst ökonomisch schwach entwickelte Raum deutliche Impulse, die einen Wandel in der Landnutzung hervorriefen. Ziel dieser Forschung war es die Veränderungen in der land- und Forstwirtschaftlichen Nutzung, ihre Ursachen sowie ihre Auswirkungen auf den Landschaftshaushalt zu untersuchen. Um die Impulse herauszufinden, die eine Nutzungsänderung induziert haben, wurden sozioökonomische und naturgeographische Aspekte sowie der Einfluss von agrarpolitischen Maßnahmen und hier hauptsächlich der EU-Agrarpolitik (GAP) untersucht. Die Veränderungen in der Landnutzung und ihre Auswirkungen wurden für den Raum Almonte durch Literatur- und Kartenauswertungen erfasst. Ergänzend erfolgte für die Dokumentation der Probleme in der Nutzung von Wasserreserven eine Recherche von Messdaten zur Grundwasserabsenkung sowie der Salz- und Nitratbelastung bei den spanischen Behörden. In drei ausgewählten Testgebieten wurden im Rahmen von Geländeerhebungen die Untersuchungen von Veränderungen und Auswirkungen vertieft. Dabei war es Aufgabe mit einfachen Geländemethoden flächenhaft zu prüfen, welche Auswirkungen die einzelnen Nutzungen auf die Boden- und Wasserpotenziale sowie auf die Kulturlandschaft haben. Der Schwerpunkt dieser Geländeerhebungen lag in der Erfassung der Nitratbelastungen in Boden und Wasser, in der Prüfung der Eignung des Wassers für die Bewässerung sowie in der Aufnahme von Bodenerosion und Landschaftsschäden. Die Untersuchungen der Nitratbelastungen wurden mit den Reflecto-quant Nitratschnelltests der Firma Merck, KGaA, Darmstadt in situ durchgeführt. Insgesamt wurde Nitrat auf ca. 30 km² (Quadratkilometer) Fläche mit 482 Messungen an 48 Probenahmepunkten im Grundwasser und mit 133 Messungen in einer Herbst und 159 Messungen in einer Frühjahrsbeprobung im Boden nachgewiesen. In den Fließgewässern wurde die Nitratkonzentration an 25 Messpunkten mit 281 Messwerten gemessen. Die Messungen erfolgten monatlich von 1996 bis 1997 und wurden durch eine Stichprobenmessung im Mai 2005 ergänzt. Die Bewertung der Ergebnisse erfolgte unter Anwendung von verschiedenen Methoden der Gewässerbeurteilung (u.a. SchALVO, 2001; LAWA, 1998; FAO; 1994 und Nitratrichtlinie, 91/676/EWG). Darüber hinaus wurde im Rahmen der gesetzlich vorgeschriebenen Gewässerreinhaltung die Umsetzung der EU-Wasser-Rahmenrichtlinie (EU-WRRL) analysiert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Forschung zeigen, dass das Naturpotenzial, die sozioökonomischen Verhältnisse, die Rentabilität der Anbauprodukte sowie die agrarpolitischen Maßnahmen einen beträchtlichen Einfluss auf die Flächennutzungen haben. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese Veränderungen zum Teil erhebliche Landschaftsschäden hervorrufen. Die Untersuchung der Auswirkungen auf den Boden- und Wasserhaushalt zeigen, dass von einigen Nutzungen zum Teil nicht wiederherzustellende Gefährdung und Schädigung von Naturraumpotenzialen entstehen. Die Nitratnachweise an den Grundwassermesspunkten ergaben eine mittlere Belastung von 54 mg/l und überschreiten damit den Schwellenwert von 50 mg/l der EU-Nitratrichtlinie. Die Stichprobenmessung vom Mai 2005, die an der Mehrzahl der Brunnen dieses Messnetzes durchgeführt wurde ergab, dass die mittlere Nitratkonzentration fast gleich hoch geblieben ist. Hingegen zeigen die Nitratnachweise, die von der Landwirtschaftsbehörde im Rahmen der Nitratrichtlinie an wenigen Messpunkten erhoben werden mit einer mittleren Nitratkonzentration von 5 mg/l (1999) und 8,7 mg/l (2001) eine deutlich geringere Belastung (CONSEJE-RIÁ DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, 2002 und 2000). Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass mit einer hohen Anzahl von Nitratmessungen eine wesentlich höhere Belastung nachgewiesen werden konnte, als an den 8 bzw. 9 Messpunkten, die von Seiten der Behörden für den Nitratnachweis beprobt werden. Bei den Fließgewässern wurde im Vorfluter Rocina der Median der Nitratkonzentration von 6 mg/l für den Santa Maria der Median der Nitratkonzentration von 18 mg/l ermittelt. Nach den Gewässergütekriterien der LAWA (1998) konnte der Santa Maria als kritisch belastet, der Rocina nach Hütter (1992) als unbelastet festgestellt werden. Die Stichprobenmessungen im Mai 2005 ergaben ähnliche Belastungen wieder. Die Auswertungen der Nitratgehalte im Boden ergaben dass die SchALVO-Überwachungswerte im bewässerten Anbau am häufigsten überschritten werden. Insgesamt