Suchergebnisse

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Bioenergy is a key resource to addressing challenges such as climate change (anthropogenic CO₂ emissions), pollution (suspended particles), energy security and human well-being. Currently, most of the biomass produced worldwide is consumed for cooking and space heating which has raised concerns among governments and policy-makers, especially due to threats to human health. The present thesis focuses on studying the technical and economic feasibility of energy systems based on biomass. It is considered that the main problems regarding the deployment of biomass-based energy systems are: (a) use of traditional biomass; (b) selection of a biomass-based technology; (c) low diversification of the biomass portfolio. With regards to the use of traditional biomass, the thesis evaluates the impact of switching from a system dependent on traditional biomass to a centralized system using low-carbon technologies. The outcome is a model capable of estimating the net reduction of CO₂ emissions that could be obtained by displacing fuelwood and introducing modern biomass taking into account the CO₂ released not only in the production, collection, transport, pre-treatment and conversion of biomass but also the anthropogenic CO₂ emissions caused by shifting to alternative fuels to meet basic energy needs. Results show that even when households have to use alternatives fuels, burning biomass in combustion and gasification power plants still provide a significant reduction in CO₂ emissions. With regards to the selection of a biomass-based technology, this thesis includes a methodology to identify, evaluate and select the best suited technology for the conditions of a given biomass value chain. As any system is affected by the conditions where it is developed, biomass-based energy systems are strongly dependent on region/local conditions such as weather, type of biomass resources, among others. Thus, each region demands its own detailed study. Given the lack of studies related to bioenergy in developing regions such as Central America (CA), this thesis entails a full study case presentation for CA where 84% of the biomass produced is used for domestic cooking and heating. In this context, the thesis aims at improving the bioenergy assessment methodology by using a resource-focused approach to determine the key biomass resources in the region and a Multi-Actor Multi-Criteria Decision- Making method to identify a portfolio of thermochemical conversion technologies appropriate for CA, considering parameters that range from technical, economic, environmental to socio-political aspects. Furthermore, it includes a discussion about the barriers that have stopped the progress of biomass technologies and the challenges to achieve modern bioenergy systems in the region. Results reveal that the main source of biomass in CA is in the agricultural sector and the most appropriate technologies to transform CA's biomass are improved cooking stoves and biomass combustion power plants. With respect to the diversification of the biomass portfolio, currently, sugarcane bagasse is the biomass mostly used in large scale applications for the production of combined heat and power (CHP) in developing countries. Using a demand-driven assessment this thesis aims to evaluate the potential for electricity and ethanol production in CA using sweet sorghum as an alternative sugar crop. Three scenarios were built to analyse sweet sorghum production in terms of the land where it can be cultivated: cropland, sugarcane land in fallow and land in continuous production (intercropping system). The land under permanent crops was not considered for this evaluation. It is estimated that sweet sorghum could supply around 10% of region's electricity demand or supply the ethanol required to implement a 5% ethanol blending programme. Following this assessment, the thesis studies the integration of sweet sorghum into Central American sugar mills by using the existing machinery to process it. The short growing period of sweet sorghum would allow the CHP plants and distilleries to operate during off-season using sorghum bagasse and molasses as raw materials. This thesis provides a techno-economic analysis of the production of electricity and ethanol from sweet sorghum in a sugar mill. The data on various parameters used for techno-economic assessment were collected from an existing sugar mill and distillery in Central America. Results indicate that modern energy carriers from sweet sorghum can be produced at a competitive price under CA conditions and crucial variables determining the cost of electricity and ethanol are the installed capacity of the plant and crop yield. ; La bioenergía es fundamental para hacer frente a retos como el cambio climático (emisiones antropogénicas de CO₂), contaminación (partículas en suspensión), seguridad energética y bienestar humano. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la biomasa que se produce a nivel global se utiliza para fines domésticos (calefacción y cocina) lo cual ha generado preocupación entre los gobiernos y responsables de establecer políticas energéticas, especialmente por los potenciales daños a la salud. La presente tesis doctoral se enfoca en el estudio técnico y económico de sistemas energéticos basados en biomasa. Se considera que los principales problemas con respecto al uso de sistemas basados en biomasa son: (a) uso de biomasa tradicional; (b) selección de la tecnología adecuada; (c) baja diversificación del portafolio de recursos biomásicos. Con respecto al uso de biomasa tradicional, esta tesis evalúa el impacto de cambiar de un sistema altamente dependiente en biomasa tradicional a un sistema centralizado utilizando tecnologías con bajas emisiones de carbón. El resultado es una modelo capaz de estimar la reducción neta en las emisiones de CO₂ que se podrían obtener debido al desplazamiento de leña y el incremento en el uso de biomasa moderna. Dicho modelo no solamente toma en cuenta el CO₂ emitido por la producción, recolección, transporte, pre-tratamiento y conversión de la biomasa sino que también considera las emisiones antropogénicas de CO₂ debidas al uso de combustibles modernos para satisfacer las necesidades energéticas básicas de los usuarios de leña. Los resultados indican que aún cuando los consumidores de biomasa tradicional cambian a combustibles alternativos, la conversión de biomasa en plantas de potencia basadas en combustión y gasificación, proporcionan una reducción en emisiones de CO₂ significativa. Con respecto a la selección de una tecnología para transformar los recursos biomásicos, la presente tesis incluye una metodología para identificar, evaluar y seleccionar la tecnología más apropiada bajo las condiciones de un sistema energético dado. Al igual que cualquier sistema que es afectado por sus alrededores y la interacción de las partes que lo conforman, los sistemas energéticos basados en biomasa son fuertemente influidos por condiciones regionales/locales como el clima o los tipos de recursos biomásicos entre otros. Por lo tanto, cada región exige la realización de un estudio detallado que incluya la influencia de variables locales. En este sentido, teniendo en cuenta los pocos estudios técnicos relacionados al uso de bioenergía en regiones en desarrollo como por ejemplo Centroamérica (CA), esta tesis realiza un estudio detallado para CA donde el 84% de la biomasa producida es usada para satisfacer necesidades energéticas básicas. En este contexto, la tesis tiene como objeto proponer soluciones que permitan la explotación de biomasa de manera eficiente utilizando un enfoque basado en los recursos disponibles para determinar las fuentes de biomasa con mayor potencial en la región. A su vez se emplea un análisis multicriterio impulsado por la participación de varios actores para identificar un portafolio de tecnologías apropiadas basadas en procesos termoquímicos para su implementación en CA considerando aspectos que varían desde lo técnico, económico, medioambiental hasta lo socio-político. Así también, discute las barreras que han detenido el progreso en el uso de tecnologías basadas en biomasa y los retos que se tienen que afrontar para incrementar el uso de biomasa moderna en dicha región. Los resultados muestran que la principal fuente de biomasa en CA proviene del sector agrario y que la tecnología más apropiada para transformar dicho recurso son las cocinas mejoradas y las plantas de potencia basadas en combustión. Con respecto a la diversificación del portafolio biomásico, actualmente el bagazo de la caña de azúcar es la biomasa más utilizada para la producción de vapor y electricidad a gran escala en regiones en desarrollo como Latinoamérica. Utilizando un enfoque impulsado por la demanda de electricidad y etanol, esta tesis tiene como objeto evaluar el potencial del uso de sorgo dulce en CA para la producción de vectores energéticos sostenibles. Tres escenarios han sido planteados para estudiar el potencial del sorgo dulce en función de dónde esta planta podría ser cultivada: tierra para cultivos, tierras potencialmente baldías dedicadas al cultivo de caña de azúcar y un sistema de intercultivo de sorgo dulce con caña de azúcar. La tierra dedicada al uso continuo de cultivos ha sido excluida del presente estudio. Se estima que la utilización de sorgo dulce como cultivo energético podría proveer alrededor del 10% de la demanda energética de la región o proveer el etanol necesario para implementar un programa de etanol al 5% en la gasolina. Así mismo, la presente tesis estudia la integración del sorgo dulce a los ingenios azucareros de CA utilizando la misma maquinaria que se emplea en la caña de azúcar para procesar dicho cultivo energético. El corto periodo de crecimiento del sorgo dulce permitiría a las plantas de potencia y destilerías operar fuera de la temporada de caña de azúcar utilizado el bagazo y miel final del sorgo dulce como materia prima. La presente tesis proporciona un análisis tecno-económico de la producción de electricidad y etanol a partir de sorgo dulce en ingenio azucarero. Los datos necesarios como parámetros de entrada para el análisis tecno-económico fueron obtenidos de una planta existente de producción de azúcar y destilería en CA. Los resultados indican que la producción de vectores energéticos con tecnologías modernas puede ser llevada a cabo a precios competitivos bajo las condiciones de CA y las variables que lo determinan, ya sea el costo de la electricidad o etanol a partir del sorgo dulce, son la capacidad instalada de las plantas y el rendimiento del cultivo energético. ; This work started as part of a project supported by the Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation (AECID). ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ingeniería Mecánica y de Organización Industrial ; Presidente: Omar Raúl Masera Cerutti.- Secretario: Carolina Marugán Cruz.- Vocal: René M.J. Benders