ergaben die Erhebungen, dass im Grundwasser, den Fließgewässern sowie im Boden bei allen Nitratmessungen die Standorte mit bewässertem Anbau von Erdbeeren die höchsten Belastungen zeigten. Im Trockenfeldbau wurden erhöhte Nitratwerte in den Brunnen und Stickstoffgehalte in Böden vorgefunden in deren Einzugsgebiet einjährige Kulturen standen. Die höchsten Stickstoffgehalte wurden dann vorgefunden, wenn Getreide angebaut war. Die Untersuchung der Auswirkungen von Landnutzungsänderungen auf den Boden ergab im Trockenfeldbau, dass der Anbau von einjährigen Kulturen auf sandig-schluffigen, im Untergrund verfestigten tonig-lehmigen Böden, bei Hangneigungen von 3 % zu einem erhöhten Erosionsrisiko beiträgt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die EU- Programme zur Förderung des Anbaus von einjährigen Kulturen gerade in den neunziger Jahren zu weitreichenden Bodendegradierungen auf diesen Standorten führte, die bis heute das Ertragspotenzial dieser Böden beeinträchtigt. Von den agrarischen Nutzungen wurden der Wein- und der Olivenanbau als diejenigen Anbaukulturen vorgefunden, die am Besten an den Naturhaushalt angepasst sind. Alle Nachweise, die im Rahmen dieser Untersuchung geführt wurden, um Auswirkungen von Landnutzungen festzustellen: Bodendegradation, Erosion, Nitratbelastung im Grundwasser und den Vorflutern, Wirkungen auf die Wasserreserven sowie Beeinträchtigungen des Landschaftsbildes ergaben, dass diese Kulturen zu keiner nennenswerten Beeinträchtigung führen. Hingegen zeigen die Entwicklungen im bewässerten Anbau und der Anbau von einjährigen Kulturen zu erheblichen Beeinträchtigungen in den Landschaftshaushalt führen kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigen, dass sowohl innerhalb der EU- als auch der nationalen spanischen Agrarpolitik die landwirtschaftliche Nutzung dringend Vor Ort auf Standorteignung und Nachhaltigkeit zu prüfen ist. Hier sind umfangreiche Kontrollen notwendig, um sicherzustellen, dass die in der neuen GAP eingeführten Umweltstandards umgesetzt werden. Um eine nachhaltige Nutzung des Agrarraums und seiner Wasserreserven zu gewährleisten, ist ein intensiver Schutz notwendig. Dieser könnte umfassend geleistet werden, wenn der gesamte Aquifer als Wasserschutzgebiet ausgewiesen würde. ; This research project addresses the causes of changes in land use over the last 40 years in the community of Almonte and related problems in respect of the soil and water balance. In order to determine the factors that led to these changes, farming problems and agrarian policies are analysed with special consideration of EU agricultural policy. In addition, attention is paid to the current conflict between preserving the protected area of the Doñana National Park on the one hand and promoting agricultural development on the other. The environmental investigation focuses on problems related to water usage, identifying the nitrogen (N) content in soil and water and the extent of soil erosion. Agroecological and agropolitical conditions und their effectiveness as development motors in this region are also described. This research represents a contribution to the understanding of land use change and land degradation in Mediterranean areas. It has been conducted within the scope of the working group "Applied Geography of the Tropics and Subtropics (APT)" at the Department of Physical Geography of the University of Freiburg, Germany. It was funded by a scholarship from the special "University Program II of the State of Baden-Württemberg for Women Resuming their Studies" and a doctoral scholarship from the Heinrich-Böll-Foundation in Berlin. Almonte is located in the coastal region of the province of Huelva, South West Andalusia. The agriculturally utilised zone of this community comprises the area adjacent to the Cota Doñana National Park to the west. This park consists, apart from sandy areas like dunes, of wetlands formed by the Guadalquivir marshes and ecozones which are characterized by high groundwater levels. The water influenced zones play a uniquely important role as resting and breeding sites for migratory birds in Europe. However, the preserve's existence is increasingly coming under threat from economic developments in the sectors of agriculture, forestry, tourism and ur-ban development in the surrounding region. These changes have, on the one hand, contributed to an urgently needed economic upturn in this underdeveloped area. On the other hand, they are having an increasingly significant effect on natural re-sources. In Almonte, the principal factors under discussion in connection with these changing land use practices are overuse of groundwater reserves causing the groundwater horizon to fall, water contamination (fertilizers, pesticides) and huge sand deposits left by fluvial soil erosion (JUNTA ANDALUCIA, 2003 und 2003 A, GONZALES RUIZ & VILLA DIAZ, 2003, CUSTODIO, 2001 und 1995, COROMINAS, 1999, CASTELLS, 1992). These effects result primarily from land use changes due to: – increasing irrigated cultivation of crops for export (mainly strawberries and oranges) – abandoning areas traditionally used to grow crops, and – clearing forests and replanting with eucalyptus trees. Farming practices have also changed, primarily shifting from extensive, low-yield dry farming of grapes, olives and grain to intensive farming with the aim of maximum productivity. This productivity is achieved by applying new agricultural methods and equipment and large amounts of fertilizer either in dry or irrigation farming. Especially in the case of irrigation farming, which is predominantly practiced on sandy soils with a low nutrient storage capacity, the danger of fertilizers leaking into the groundwater and tributaries is very great. To study aspects of land use change and how they are affecting the environment, current and historical land use was charted by cartography and field work and documented for the community of Almonte and, in a more differentiated manner, at three test sites exhibiting the typical processes that are influencing land use change in this region. The environmental problems affecting the investigation areas of the community of Almonte were studied by documenting the general problems caused by land use change and extended data research concentrating mainly on water contamination (nitrogen and salinity) and declining water reserves. At the three test sites located on a total of about 30 km² erosion and soil degradation processes were intensively stud-ied, nitrogen levels in the groundwater and soil were measured in-situ by reflectometric methods using nitrate test sticks and the associated Reflectometer RQflex supplied by the Merck company (MERCK KGAA, Darmstadt). Additionally, the electrical conductivity and the pH value of the water were measured. The groundwater parameters were measured monthly at 48 fixed locations over a period of one year, whilst the soil nitrogen levels were determined at 68 sites at various depths, once in the spring and once in the fall. To determine nitrogen pollution in rivers and streams, these were monitored once a month at 31 riverside locations in the course of one year. All these studies were carried out between 1996 and 1998 and were supplemented for purposes of comparison by a review of the results consisting of two sam-ple measurements in June and May 2005. The results revealed that the highest nitrate levels in groundwater and streams and the highest soil nitrogen levels occurred at locations where strawberries are produced with artificial irrigation. In areas with dry farming, nitrate levels measured in groundwater and nitrogen levels in soils were higher where annual crops were cultivated. The highest levels in dry farming areas were found in grain growing areas. The results from the measurements of groundwater nitrate levels in the year 1996/97 in an area of about 30 square kilometers returned average nitrate levels above the 50 mg/l ceiling imposed by the EU nitrates directive ((91/676/EWG). In 2005, the aver-age value was close to 40 mg/l. The monthly nitrogen load measurements carried out in river courses during 1996/97 returned a median nitrate value of 6 mg/l for the Rocina, representing a natural nitrate level for surface waters according to HÜTTER (1992), and 18 mg/l for the Santa Maria, which represents a critical load (LAWA, 1998). Further, a clear relationship between agricultural usage and nitrate input into drainage water was established. As for the case of groundwater, the highest nitrate loads were found in receiving streams which drain irrigated areas. Regarding the methodology, the results indicate that with simple in situ measurements it is possible to cover a large investigation area quickly and effectively with dense coverage and a large number of measurements. The program was able to reveal a