Naisten valtaistumisesta (empowerment) on tullut globaali ilmiö nykyisessä kehitysajattelussa. Inklusiivinen hallinta, kestävä kehitys, köyhyyden vastustaminen ja sukupuolten välisen diskriminaation vähentäminen eivät ole mahdollisia missään maassa, ennen kuin naiset otetaan mukaan kehityksen rakentamiseen. Naisten osallistuminen kotitaloutta koskevaan päätöksentekoon on naisten valtaistumisprosessin kulmakivi. Microcredit-järjestelmästä on tullut merkittävä toimenpide viime vuosikymmenien aikana Bangladeshissa mitä tulee naisten valtaistumiseen yhteiskunnassa. Järjestelmän piiriin kuuluvat Bangladeshissa köyhät ja epävirallista työtä tekevät naiset. Järjestelmä tarjoaa mahdollisuuksia osaamistason nostoon, organisatorista tukea ja tietoisuuden kasvattamista riskioloissa eläville naisille. Vaikka tutkimuskirjallisuudessa Microcredit-järjestelmää on pääasiassa tuotu esille yhteiskunnallisena potentiaalina Bangladeshissa, on tutkimuskirjallisuudesta välittyvä kuva myös ristiriitainen. Järjestelmään näyttää liittyvän onnistumisen lisäksi myös epäonnistumisia. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan Microcredit-järjestelmän ja naisten valtaistumisen välistä suhdetta – sitä, miten osallistuminen järjestelmään lisää lainaajina olevien naisten osallisuutta kodissa tapahtuvassa päätöksenteossa. Tarkemmin sanoen tutkimuskysymys on: edistääkö Microcredit-järjestelmään osallistuvien naisten roolia kotitaloudessa tapahtuvassa päätöksenteossa erityisesti koulutukseen, terveyteen, kodin rahatalouteen ja avioliittoon liittyvissä kysymyksissä? Tutkimuksessa hyödynnettiin monenlaisia tutkimusmetodeja tutkimusprosessin eri vaiheissa. Tutkimus perustuu kuitenkin pääasiassa laadulliseen aineistoon. Kyseessä on empiirinen tutkimus, joka perustuu ensikäden lähteisiin kokonaisvaltaisen ymmärryksen saamiseksi tutkimuskohteesta. Tästä syystä tutkimuksessa keskityttiin laadullisiin tutkimusmenetelmiin ja –aineistoihin. Tutkimusmenetelminä sovellettiin sisällönanalyysia, teemahaastattelumenetelmää, virallisia ja epävirallisia keskusteluja, osallistuvaa havainnointia ja jossain määrin myös formaalia survey-tekniikkaa ja kyselyjen tekemistä. Näiden lisäksi tutkimusaineistoa täydennettiin myös toisen käden tutkimusaineistolla ja tutkimuskirjallisuudella. Tutkimuksen lähtökohtana on kokonaisvaltainen teoreettinen viitekehys, jossa keskeisiä käsitteitä ovat naisten valtaistuminen, Microcredit-järjestelmä, kotitaloudessa tapahtuva päätöksenteko ja osallisuus. Tutkimuskirjallisuutta käytettiin hyödyksi nimenomaan teoreettisen viitekehyksen luomisessa. Tutkimusprosessissa tutkimuskirjallisuutta analysoitiin systemaattisesti tulkitsemalla ja uudelleen tulkitsemalla tutkimuksen kannalta avainkäsitteitä. Tutkimuksen empiirisen osion keskiössä oli Microcredit-järjestelmän ja naisten valtaistumisen välinen suhde. Viime vuosikymmenien aikana tapahtuneesta kehityksestä huolimatta edelleen monet seikat estävät ja hidastavat naisten valtaistumista ja osallisuutta Bangladeshissa. Tällaisia seikkoja ovat muun muassa puutteellinen koulutus, köyhyys ja heikot taloudelliset olosuhteet, perinteiset sosiaaliset normit ja arvot, uskonnollisten normien ja arvojen väärin tulkinnat, puutteellinen sosiaalinen tietoisuus, avioituminen varhaisessa iässä, puutteellinen sosiaaliturva ja olematon oikeusturva. Tämän tutkimuksen empiiristen havaintojen mukaan Microcredit-järjestelmä auttaa naisia voittamanaan edellä kaltaisen tapaisia esteitä, mikä edistää naisten valtaistumista. Tutkimuksen johtopäätökset alleviivaavat sitä, että Microcredit-järjestelmällä on positiivinen vaikutus naisten valtaistumiseen ja että järjestelmä kannustaa siinä mukana olevia naisia osallistumaan kotitalouksissa tapahtuvaan päätöksentekoon. Tutkimuksessa tuodaan esille ruohonjuuritasolla se, miten järjestelmä toimii käytännössä. Tämä prosessi voidaan tiivistää seuraavalla tavalla: järjestelmä luo köyhille naisille mahdollisuuksia hankkia erilaisia pääomia ja se luo itse työllistymisen mahdollisuuksia naisille, joilta puuttuu pääomia. Samalla järjestelmä vaikuttaa siihen, että yhteiskunnassa naisia – ja erityisesti köyhiä naisia – arvostetaan enemmän yhteiskunnassa. Järjestelmä on tehnyt mahdolliseksi sen, että miljoonat naiset ovat pystyneet pakenemaan köyhyyden ja orjuuden ikeestä. Tutkimuksen empiirinen evidenssi paljastaa, että järjestelmä valtaistaa naiset antamalla heille taloudellista pääomaa ja tekemällä mahdolliseksi naisille ansaita omia tuloja, mikä puolestaan tekee mahdolliseksi naisten paremman osallistuminen kotitaloudessa ja erilaisissa yhteisöissä tapahtuvassa päätöksenteossa. Taloudellinen valtaistuminen vahvistaa naisten omanarvontuntoa. Erityisesti on syytä mainita, että järjestelmä tekee mahdolliseksi äärimmäisten köyhien naisten roolien muuttumisen yhteiskunnassa. Microcredit-järjestelmällä on tämän tutkimuksen perusteella vaikutuksia seuraaville elämänalueille: naisten oikeuksiin, kohentuneeseen itsetuntoon, lisääntyvään poliittiseen vaikutusvaltaan ja näin ollen myös vahvistuvaan rooliin kotitaloudessa tapahtuvassa päätöksenteossa. Tästä on seurauksena, että järjestelmä kiistatta edistää naisten osallisuutta päätöksenteossa ja samalla lisää merkityksellisellä tavalla naisten valtaistumista Bangladeshissa. Microcredit-järjestelmän menestyksen varmistamisessa tulee kuitenkin ottaa huomioon seuraavassa mainittuja tekijöitä. Korkea korkotaso, erittäin köyhien naisten sivuuttaminen, kotiväkivalta ja järjestelmään kuuluvien instituutioiden keskinäinen epäedullinen kilpailu ja osaoptimointi, huono hallinto ja koulutuksen puute rapauttavat pitkällä aikajänteellä järjestelmää, jos niihin ei puututa. Tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan sanoa, että naisten valtaistuminen on kollektiivinen prosessi, jota ei voida saavuttaa yksiulotteisilla toimenpiteillä. Microcredit-järjestelmä ei ole ihmelääke eikä ainoa tapa valtaistaa naisia ja kohentaa heidän asemaansa, mutta se on kieltämättä hyvin merkittävässä roolissa kun naisten yhteiskunnallista asemaa Bangladeshissa parannetaan, esimerkiksi kansalaisjärjestötoiminnan viitekehyksessä. Järjestelmän hyödyt ja pysyvyys ovat sidoksissa erilaisiin sosiaalisiin, kulttuurisiin ja poliittisiin tekijöihin. Näiden tekijöiden merkitys ei saa aliarvioida järjestelmän onnistumisen turvaamisessa ja siksi näihin tekijöihin liittyviin esteisiin tulee koko ajan kiinnittää huomiota, jotta naisten valtaistumisen prosessi yhteiskunnassa turvataan. Naisten valtaistuminen on monisäikeinen ja kontekstuaalinen tavoite, joka edellyttää integroitua yhteiskunnalliseen kehitykseen liittyvää lähestymistapaa. Lisäksi integroitu lähestymistapa tulee linkittää kansainvälisten apujärjestöjen toimintaan kaikilla eri tasoilla – ilman tätä naisten valtaistumimen ei tule saamaan riittävää huomiota osakseen. Lisäksi on otettava huomioon, etteivät Microcredit-järjestelmän hyödyt tule olemaan kestäviä ilman näkyvien muutosten esiintymistä järjestelmään piirissä olevien naisten elämässä. Tutkimustulokset viittaavat siihen, että Microcredit-järjestelmällä on ollut positiivinen vaikutus miljoonien erittäin köyhien naisten elämään Bangladeshissa. Jatkotutkimustarpeena onkin edellä mainitun integroidun lähestymistavan sisältö, jolloin huomio kiinnittyy hallinnan (governance) ja järjestelmän välisiin vastavuoroisiin suhteisiin. ; Women's empowerment has become a global phenomenon in the contemporary discourse of development. Inclusive governance, sustainable development, poverty alleviation and reduction of gender discrimination are not possible in any country unless and until women are included and associated with mainstream development. Women's participation in their household's decision-making process is a cornerstone of their empowerment. In recent decades, micro-credit has gained enormous importance as one of the key tools of women's empowerment in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, microcredit operations now provide support mostly to the poor and to women involved in informal activities mostly household related. Microcredit programs also offer skill-based training to supplement efficiency, organizational support, and awareness-raising to empower the disadvantaged women. Although, the literature on microcredit highlights its potential to empower women in Bangladesh, there are also contradictory findings and controversial successes and failures. Therefore, this study investigates the relationship between microcredit and women's empowerment i.e. how participation in microcredit programs effect borrowers' abilities to participate in their household's decision-making process. Specifically, this study asks: does microcredit promote borrowers' participation in their household's decision-making process, especially in the areas of education, health, savings, and marriage? Multiple research methods were used during the different phases of this study. However, primarily this dissertation employed qualitative methods. This is an empirical study, and first hand data and a comprehensive empirical study were needed to answer the central research question of this study. Therefore, various methods and techniques of qualitative research have been used to collect first hand data from Bangladesh such as content analysis, thematic interviews, formal and informal discussion, participant observations, interviews, participatory rural appraisal and formal questionnaire methods. In addition, a sizable data has been collected from the secondary sources. The theoretical framework of key concepts, such as women's empowerment, microcredit, household decision-making, and participation are presented in a very comprehensive manner. In order to better understand and justify the key concepts, a large amount of literature was reviewed, interpreted, reinterpreted and presented from a broad perspective. The relationship between microcredit and women's empowerment in general and the abilities of microcredit borrowers' to participate in their household decision-making process in particular have been presented with empirical references. Despite many attempts during the last few decades, grassroots evidences demonstrated that a number of challenges still inhibit the process of women's empowerment in Bangladesh. They are: lack of proper education, poverty and weak economic conditions, traditional social norms and values, misinterpretations of religious norms and values, a lack of social awareness, early marriage, a lack of social security, and a lack of proper law enforcement. Empirical findings also confirm that microcredit partly helps women to overcome these challenges and empower them. The findings of this study show that microcredit has a positive impact on women's empowerment and promotes microcredit borrowers to participate in the household decision-making process. The impacts of microcredit on women's empowerment, which were demonstrated at the grassroots level, could be summarized as: microcredit created opportunities for poor women to access capital; it has created self-employment opportunities for poor women who lack assets; microcredit has shown people how to respect the poor women in the society, and; microcredit has enabled millions of poor women to escape from slavery. Evidence reveals that microcredit empowers women by putting capital in their hands and by helping them to earn own income, which allows them to financially contribute to their families and communities. Economic empowerment increases their self-esteem, respect, and other forms of empowerment for women. Microcredit allows ultra-poor women to shift from non-participatory roles to participatory roles in their families. Microcredit empowers women in domains including: more rights, improved self-esteem, increase political power and thus increased participation in household decision making. As a result, microcredit promotes the borrowers to participate in the household decision-making process and meaningfully adds to the process of women's empowerment in Bangladesh. However, in order to promote and continue this process, several issues should be taken into account. These were identified as the limitations of microcredit on women's empowerment. They include high-interest rates, ignoring of the very poor, causing some instances of domestic violence, an unhealthy level of competition among the microcredit institutions, the misuse and mismanagement of credit by borrowers, and a lack of training and education for borrowers. Unquestionably, women's empowerment is a collective process and it can never be achieved by pushing a single strategy, such as NGO's microcredit programs. Microcredit is not a panacea and the only way to empower women, but it is one of the leading factors of women's empowerment introduced by the NGOs. The benefits of microcredit and its sustainability depend on other factors for example social, cultural and political factors. These factors should be addressed simultaneously in order to promote the process of women's empowerment. Women's empowerment is a multidimensional and contextual idea that requires an integrated approach to development. Without an integrated approach to all state and international aid agencies, women's empowerment will never get proper attention. Furthermore, the benefits of microcredit will never become sustainable and will never bring about viable, long-term changes for borrowers. Undeniably, microcredit has had a positive impact on the lives of millions of ultra-poor women in Bangladesh. Therefore, future research could explore how to build an integrated holistic approach to women's empowerment in Bangladesh.