significantly higher degree of nitrate pollution than is indicated by official fig-ures based on just a few selected measurements (CONSEJERIÁ DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, 2002 and 2000). In addition, the results show that there is a need to expand the nitrate monitoring network by increasing the number of measurement points in the aq-uifer. With respect to the effects of land use change on soils in dry farming systems, it was found that in this region, annual crops can increase the risk of erosion on slopes of three percent gradient or more with a sandy-silty substratum. It was also possible to show that agro-political programs to encourage the growing of annual crops (for example wheat and sunflowers) were major contributors to severe soil degradation at these locations. As a result, the potential yields of these soils remain low to this day. The study also showed that grapes and olives are the agricultural products that are best adapted to this natural environment. Neither of these crops adversely affects the quality of the soil or water. This conclusion is valid in respect of all the factors investigated in the course of this research: land degradation, erosion, nitrate load in groundwater and receiving streams, effects on water reserves and disturbance of the natural landscape. Irrigated cultivation, in contrast, significantly disturbed the natural equilibrium. Various pressures on natural resources and extensive damage have resulted from factors such as high soil nitrogen and high levels of nitrate in water caused by irrigated agriculture, massive soil relocation and erosion in various areas, construction of artificial ponds for irrigation purposes and overexploitation of water reserves. The results, which have been elaborated using the coastal region of Huelva in Al-monte as a model show that there is an urgent need to revise agricultural practices based on the suitability of locations and sustainability as defined by the EU's agricultural policy and the Spanish agricultural authorities. In addition, an awareness of the local natural conditions in the growing regions must be seen as a prerequisite for establishing the necessary special programs. Also, it is necessary to develop programs to take account of the socioeconomic situation of the agricultural zone. The region's economic growth, which is urgently needed, is closely linked to the availability of water reserves. Besides being an important economic factor, water plays a crucial role in protecting wetlands. It is therefore vital to assign adequate im-portance to the quantity and quality of water for the entire Almonte-Marisma aquifer. This aquifer is the main source of water for some 250.000 people and an area of about 14.000 ha irrigation land. Good quality water is also needed to develop tourism. In view of the fact that we have been able to demonstrate that nitrate levels in the Almonte-Marismas irrigation area have tripled over the last 15 years – despite the fact that irrigated agriculture has only been practiced for the last 20 years – it is probable that these levels will continue to rise unless effective steps are taken to counteract the trend. This is to be underlined by an urgent call for action to provide better protection for this aquifer than is afforded by present EU-nitrate guidelines. A possible solution that could ensure sustainable use and adequate conservation of these water reserves would be to turn the entire aquifer into a water protection area. This would include legally binding rules on appropriate land use and a strict program of water and soil monitoring. With such a declaration the degree of compliance in re-spect of conserving or restoring groundwater quality could be monitored. A possible example which illustrates this kind of water monitoring is the German Water Protec-tion Ordinance of the State of Baden-Württemberg (SchALVO, 2001)). In contrast, the EU nitrates directive only prescribes programs aimed at reducing nitrate pollution without legally binding rules for farmers. Experience gained in Germany has shown how long it can take and how difficult it is to bring about a reduction in groundwater nitrate levels. Continuous efforts have been made for over 20 years to lower nitrate levels in German groundwater, and yet only in the last few years have some modest improvements been observed (LUBW, 2005; BMU, August 2004; FLAIG & LEHN, 2002).