1 Single abstract for the CUC (Creative University Conference), August 2016 UNIVERSITIES AS ORGANIZATIONS FOR MARKETIZATION AND SELF-BRANDING. Bente Elkjaer and Niels Christian Mossfeldt Nickelsen Contact author: elkjaer@edu.au.dk"Right. As long as you have access to a telephone, a Xerox machine, and a conference grant fund, you're OK, you're plugged into the university that really matters – the global campus" (Lodge, 1985: 44)Knowledge production through innovation and learning appear crucial in contemporary knowledge based economies (Edmondson, 2012), and universities are ascribed a central role in this endeavor (Bleiklie & Byrkjeflot, 2002). One of the ways this has shown is through politically implemented new ways in which to manage universities in order to make them fulfil their contribution to societies (Carney, 2006; Deem, 2001; Halvorsen & Nyhagen, 2011; Wright & Ørberg, 2008). The Danish University system has not been exempted from this worldwide development, and in 2003 the university system in Denmark was changed from one in which managers at all levels were elected amongst peers to a system where a Board with a majority of external members (i.e. people who are not employed at the university) is the highest authority of the university. The result is that we as university scholars within the last 10-15 years have witnessed an increased emphasis on 'professional management' occupied with formulations of distinct strategic goals in combination with a more closely monitoring of quantitative measurements of research outputs (Wright, 2011) and the demands of adaptation to international and standardized ranking systems (Czarniawska, 2015) through for example lists of which publication outlets count and not count as well as a steady stream of invitations to answer surveys on our knowledge of the reputation of universities.The purpose with the paper is to discuss how this increased emphasis upon the professionalization of management and a strategic marketization of universities (Czarniawska & Genell, 2002; Kallio, Kallio, Tienari, & Hyvönen, 2016) will influence universities' abilities to2maintain their pivotal position with regard to production of new knowledge and learning. The question is whether the 'plurality of thoughts' (Kallio et al., 2016: 702) and the 'intellectual model' of the university (O'Byrne & Bond, 2014: 572) will be squeezed in professional management, measurement and ranking with innovative learning and knowing as the losers.Some dilemmas appear to be interesting in this debate both with regard to what drives scholarship, learning and knowledge production, and to the contemporary organization of scholars. With regard to the latter, we believe that it is important to recall that university scholars are not only embedded in their home-university but also participants in worldwide social worlds of scholars within their fields of inquiry and a competitive market for university scholars. This may for example be exemplified through not only citation indexes but also through the many competitions in which scholars are invited to vote for other scholars' work in order to be nominated as the 'author of the year' or similar prizes. With regard to what drives scholarship, learning and knowledge production, we understand this as both driven by exploration and experimentation (Dewey, 1913 [1979], 1922 [1988]) as well as struggles for visibility, attention and recognition (Merton, 1968, 1988) and even aspirations for celebrity (Van Krieken, 2012).The theoretical framework that informs the paper is both a pragmatist inspired understanding of organizations as "people doing things together" (Becker, 1986; Hughes, 2015), learning and knowing as driven by tensions (Brandi & Elkjaer, 2013; Elkjaer, 2005; Elkjaer & Huysman, 2008) and passions (Dey & Steyaert, 2007; Gherardi, Nicolini, & Strati, 2007). This will allow us to both look at the organizing processes amongst scholars but also how the university as an organization of knowledge production organize around this pursuit, for example with regard to support mechanisms for scholarly research. Theories on how the branding of selves unfold in academia (see for example Wirtén, 2015), and how this may be supported by the web-based platforms (Marwick, 2013; Senft, 2013) also inform the research in order to help interpret how scholars' own participation in marketization through branding of selves may be understood.The methodology is based upon a reading of books, reports, papers and articles on the changes of management at universities and the dilemma of university scholars to adapt to these changes. For example, it may be observed how the demands for Open Access to knowledge and new network sites for academics (for example ResearchGate and Academia.edu) (Thelwall & Kousha, 2014, 2015) may act as a way in which academic scholars gain not only voice and visibility amongst3peers but also easy access to a worldwide market of knowledge. The new media platforms allow for work to be cited, uploaded, spread and measured by other members of the field of inquiry in order for university scholars to not only brand themselves in a competitive market for knowledge. This latter may also be captured in a competitive or a collaborative ethos of scholarship, or maybe best as a balance between the two (Kallio et al., 2016).The results are to re-consider what sort of organizing may benefit universities when innovative and competitive learning and knowing is the aim bearing in mind that university scholars not only serve organizational but also their own interests, which are situated in both markets and their fields of inquiry and their social worlds of peers. So, basically it is a paper highlighting the relationship between the employing organization (in case universities) and the employed person (in case university scholars) with a focus upon universities as organizations for learning and knowledge production.The limitations may be that the paper is a discursive voice into a field of many voices and as such does not represent a cumulative 'truth' – but a voice.The implications are to consider looking at the organizing processes of university scholars and knowledge production, for example to map how the support system for research in universities works to enhance scholarly learning and knowing, and how scholars participate in the marketization of selves and knowledge production.The originality lies in the reconsiderations of how management and marketization also taps into scholars as part hereof, not only out of compliance (Alvesson & Spicer, 2016), but also as active participants and with own aspirations for celebrity.4ReferencesAlvesson, M., & Spicer, A. 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We gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Institute of Health-National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) conference grant travel support (R13ES023276); Glenn Rice, Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA also deserves thanks for his thoughtful feedback and inputs on the manuscript; William H.Goodson III was supported by the California Breast Cancer Research Program, Clarence Heller Foundation and California Pacific Medical Center Foundation; Abdul M.Ali would like to acknowledge the financial support of the University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia; Ahmed Lasfar was supported by an award from the Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey; Ann-Karin Olsen and Gunnar Brunborg were supported by the Research Council of Norway (RCN) through its Centres of Excellence funding scheme (223268/F50), Amancio Carnero's lab was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity, ISCIII (Fis: PI12/00137, RTICC: RD12/0036/0028) co-funded by FEDER from Regional Development European Funds (European Union), Consejeria de Ciencia e Innovacion (CTS-1848) and Consejeria de Salud of the Junta de Andalucia (PI-0306-2012); Matilde E. Lleonart was supported by a trienal project grant PI12/01104 and by project CP03/00101 for personal support. Amaya Azqueta would like to thank the Ministerio de Educacion y Ciencia ('Juande la Cierva' programme, 2009) of the Spanish Government for personal support; Amedeo Amedei was supported by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (2009FZZ4XM_002), and the University of Florence (ex6012); Andrew R.Collins was supported by the University of Oslo; Annamaria Colacci was supported by the Emilia-Romagna Region - Project 'Supersite' in Italy; Carolyn Baglole was supported by a salary award from the Fonds de recherche du Quebec-Sante (FRQ-S); Chiara Mondello's laboratory is supported by Fondazione Cariplo in Milan, Italy (grant n. 2011-0370); Christian C.Naus holds a Canada Research Chair; Clement Yedjou was supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH-NIMHD grant no. G12MD007581); Daniel C.Koch is supported by the Burroughs Wellcome Fund Postdoctoral Enrichment Award and the Tumor Biology Training grant: NIH T32CA09151; Dean W. Felsher would like to acknowledge the support of United States Department of Health and Human Services, NIH grants (R01 CA170378 PQ22, R01 CA184384, U54 CA149145, U54 CA151459, P50 CA114747 and R21 CA169964); Emilio Rojas would like to thank CONACyT support 152473; Ezio Laconi was supported by AIRC (Italian Association for Cancer Research, grant no. IG 14640) and by the Sardinian Regional Government (RAS); Eun-Yi Moon was supported by grants from the Public Problem-Solving Program (NRF-015M3C8A6A06014500) and Nuclear R&D Program (#2013M2B2A9A03051296 and 2010-0018545) through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) and funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) in Korea; Fahd Al-Mulla was supported by the Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (2011-1302-06); Ferdinando Chiaradonna is supported by SysBioNet, a grant for the Italian Roadmap of European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) and by AIRC (Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro; IG 15364); Francis L.Martin acknowledges funding from Rosemere Cancer Foundation; he also thanks Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS trust and the patients who have facilitated the studies he has undertaken over the course of the last 10 years; Gary S.Goldberg would like to acknowledge the support of the New Jersey Health Foundation; Gloria M.Calaf was supported by Fondo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (FONDECYT), Ministerio de Educación de Chile (MINEDUC), Universidad de Tarapacá (UTA); Gudrun Koppen was supported by the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Belgium; Hemad Yasaei was supported from a triennial project grant (Strategic Award) from the National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction (NC3Rs) of animals in research (NC.K500045.1 and G0800697); Hiroshi Kondoh was supported in part by grants from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan, Japan Science and Technology Agency and by JST, CREST; Hsue-Yin Hsu was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (NSC93-2314-B-320-006 and NSC94-2314-B-320-002); Hyun Ho Park was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2012R1A2A2A01010870) and a grant from the Korea Healthcare Technology R&D project, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI13C1449); Igor Koturbash is supported by the UAMS/NIH Clinical and Translational Science Award (UL1TR000039 and KL2TR000063) and the Arkansas Biosciences Institute, the major research component of the Arkansas Tobacco Settlement Proceeds Act of 2000; Jan Vondráček acknowledges funding from the Czech Science Foundation (13-07711S); Jesse Roman thanks the NIH for their support (CA116812); John Pierce Wise Sr. and Sandra S.Wise were supported by National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ES016893 to J.P.W.) and the Maine Center for Toxicology and Environmental Health; Jonathan Whitfield acknowledges support from the FERO Foundation in Barcelona, Spain; Joseph Christopher is funded by Cancer Research UK and the International Journal of Experimental Pathology; Julia Kravchenko is supported by a philanthropic donation by Fred and Alice Stanback; Jun Sun is supported by a Swim Across America Cancer Research Award; Karine A.Cohen-Solal is supported by a research scholar grant from the American Cancer Society (116683-RSG-09-087-01-TBE); Laetitia Gonzalez received a postdoctoral fellowship from the Fund for Scientific Research–Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen) and support by an InterUniversity Attraction Pole grant (IAP-P7-07); Laura Soucek is supported by grant #CP10/00656 from the Miguel Servet Research Contract Program and acknowledges support from the FERO Foundation in Barcelona, Spain; Liang-Tzung Lin was supported by funding from the Taipei Medical University (TMU101-AE3-Y19); Linda Gulliver is supported by a Genesis Oncology Trust (NZ) Professional Development Grant, and the Faculty of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Louis Vermeulen is supported by a Fellowship of the Dutch Cancer Society (KWF, UVA2011-4969) and a grant from the AICR (14–1164); Mahara Valverde would like to thank CONACyT support 153781; Masoud H. Manjili was supported by the office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs (USA) through the Breast Cancer Research Program under Award No. W81XWH-14-1-0087 Neetu Singh was supported by grant #SR/FT/LS-063/2008 from the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India; Nicole Kleinstreuer is supported by NIEHS contracts (N01-ES 35504 and HHSN27320140003C); P.K. Krishnakumar is supported by the Funding (No. T.K. 11-0629) of King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Paola A.Marignani is supported by the Dalhousie Medical Research Foundation, The Beatrice Hunter Cancer Institute and CIHR and the Nova Scotia Lung Association; Paul Dent is the holder of the Universal Inc.Chair in Signal Transduction Research and is supported with funds from PHS grants from the NIH (R01-CA141704, R01-CA150214, R01-DK52825 and R01-CA61774); Petr Heneberg was supported by the Charles University in Prague projects UNCE 204015 and PRVOUK P31/2012, and by the Czech Science Foundation projects P301/12/1686 and 15-03834Y; Po Sing Leung was supported by the Health and Medical Research Fund of Food and Health Bureau, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Ref. No: 10110021; Qiang Cheng was supported in part by grant NSF IIS-1218712; R. Brooks Robey is supported by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs; Rabindra Roy was supported by United States Public Health Service Grants (RO1 CA92306, RO1 CA92306-S1 and RO1 CA113447); Rafaela Andrade-Vieira is supported by the Beatrice Hunter Cancer Research Institute and the Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation; Renza Vento was partially funded by European Regional Development Fund, European Territorial Cooperation 2007–13 (CCI 2007 CB 163 PO 037, OP Italia-Malta 2007–13) and grants from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) ex-60%, 2007; Riccardo Di Fiore was a recipient of fellowship granted by European Regional Development Fund, European Territorial Cooperation 2007–2013 (CCI 2007 CB 163 PO 037, OP Italia-Malta 2007–2013); Rita Dornetshuber-Fleiss was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, project number T 451-B18) and the Johanna Mahlke, geb.-Obermann-Stiftung; Roberta Palorini is supported by a SysBioNet fellowship; Roslida Abd Hamid is supported by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia-Exploratory Research Grant Scheme-Project no: ERGS/1-2013/5527165; Sabine A.S.Langie is the beneficiary of a postdoctoral grant from the AXA Research Fund and the Cefic-LRI Innovative Science Award 2013; Sakina Eltom is supported by NIH grant SC1CA153326; Samira A.Brooks was supported by National Research Service Award (T32 ES007126) from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the HHMI Translational Medicine Fellowship; Sandra Ryeom was supported by The Garrett B. Smith Foundation and the TedDriven Foundation; Thierry Massfelder was supported by the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale INSERM and Université de Strasbourg; Thomas Sanderson is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR; MOP-115019), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada (NSERC; 313313) and the California Breast Cancer Research Program (CBCRP; 17UB-8703); Tiziana Guarnieri is supported by a grant from Fundamental Oriented Research (RFO) to the Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy and thanks the Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Bologna and the Fondazione Banca del Monte di Bologna e Ravenna for supporting the Center for Applied Biomedical Research, S.Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy; W.Kimryn Rathmell is supported by the V Foundation for Cancer Research and the American Cancer Society; William K.Decker was supported in part by grant RP110545 from the Cancer Prevention Research Institute of Texas; William H.Bisson was supported with funding from the NIH P30 ES000210; Yon Rojanasakul was supported with NIH grant R01-ES022968; Zhenbang Chen is supported by NIH grants (MD004038, CA163069 and MD007593); Zhiwei Hu is grateful for the grant support from an institutional start-up fund from The Ohio State University College of Medicine and The OSU James Comprehensive Cancer Center (OSUCCC) and a Seed Award from the OSUCCC Translational Therapeutics Program.

VANDA ARAMAVIČIŪTĖ – Habilitated doc­tor of Social Sciences (Education), Profes­sor at the Department of Education, Vilnius University. Research interests: general edu­cology, education and spiritual develop­ment of personality, methodology of educa­tional research. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: aramaviciute@gmail.comMARTYNA BAKAITĖ – Master student in Education at Vilnius University. Research interests: adult education, digital culture, language didactics. Address: 9/1 Univer­siteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: martyna.bakaitė@gmail.comJURATE ČERNEVIČIŪTĖ – Doctor of Hu­manities (Philosophy), Professor at the Department of Creative Entrepreneurship and Communication, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University. Research interests: communication, cultural and media studies, creative industries, innovations. Address: 26/1 Pylimo Str., LT-01132 Vilnius, Lithu­ania; e-mail address: jurate.cerneviciute@vgtu.ltMIGLĖ DOVYDAITIENĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Lecturer at the De­partment of General Psychology, Vilnius University. Research interests: consultancy theory and practice, family crises preven­tion, short-term therapy, conflict resolution. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: migle.dovydaitiene@fsf.vu.ltLILIJA DUOBLIENĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Professor and the Head of the Education Department, Vilnius University. Research interests: education philosophy, education policy, multicul­tural education. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: lilija.duobliene@fsf.vu.ltOLGA ILJINA – PhD student of Social Sciences (Education) at the Department of Edu­cation, Vilnius University. Research inter­ests: education sociology, social justice in education, grounded theory. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithu­ania; e-mail address: olgailjina@gmail.comŽILVINAS JANČORAS – Head of Creative Innovation Lab, Vilnius Gediminas Techni­cal University. Research interests: creative industries, innovations, innovation management, business models. Address: 5-35 Linkmenų Str., Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: zilvinas.jancoras@vgtu.ltALBINAS KALVAITIS – Doctor of Social Sciences (Sociology), Education Devel­opment Centre's methodologist. Research interests: education sociology, education management, general education. Address: 44 M. Katkaus Str., LT-09217 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: albinaskalvaitis@gmail.comRUSNĖ KREGŽDAITĖ – PhD student of So­cial Sciences (Economics); junior researcher at the Creative Innovation Lab, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University. Research interests: creative industries, economics of culture, econometrical analysis. Address: 5-35 Linkmenų Str., Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: rusne.kregzdaite@vgtu.ltELVYDA MARTIŠAUSKIENĖ – Habilitated Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Professor at Department of Education, Vilnius University of Educational Sciences. Research interests: general educology, methodology of moral and spiri­tual research. Address: 39 Studentų Str., LT-08106 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: martisauskiene@gmail.comVAIDAS MORKEVIČIUS – Doctor of Social Sciences (Sociology), Researcher at the Creative Innovation Lab, Vilnius Gedi­minas Technical University. Research interests: social survey, social science methods, qualitative comparative analysis, applied statistics and data analytics. Address: 5-35 Linkmenų Str., Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: vaidas.morkevicius@vgtu.ltŽIGIMANTAS PEČIŪRA – Master student, Department of General Psychology, Vilnius University. Research interests: educational psychology, psychology of career. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lith­uania; e-mail address: zigpec@gmail.comVAIDA PLATKEVIČIŪTĖ – Student, De­partment of General psychology, Vilnius University. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania.BIRUTĖ POCIŪTĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Psychology), Associate Professor at the Department of General Psychology, Vilnius University. Research interests: educational psychology, psychology of career choice, learning. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: birute.pociute@fsf.vu.ltGIEDRĖ JUDITA RASTAUSKIENĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Lecturer at Department of Applied Biology and Reha­bilitation, Lithuanian Sports University. Re­search interests: socioeducational research analysis. Address: 6 Sporto Str., LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; e-mail address:giedre.rastauskiene@gmail.comIRENA STONKUVIENĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Associate Professor at the Department of the Education Depart­ment, Vilnius University. Research inter­ests: history of education, anthropology of education, education and culture, gender and education. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: irena.stonkuviene@fsf.vu.ltROLANDAS STRAZDAS – Doctor of Social Sciences (Management), Researcher at the Institute of Open Source Research, Associate Professor at the Mechanical Engineer­ing Department, Vilnius Gediminas Tech­nical University. Research interests: inno­vation management, process improvement, collective creativity, creative industries. Address: 11 Saulėtekio Ave., LT-10223 Vil­nius, Lithuania; e-mail address: rolandas.strazdas@vgtu.ltSAULIUS ŠUKYS – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Head of the Department of Health, Physical and Social Education, Lithuanian Sports University. Research in­terests: peculiarities of prosocial children behavior in physical activity. Address: 6 Sporto Str., LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; e-mail address: saulius.sukys@lsu.ltMARIA TILK – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Associate Professor at the De­partment of Educational Sciences, Tallinn University. Research interests: history of education, narrative. Address: Uus-Sadama 5, Tallinn 10120, Estonia; e-mail address: maria.tilk@tlu.eeSVETLANA VASILIONOK – Master stu­dent in Education at Vilnius University. Research interests: Lithuanian language teaching in minority schools, Eastern phi­losophy, the visual arts in teaching and learning. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: svetlana.vasilionok@gmail.comEDITA VAINIENĖ – PhD student of Social Sciences (Education) of Sports and Move­ment Science Center, Lithuanian Sports University. Research interests: physical culture, identity of specialists of physical education and sports. Address: Sporto Str. 6, LT–44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; e-mail address: editavaina@gmail.comVITA VENSLOVAITĖ – Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Lecturer at the De­partment of Education, Vilnius University. Research interests: philosophy of educa­tion, musical education, phenomenology in education. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: vitavensl@gmail.comCHARL C. WOLHUTER – Professor in Comparative and International Education, North-West University. Research interests: teaching of comparative education, theory of comparative education, teacher educa­tion, higher education in Africa. Address: North-West University Private Bag X 6001, Potchefstroom Campus, South Africa; e-mail address: Charl.Wolhuter@nwu.ac.zaRIMANTAS ŽELVYS – Habilitated Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Professor at the Department of Education, Vilnius University. Research interests: education policy, education management, higher education. Address: 9/1 Universiteto Str., LT-01513 Vilnius, Lithuania; e-mail address: rimantas.zelvys@leu.lt ; VANDA ARAMAVIČIŪTĖ – socialinių moks­lų (edukologijos) habilituota daktarė, Vil­niaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: bendroji edukologija, ugdymas ir asmenybės dvasinis brendimas, ugdymo tyrimų me­todologija. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: aramaviciu­te@gmail.comMARTYNA BAKAITĖ – Vilniaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros magistrantė. Moks­linių interesų sritys: suaugusiųjų švietimas, skaitmeninė kultūra, kalbų didaktika. Adre­sas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: martyna.bakaitė@gmail.comMIGLĖ DOVYDAITIENĖ – socialinių moks­lų (psichologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus univer­siteto Bendrosios psichologijos katedros lektorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: konsulta­vimo teorija ir praktika, šeimos krizių pre­vencija, trumpalaikė terapija, streso įveika, konfliktų sprendimas. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: migle.dovydaitiene@fsf.vu.ltLILIJA DUOBLIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: ugdymo filosofija, švietimo politika, tarpkultūrinis ugdymas, medijų raš­tingumo ugdymas. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: lilija.duo­blienė@fsf.vu.ltJŪRATĖ ČERNEVIČIŪTĖ – humanitarinių mokslų (filosofijos) daktarė, Vilniaus Ge­dimino technikos universiteto Kūrybos verslo ir komunikacijos katedros profeso­rė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: komunikaci­ja, kultūros ir medijų studijos, kūrybinės industrijos, inovacijos. Adresas: Pylimo g. 26/1, LT-01132 Vilnius. El. paštas: jurate.cerneviciute@vgtu.ltOLGA ILJINA – Vilniaus universiteto Edu­kologijos katedros doktorantė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: švietimo sociologija, socia­linis teisingumas ugdant, grindžiamoji teo­rija. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: olgailjina@gmail.comŽILVINAS JANČORAS – Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universiteto Kūrybinių inovacijų laboratorijos vedėjas. Mokslinių interesų sri­tys: kūrybinės industrijos, inovacijos, inova­cijų vadyba, verslo modeliai. Adresas: Linkmenų g. 5-35, Vilnius. El. paštas: zilvinas.jancoras@vgtu.ltALBINAS KALVAITIS – socialinių mokslų (sociologija) daktaras, Ugdymo plėtotės centro metodininkas. Mokslinių interesų sritys: švietimo sociologija, švietimo vady­ba, bendrasis ugdymas. Adresas: M. Kat­kaus g. 44, LT-09217 Vilnius. El. paštas: albinaskalvaitis@gmail.comRUSNĖ KREGŽDAITĖ – socialinių mokslų (ekonomikos) doktorantė, Vilniaus Ge­dimino technikos universiteto Kūrybinių inovacijų laboratorijos jaunesnioji mokslo darbuotoja. Mokslinių interesų sritys: kū­rybinės industrijos, kultūros ekonomika, ekonometrinė analizė. Adresas: Linkmenų g. 5-35, Vilnius. El. paštas: rusne.kregzdai­te@vgtu.ltELVYDA MARTIŠAUSKIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) habilituota daktarė, Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto Eduko­logijos katedros profesorė. Mokslinių in­teresų sritys: bendroji edukologija, dorinis ugdymas, dvasingumo tyrimų metodologi­ja. Adresas: Studentų g. 39, LT-08106 Vil­nius. El. paštas: martisauskiene@gmail.comVAIDAS MORKEVIČIUS – socialinių mokslų (sociologijos) daktaras, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universiteto Kūrybinių inovacijų laboratorijos mokslo darbuotojas. Moks­linių interesų sritys: socialinės apklausos, socialinių tyrimų metodai, kokybinė lygi­namoji analizė, taikomoji statistika ir duomenų analizė. Adresas: Linkmenų g. 5-35, Vilnius. El. paštas: vaidas.morkevicius@vgtu.ltBIRUTĖ POCIŪTĖ – socialinių mokslų (psi­chologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus universiteto Bendrosios psichologijos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: pedagoginė psi­chologija, karjeros psichologija, mokyma­sis. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: birute.pociute@fsf.vu.ltŽIGIMANTAS PEČIŪRA – Vilniaus univer­siteto Bendrosios psichologijos katedros magistrantas. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas zigpec@gmail.comVAIDA PLATKEVIČIŪTĖ – Vilniaus univer­siteto Bendrosios psichologijos katedros studentė. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius.GIEDRĖ JUDITA RASTAUSKIENĖ – sociali­nių mokslų (edukologija) daktarė, Lietuvos sporto universiteto Taikomosios biologijos ir reabilitacijos katedros lektorė. Moksli­nių interesų sritys: socioedukacinių tyrimų analizė. Adresas: Sporto g. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas. El. paštas: giedre.rastauskiene@gmail.comIRENA STONKUVIENĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus universi­teto Edukologijos katedros docentė. Moks­linių interesų sritys: pedagogikos istorija, ugdymo antropologija, ugdymas ir kultūra, ugdymas ir lytis. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: irena.stonkuvienė@fsf.vu.ltROLANDAS STRAZDAS – socialinių mokslų (vadyba) daktaras, Vilniaus Gedimino tech­nikos universiteto Atvirojo kodo instituto mokslo darbuotojas, Mechanikos inžineri­jos katedros docentas. Mokslinių interesų sritys: inovacijų valdymas, procesų tobu­linimas, kolektyvinis kūrybiškumas, kūry­binės industrijos. Adresas: Saulėtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius. El. paštas: rolandas.strazdas@vgtu.ltSAULIUS ŠUKYS – socialinių mokslų (edu­kologijos) daktaras, Lietuvos sporto uni­versiteto Sveikatos, fizinio ir socialinio ug­dymo katedros vedėjas. Mokslinių interesų sritys: vaikų prosocialaus elgesio sportinėje veikloje ypatumai. Adresas: Sporto g. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas. El. paštas: saulius.su­kys@lsu.ltMARIA TILK – socialinių mokslų (edukologi­jos) daktarė, Talino universiteto Edukolo­gijos katedros docentė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: pedagogikos istorija, naratyvas. Adresas: Uus-Sadama 5, Tallinn 10120, Estija. El. paštas: maria.tilk@tlu.eeEDITA VAINIENĖ – Lietuvos sporto univer­siteto Sporto ir judesių mokslo centro dok­torantė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: universi­tetinės kūno kultūros studijos, disciplininis identitetas. Adresas: Sporto g. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas. El. paštas: editavaina@gmail.comSVETLANA VASILIONOK – Vilniaus univer­siteto Edukologijos katedros magistrantė. Mokslinių interesų sritys: lietuvių kalbos mokymas tautinių mažumų mokyklose, Rytų filosofija, vizualinių menų taikymas mokymo(si) metu. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: svetlana.vasilionok@gmail.comVITA VENSLOVAITĖ – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) daktarė, Vilniaus universi­teto Edukologijos katedros lektorė. Moks­linių interesų sritys: ugdymo filosofija, mu­zikinis ugdymas, fenomenologija ugdyme. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vil­nius. El. paštas: vitavensl@gmail.comCHARL C. WOLHUTER – socialinių moks­lų (edukologijos) daktaras lyginamosios edukologijos ir tarptautinio švietimo pro­fesorius. Mokslinių interesų sritys: lygina­mosios edukologijos mokymas, lyginamo­sios edukologijos teorija, mokytojų rengi­mas, aukštasis mokslas Afrikoje. Adresas: North-West University, Private Bag X 6001, Potchefstroom Campus, South Afri­ca. El. paštas: Charl.Wolhuter@nwu.ac.zaRIMANTAS ŽELVYS – socialinių mokslų (edukologijos) habilituotas daktaras, Vil­niaus universiteto Edukologijos katedros profesorius. Mokslinių interesų sritys: švietimo politika, švietimo vadyba, aukšta­sis mokslas. Adresas: Universiteto g. 9/1, LT-01513 Vilnius. El. paštas: rimantas.zel­vys@leu.lt

ABSTRACT This study discusses the demand for expert assistance in the investigation phase as mentioned in Article 120 paragraph(1) Criminal Procedure Code and the expert testimony Requests for assistance at this stage ofthe proceedings provided for in Article 180 paragraph (1) expert testimony KUHAP. About mentioned in the second chapter of the Criminal Procedure Code in above, given the sense of Article1, point to the 28th criminal Procedure Code, which states that: "information is the expert testimony given by a person who hasspecial expertise about the things needed to make light of a criminal case for the purpose of examination".The background of this research related to expert testimony necessary assistance in the process of acriminal case, then thisaid in the investigation stage also has an important role to help investigators find and collectevidence in an attemptt of in the material truth of a criminal case.Expert testimony is the testimony of a doctor whohad been appo intedo athunder Government Regulation No.26 Year 1960 on Oath Pronunciation doctor, who can help investigators in providing evidence. Intended to doctors are set for thin writingin the form of a medical examination called visum et repertum. The problem is the fact there are some doctors refuse to make Visum et repertum, because they thought no forensic doctor, while the existing law article 186 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1937 Gazette No.350 states Visum et repertum include in gevidence, a statement made by a doctor put in the form written How analytical formulation of the problem is enforcement against doctors who refuse making visum et repertum in criminal homicide in the perspective of criminal law and legislation? What are the limiting factors in the process of enforcing the law against doctors who refuse making visum et repertum the crime of murder? Method research approach examines normative juridical legal issue with a qualitative approach through normative data collection techniques (literature) and empirical (field research). This study tries to answer the issu esraised in this research by looking at legislation, legal theories, and the national and international legal instruments that exist, then looks traight implementation in the field.Research in the specification of this research is descriptive specifically, in order to describe the existing situation by using scientific research methods. The fact that there is then illustrated with an interpretation, evaluation and general knowledge, because the facts have no meaning without interpretation, evaluation and general knowledge. The results of analysis is that Article 184 paragraph(1), letterc of the Criminal Procedure Code as well as the documentary evidence in Article 187 which states that the letter cletter as referred to in Article 184 paragraph(1) c, made on oathor confirmed by oath, or Letter testimony of an expert opinion based on his expertise about something or something formally requested state from him.Article 53 of the Health ActNo.36 of 2009 subsection(3) states of health workers, one of whom is a doctor. If the doctor refuses, it may be subject to Article 224 of the Criminal Code.In the manufacture of Law Enforcement Visum et repertum by doctors to see how factors, namely: (1) barriers in manufacturing, among others, are away homesand the limited power of judicial physicians who make Visum et repertum,(2) Barriers to implementation is making Visum et repertum some times less complete and manufacture of Visum et repertum not done as soon aspossible(3) The state of decaying corpses. Such circum stances may affect the results of the autopsy. (4) Lack of coordination between the lead investigator doctor Demand procedure Visum et repertumto take a long time.(5) From The Investigators such as delay request Visum et repertum. (6) From the Family Party for not allow an autopsy, (7) From The doctors because they need a place to carry out further investigation (8) For accident victims who live, many victims who refuse to do visum et repertum therefore do not know the benefits and usefulness, (9) lack of un familiarity with laws and regulations, that Visum et repertum a written statement categorized as expert witness testimony and documentary evidence and should be made by doctors.Actuallythere is noreason fora doctor to refuse to make visum et repertum, because the forensic medical science is only a branch of medical science that uses medical knowledge and technology for the benefit of law enforcement and justice. The goal is injuries, poisoning or death for the crime(Article 133 KUHAP).Professional standards in the field of forensic medicine doctor as a minimum standard of knowledge and skills that must be mastered in a doctor use science and medical technology to help law enforcement, justice and solve legal problems. Refusal of doctors to not make the post mortem repertumer actually has no legal base, Article 179(1) Criminal Procedure Code gives the assertion that each person was asked his opinion as an expert medicaldoctor or other judicialor required to provide expert testimony for justice.Based onthis article givest wooptions, namely the judicial medical expertor doctor. Visum et Repertum or VeR is a written statement made by the physician based on the examination of the person or people suspected, based onthe written request of the authorities, and are made keeping in mind the oath of office and the Criminal Code. Visum et repertum role as one of the valid evidence for pro of of criminal cases against human health and life. In ver there is a description of the medical results are contained in the news section, which can therefore be considered as a substitute for evidence. Ver also includes information or opinion about the results of the medical examination the doctor stated in the conclusion section.Keywords: Law Enforcement, Visum et Repertum, Doctors Professional Standards.AbstrakPenelitian ini membahas tentang permintaan bantuan tenaga ahli pada tahap penyidikan sebagaimana disebutkan pada Pasal 120 ayat (1) KUHAP dan Permintaan bantuan keterangan ahli pada tahap pemeriksaan persidangan diatur dalam Pasal 180 ayat (1) KUHAP.Mengenai keterangan ahli sebagaimana disebutkan dalam kedua pasal KUHAP di atas, diberikan pengertiannya pada Pasal 1 butir ke-28 KUHAP, yang menyatakan bahwa: Keterangan ahli adalah keterangan yang diberikan oleh seorang yang memiliki keahlian khusus tentang hal yang diperlukan untuk membuat terang suatu perkara pidana guna kepentingan pemeriksaan.Terkait dengan bantuan keterangan ahli yang diperlukan dalam proses pemeriksaan suatu perkara pidana, maka bantuan ini pada tahap penyidikan juga mempunyai peran yang cukup penting untuk membantu penyidik mencari dan mengumpulkan bukti-bukti dalam usahanya menemukan kebenaran materiil suatu perkara pidana. Keterangan ahli yang dimaksud yaitu keterangan dari dokter yang telah diangkat sumpah berdasarkan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 26 Tahun 1960 tentang Lafal Sumpah Dokter, yang dapat membantu penyidik dalam memberikan bukti. Keterangan dokter yang dimaksudkan tersebut dituangkan secara tertulis dalam bentuk surat hasil pemeriksaan medis yang disebut dengan visum et repertum.Permasalahannya adalah dalam kenyataannya ada sebagian dokter menolak untuk membuat Visum et repertum, karena beranggapan bukan dokter forensik, sedangkan perangkat hukum yang ada pasal 186 KUHAP, Staatblad 1937 Nomor 350 menyatakan Visum et repertum termasuk alat bukti, surat keterangan yang dibuat oleh dokter dituangkan dalam bentuk tertulis.Perumusan masalahnya adalah Bagaimana analisis penegakan hukum terhadap dokter yang menolak pembuatan visum et repertum dalam tindak pidana pembunuhan dalam perspektif hukum pidana dan peraturan perundang-undangan ?Apa yang menjadi faktor-faktor penghambat dalam proses penegakan hukum terhadap dokter yang menolak pembuatan visum et repertum dalam tindak pidana pembunuhan ?Hasil penelitian analisisnya adalah bahwa Pasal 184 ayat (1), huruf c KUHAP mengenai alat bukti surat serta pasal 187 huruf c yang menyatakan bahwa surat sebagaimana tersebut pada pasal 184 ayat (1) c, dibuat atas sumpah jabatan atau dikuatkan dengan sumpah, atau Surat keterangan dari seorang ahli yang pendapatnya berdasarkan keahliannya mengenai sesuatu hal atau sesuatu keadaan yang diminta secara resmi dari padanya. Pasal 53 Undang-Undang Kesehatan No 36 Tahun 2009 ayat (3) menyatakan tenaga kesehatan, salah satunya adalah dokter. Apabila dokter menolak, maka dapat dikenakan Pasal 224 KUHP. Dalam Penegakan Hukum pembuatan Visum et repertum oleh dokter menemui berapa faktor, yaitu : (1) Hambatan dalam pembuatan antara lain adalah jauhnya rumah dan terbatasnya tenaga dokter kehakiman yang membuat Visum et repertum, (2)Hambatan dalam penerapan adalah pembuatan Visum et repertum terkadang kurang lengkap dan pembuatan Visum et repertum tidak dilakukan sesegera mungkin (3)Keadaan mayat sudah membusuk. Keadaaan seperti ini dapat mempengaruhi hasil dari visum. (4)Kurang koordinasi antara penyidik dengan dokter yang mengakibatkan prosedur permintaaan Visum et repertum menjadi memakan waktu yang lama. (5) Dari Pihak Penyidik seperti keterlambatan permintaan Visum et repertum. (6)Dari Pihak Keluarga karena tidak mengijinkan dilakukan autopsi, (7) Dari Pihak dokter karena butuh tempat untuk melaksanakan pemeriksaan lanjutan (8)Untuk korban Kecelakaan yang hidup, banyak korban yang menolak untuk dilakukan visum et repertum oleh karena belum mengetahui manfaat dan kegunaannya , (9)Ketidak pahaman terhadap peraturan perundang-undangan,bahwa Visum et repertum sebuah keterangan tertulis yang dikatagorikan sebagai keterangan saksi ahli dan bukti surat dan harus dibuat oleh dokter. Sebenarnya tidak ada alasan dokter untuk menolak membuat visum et repertum, karena ilmu kedokteran forensik adalah hanya suatu cabang ilmu kedokteran yang mempergunakan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi kedokteran untuk kepentingan penegakan hukum dan keadilan. Sasarannya adalah korban luka, keracunan atau mati karena tindak pidana (Pasal 133 KUHAP). Standar profesi dokter dibidang kedokteran forensik sebagai standar keilmuan dan ketrampilan minimal yang harus dikuasai seorang dokter dalam menggunakan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi kedokteran untuk membantu penegakan hukum, keadilan dan memecahkan masalah-masalah hukum. Penolakan dokter untuk tidak membuat visum er repertum sebenarnya tidak memiliki alas hukum, Pasal 179 (1) KUHAP memberikan penegasan, bahwa Setiap orang diminta pendapatnya sebagai ahli kedokteran kehakiman atau dokter atau lainnya wajib memberikan keterangan ahli demi keadilan. Berdasarkan pasal ini memberikan pilihan dua, yakni ahli kedokteran kehakiman atau dokter. Visum et Repertum atau VER adalah laporan tertulis yang dibuat oleh dokter berdasarkan pemeriksaan terhadap orang atau yang diduga orang, berdasarkan permintaan tertulis dari pihak yang berwenang, dan dibuat dengan mengingat sumpah jabatan dan KUHP. Visum et repertum berperan sebagai salah satu alat bukti yang sah dalam proses pembuktian perkara pidana terhadap kesehatan dan jiwa manusia. Dalam VeR terdapat uraian hasil pemeriksaan medis yang tertuang dalam bagian pemberitaan, yang karenanya dapat dianggap sebagai pengganti barang bukti.VeR juga memuat keterangan atau pendapat dokter mengenai hasil pemeriksaan medis yang tertuang dalam bagian kesimpulan.Kata kunci: Penegakan Hukum, Visum et Repertum, Standar Profesi Dokter.

Livestock is an important source of income in most developing countries. In Africa, it often makes up 10% to 20% of the gross national product at level. One of the major constraints to the development of this sector is animal diseases, which sometimes generate significant economic losses with social consequences that are often very burdensome for farmers. They restrict trade between countries. Reducing the impact of these constraints necessarily involves the prevention and the control of diseases. For this purpose, an adequate knowledge of the epidemiology of the diseases is a prerequisite to define a strategy for their prevention and/or the design of appropriate monitoring measures. One of the essential tools of production remains the epidemiological information network for the surveillance of animal diseases. It is also a tool for decision in international trade involving livestock products. For this purpose, its effectiveness is a guarantee for its credibility. An effective network system must be well organized, meet scientific standards and satisfy the efficiency characteristics which are sensitivity, specificity, acceptability, responsiveness and cost. In west and central Africa, epidemiological surveillance networks of animal diseases are mostly created in the 1990s through the Pan African Program for the Control of Epizootics. A 2004 assessment carried out by this program revealed that these networks are at different stages and found weaknesses in their efficiency. To contribute to the improvement of these systems, an analysis of some performance parameters of these networks has been conducted and suggestions for improvement were made. To achieve this overall objective, the following specific objectives were listed: (i) analyze the technical and functional organization of epidemiological surveillance networks in West and Central Africa; (ii) compare the effectiveness of active surveillance and passive surveillance, the two main monitoring methods used by the networks in West and Central Africa using the case study of the epidemiological surveillance network, in Chad, namely REPIMAT; (iii) assess the sensitivity of an epidemiological surveillance network from an approach based on prevalence of a disease such as Foot and Mouth Disease; (iv) develop performance indicators for regular monitoring of the epidemiological surveillance network for animal diseases in West and Central Africa, again by taking the case of REPIMAT; and finally, (v) estimate the cost incurred by an epidemiological surveillance network in West and Central Africa, for example the REPIMAT. Each of these specific objectives leads to a specific study of which results are presented below: Organization of epidemiological surveillance networks in West and Central Africa The survey on technical and institutional organizations networks in west and central Africa was organised on the basis of a written questionnaire. It involved nine networks of which five were in West Africa (Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Togo, Guinea) and four in Central Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo and Chad). The results of this survey showed that the oldest epidemiological surveillance network is that of Chad, REPIMAT. There are more similarities than differences between these networks. In general, network monitoring of animal diseases in west and central Africa are technically and institutionally well formalized. The establishment and operation of the networks surveyed are mainly financed by foreign aid. In general, these are epidemiological surveillance networks that monitor several diseases. All countries surveyed have a central national laboratory for the analysis of samples collected. However, only four countries (Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Senegal) can make a diagnosis of all diseases selected for monitoring. The laboratories are considered as partners with surveillance networks in most of the countries surveyed. All networks use the PID/ARIS for data management. In addition to the latter, countries such as Guinea, DRC, Senegal and Chad use a national database developed with Access®. On average, 26% of veterinary stations on the total networks surveyed are involved in the monitoring. This proportion varies from 7% to 91%. However, insufficient diagnostic capacity of laboratories and inadequate operational steering committees are the two main weaknesses of the networks concerned with this survey. Comparison between active and passive surveillance within the network of epidemiological surveillance of animal diseases in Chad The comparison between active and passive surveillance involved 106 REPIMAT surveillance stations randomly divided into 52 active surveillance stations and 54 passive surveillance stations. Vaccination status of nine diseases and their respective prevalence levels are monitored by the network. A work plan was developed for each station. The stations of active surveillance make monthly visits to four herds (villages) to look for monitored diseases and also organise four information meetings with farmers how to react in case of suspicion of the monitored diseases. Passive surveillance stations only organise, monthly, four information meetings with farmers. Suspicions in each station are recorded on a specific form developed for each disease. The agent mentions if the suspicion is performed following a breeder call, a visit from herds or a sensitization meeting. Monitoring lasted 24 months. The results of this study showed that regardless of the type of surveillance, diseases monitored with the exception of rare diseases (Rinderpest, and Rift Valley fever) are reported by the monitoring agents. However, we note that the number of calls recorded following suspicions of farmers (41%) was significantly higher (p <0.05) than suspicions made during visits to herds (30%) or in meetings (29%). For moderately prevalent diseases, the suspicions are mainly calls farmers (77%) and regardless of the type of monitoring (73% for active surveillance and 84% for passive surveillance). On the other hand, for FMD, a disease with high prevalence, 37% of suspicions are recorded by visiting farms. Overall, no significant difference was observed between the types of surveillance because of a low rate of disease onset during sensitization meetings by the active surveillance stations. Passive surveillance stimulated by awareness meetings appears to be a mode for surveillance in the conditions of Chad and cheaper. However, for rare diseases, the specific methods of active surveillance (such as, for example, sentinel flocks) seems preferable. Evaluation of the sensitivity of the animal disease epidemiological surveillance network for Foot and Mouth Disease in Chad Evaluation of the sensitivity of the animal disease epidemiological surveillance network for Foot and Mouth Disease in Chad The study on the network sensitivity was carried out in REPIMAT by taking the surveillance of FMD as an example. FMD is the disease most frequently suspected by REPIMAT. However, the reporting of cases is limited to clinical suspicion. The samples for the purpose of laboratory diagnostic for confirmation of these suspicions are not made. In order to assess the sensitivity of REPIMAT for this disease, a serological survey was conducted in eight of the nine regional delegations with the highest cattle population of the country. The samples were analyzed by the National Reference Laboratory for FMD in Brescia (Italy) with the support of the European Commission action against FMD. The 3ABC and SP-ELISA tests were used for the detection of antibodies and the serotype of the virus. The number of FMD suspicions reported within the network was compared with the seroprevalence. Epidemiological information on the disease, including the circulating serotypes in Chad, was also provided. A total of 796 cattle sera were collected. The seroprevalence rate at individual level was 35.6% (95% CI: 32.2 to 39.0) and that at the herd level was 61.9% (95% CI: 51.9 to 71.2). A strong correlation was observed between the estimated prevalence and number of clinical suspicions reported within REPIMAT. The disease is present in all livestock regional delegations surveyed with a high prevalence in the delegations located in the south, the wettest area, and where cross-border movements are the most important. Serotypes A, O, SAT1and SAT2 were identified. Development of operating performance indicators of Chad epidemiological surveillance network for animal diseases: REPIMAT The maintenance and effectiveness of a disease monitoring system requires regular evaluation to identify timely deficiencies that may occur. For this purpose, the performance indicators are essential tools. One approach for developing performance indicators as well as their application in the operation of 43 monitoring stations REPIMAT was carried out. An analysis of the objectives and operation mechanism of REPIMAT allowed retaining three main components, namely the field workers, the animation cell and the laboratory. The activities of each of these components were listed. The analysis of the outcomes of these activities resulted in the development of the performance indicators that can be used in the operation of REPIMAT. The application of these indicators has highlighted the weaknesses of each component. Estimated cost of a network for animal diseases epidemiological surveillance in Central Africa: the case of Chad network In sub-Saharan Africa, most of the networks for epidemiological surveillance of animal diseases were temporarily financed by external aid. The sustainability of such decision support tools should have been insured by national public funds. The objective of this study was to estimate the costs involved in running an animal disease epidemiological surveillance network by taking the example of such network in Chad (REPIMAT) and its weight in the state budget. These costs were then compared to those of other epidemiological surveillance in West Africa networks. The results of this study showed that the total annual operating and implementing cost of REPIMAT is estimated at € 666 349 (437 096 291 FCFA) for the entire system comprising 106 monitoring stations constituting the local level, 26 livestock sectors, nine regional livestock delegations representing the intermediate level and an animation cell constituting the central level. This cost represents only 3% (2% of fixed costs and 1% of variable costs) of the budget allocated by the Chadian Ministry of Livestock. Fixed costs (72%) weighed more than variable costs (28%) regardless of the levels of intervention. This estimate is similar to the estimated costs of epidemiological surveillance networks in Benin, Ghana, Mauritania and Senegal. Considering only the variable costs (operation), the annual cost of operating a surveillance station, the most important entity in the system was only 932 € or 611 352 FCFA. The surveillance cost is mainly related at the local level (surveillance stations) and intermediate level (livestock sectors and regional livestock delegations) to the cost involved in health surveillance as well as the equipment it requires. This thesis allowed to analyze some parameters of effectiveness of a surveillance network for animal diseases including general organization, type of surveillance, sensitivity, cost and to develop a tool for continuous monitoring of operating a network. It is difficult to meet all the efficiency criteria of an animal disease surveillance network, however, the few parameters studied which are interrelated will help if they are used properly to improve the efficiency of an epidemiological surveillance system of animal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa.

Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.Les Nations unies reconnaissent officiellement que parvenir à l'égalité hommes-femmes, en termes d'accès aux ressources de production et à leur contrôle (en particulier la terre et les services agricoles), aurait un effet positif sur la productivité agricole, la sécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté. Pourtant, quelle est la situation actuelle des femmes dans les fermes familiales ? Peu d'ouvrages abordent cette question : les textes universitaires sur le développement ne font généralement pas cas du genre, tandis que les ouvrages sur le genre ne prennent que rarement en considération les problèmes agricoles. S'appuyant sur une large variété d'études effectuées sur le terrain dans des pays du Nord comme du Sud, cette étude détaillée et complète analyse les fermes familiales sous la perspective des relations hommes-femmes et des structures sociales qui régissent ces relations de pouvoir. Les contributeurs, des scientifiques et des acteurs du développement, établissent un lien entre la recherche et la recherche-action pour porter un regard différent sur le développement agricole. Les thèmes traités comprennent la gestion sociale des relations de genre dans l'agriculture, les inégalités liées au genre dans la définition et l'impact des politiques agricoles et environnementales, et enfin les différentes approches du genre dans les systèmes alimentaires. Destiné aux chercheurs et aux enseignants en sciences sociales (économistes, sociologues, anthropologues, géographes), ainsi qu'aux autres acteurs engagés dans le monde du développement, ce livre vise aussi à favoriser les liens entre des approches (locales) de terrain et des analyses plus vastes, nationales ou internationales.

During the years, neuroprosthetic applications have obtained a great deal of attention by the international research, especially in the bioengineering field, thanks to the huge investments on several proposed projects funded by the political institutions which consider the treatment of this particular disease of fundamental importance for the global community. The aim of these projects is to find a possible solution to restore the functionalities lost by a patient subjected to an upper limb amputation trying to develop, according to physiological considerations, a communication link between the brain in which the significant signals are generated and a motor prosthesis device able to perform the desired action. Moreover, the designed system must be able to give back to the brain a sensory feedback about the surrounding world in terms of pressure or temperature acquired by tactile biosensors placed at the surface of the cybernetic hand. It in fact allows to execute involuntarymovements when for example the armcomes in contact with hot objects. The development of such a closed-loop architecture involves the need to address some critical issues which depend on the chosen approach. Several solutions have been proposed by the researches of the field, each one differing with respect to where the neural signals are acquired, either at the central nervous systemor at the peripheral one,most of themfollowing the former even that the latter is always considered by the amputees amore natural way to handle the artificial limb. This research work is based on the use of intrafascicular electrodes directly implanted in the residual peripheral nerves of the stump which represents a good compromise choice in terms of invasiveness and selectivity extracting electroneurographic (ENG) signals from which it is possible to identify the significant activity of a quite limited number of neuronal cells. In the perspective of the hardware implementation of the resulting solution which can work autonomously without any intervention by the amputee in an adaptive way according to the current characteristics of the processed signal and by using batteries as power source allowing portability, it is necessary to fulfill the tight constraints imposed by the application under consideration involved in each of the various phases which compose the considered closed-loop system. Regarding to the recording phase, the implementation must be able to remove the unwanted interferences mainly due to the electro-stimulations of themuscles placed near the electrodes featured by an order of magnitude much greater in comparison to that of the signals of interest amplifying the frequency components belonging to the significant bandwidth, and to convert them with a high resolution in order to obtain good performance at the next processing phases. To this aim, a recording module for peripheral neural signals will be presented, based on the use of a sigma-delta architecture which is composed by two main parts: an analog front-end stage for neural signal acquisition, pre-filtering and sigma-delta modulation and a digital unit for sigma-delta decimation and system configuration. Hardware/software cosimulations exploiting the Xilinx System Generator tool in Matlab Simulink environment and then transistor-level simulations confirmed that the system is capable of recording neural signals in the order of magnitude of tens of μV rejecting the huge low-frequency noise due to electromyographic interferences. The same architecture has been then exploited to implement a prototype of an 8-channel implantable electronic bi-directional interface between the peripheral nervous system and the neuro-controlled hand prosthesis. The solution includes a custom designed Integrated Circuit (0.35μm CMOS technology), responsible of the signal pre-filtering and sigma-delta modulation for each channel and the neural stimuli generation (in the opposite path) based on the directives sent by a digital control systemmapped on a low-cost Xilinx FPGA Spartan-3E 1600 development board which also involves the multi-channel sigma-delta decimation with a high-order band-pass filter as first stage in order to totally remove the unwanted interferences. In this way, the analog chip can be implanted near the electrodes thanks to its limited size avoiding to add a huge noise to theweak neural signals due to longwires connections and to cause heat-related infections, shifting the complexity to the digital part which can be hosted on a separated device in the stump of the amputeewithout using complex laboratory instrumentations. The system has been successfully tested from the electrical point of view and with in-vivo experiments exposing good results in terms of output resolution and noise rejection even in case of critical conditions. The various output channels at the Nyquist sampling frequency coming from the acquisition system must be processed in order to decode the intentions of movements of the amputee, applying the correspondent electro-mechanical stimulation in input to the cybernetic hand in order to perform the desired motor action. Different decoding approaches have been presented in the past, the majority of them were conceived starting from the relative implementation and performance evaluation of their off-line version. At the end of the research, it is necessary to develop these solutions on embedded systems performing an online processing of the peripheral neural signals. However, it is often possible only by using complex hardware platforms clocked at very high operating frequencies which are not be compliant with the low-power requirements needed to allow portability for the prosthetic device. At present, in fact, the important aspect of the real-time implementation of sophisticated signal processing algorithms on embedded systems has been often overlooked, notwithstanding the impact that limited resources of the former may have on the efficiency/effectiveness of any given algorithm. In this research work it has been addressed the optimization of a state-of-the-art algorithmfor PNS signals decoding that is a step forward for its real-time, full implementation onto a floating-point Digital Signal Processor (DSP). Beyond low-level optimizations, different solutions have been proposed at an high level in order to find the best trade-off in terms of effectiveness/efficiency. A latency model, obtained through cycle accurate profiling of the different code sections, has been drawn in order to perform a fair performance assessment. The proposed optimized real-time algorithmachieves up to 96% of correct classification on real PNS signals acquired through tf-LIFE electrodes on animals, and performs as the best off-line algorithmfor spike clustering on a synthetic cortical dataset characterized by a reasonable dissimilarity between the spikemorphologies of different neurons. When the real-time requirements are joined to the fulfilment of area and power minimization for implantable/portable applications, such as for the target neuroprosthetic devices, only custom VLSI implementations can be adopted. In this case, every part of the algorithmshould be carefully tuned. To this aim, the first preprocessing stage of the decoding algorithmbased on the use of aWavelet Denoising solution able to remove also the in-band noise sources has been deeply analysed in order to obtain an optimal hardware implementation. In particular, the usually overlooked part related to threshold estimation has been evaluated in terms of required hardware resources and functionality, exploiting the commercial Xilinx System Generator tool for the design of the architecture and the co-simulation. The analysis has revealed how the widely used Median Absolute Deviation (MAD) could lead o hardware implementations highly inefficient compared to other dispersion estimators demonstrating better scalability, relatively to the specific application. Finally, two different hardware implementations of the reference decoding algorithm have been presented highlighting pros and cons of each one of them. Firstly, a novel approach based on high-level dataflow description and automatic hardware generation is presented and evaluated on the on-line template-matching spike sorting algorithmwhich represents the most complex processing stage. It starts from the identification of the single kernels with the greater computational complexity and using their dataflow description to generate the HDL implementation of a coarse-grained reconfigurable global kernel characterized by theminimumresources in order to reduce the area and the energy dissipation for the fulfilment of the low-power requirements imposed by the application. Results in the best case have revealed a 71%of area saving compared tomore traditional solutions,without any accuracy penalty. With respect to single kernels execution, better latency performance are achievable stillminimizing the number of adopted resources. The performance in terms of latency can also be improved by tuning the implemented parallelismin the light of a defined number of channels and real-time constraints, by using more than one reconfigurable global kernel in order that they can be exploited to perform the same or different kernels at the same time in a parallel way, due to the fact that each one can execute the relative processing only in a sequential way. For this reason, a second FPGA-based prototype has been proposed based on the use of aMulti-Processor System-on-Chip (MPSoC) embedded architecture. This prototype is capable of respecting the real-time constraints posed by the application when clocked at less than 50 MHz, in comparison to 300 MHz of the previous DSP implementation. Considering that the application workload is extremely data dependent and unpredictable due to the sparsity of the neural signals, the architecture has to be dimensioned taking into account critical worst-case operating conditions in order to always ensure the correct functionality. To compensate the resulting overprovisioning of the system architecture, a software-controllable power management based on the use of clock gating techniques has been integrated in order tominimize the dynamic power consumption of the resulting solution. Summarizing, this research work can be considered a sort of proof-of-concept for the proposed techniques considering all the design issues which characterize each stage of the closed-loop system in the perspective of a portable low-power real-time hardware implementation of the neuro-controlled prosthetic device.

In the context of climate change and energy crisis, bioenergy, which accounts for the largest share of renewable energy in the global energy mix, has drawn considerable attention from an increasing number of countries. While its potential to curb greenhouse gas emissions and to provide energy has been widely acknowledged, concerns over the side effects of bioenergy are still being voiced. In particular, its perceived threats on food security and local ecosystems have largely impeded its development, which is best exemplified by the role that bioenergy takes in the EU's growth strategy of "Europe 2020". This fact provided the motivation for the reflections presented in this thesis on how to realize a sustainable development of the bioenergy industry. To answer this question, we have selected a coastal province in eastern China as the region in which to conduct our study. China is simultaneously the most populated country and the largest GHGs emitter in the world. It can, therefore, be expected that the entire international community can learn some valuable lessons from the practical experience that China has gathered in the field of bioenergy. Following a brief outline of the background information on our research in the initial two chapters, Chapter 3 frames the structure of the bioenergy industry and clarifies the role of each actor. Depending on their relative importance in the industry, these actors can be assigned to one of the two categories of stakeholders: central or peripheral. Based on the local practice, we present the construction process of the bioenergy industry in China from both the supply side and the demand side. This descriptive analysis is intended to help the reader form a general understanding of the bioenergy industry in China, on which our subsequent quantitative analysis is based. Chapter 4 focuses on farmers as one of the central stakeholders that are located at the upstream of the bioenergy supply chain. We develop a biomass feedstock provision model compiled with GAMS to simulate the responsive behaviors of farmers – the agents in our spatial-agent dynamic model – to the challenges arising from emerging energy crops. Using this model, we delineate land use changes after the insertion of the bioenergy industry. We further fix the sources of the promising biomass feedstock, with the straws of conventional crops accounting for 85% of feedstock and energy crops for the remaining 15%. In view of the geographical characteristics of the region, the northern part of Jiangsu is recommended to accommodate an extensive cultivation of energy crops in the long run. Furthermore, our model also confirmed the positive role of reclaimed mudflats as a candidate for the arable land resource that is capable of alleviating land use conflicts between conventional crops and energy crops. In analogy to Chapter 4 focusing on farmers, Chapter 5 concentrates on haulers and bioenergy plants operators, which are the other two actors belonging to the category of central stakeholders. Based on the data on biomass feedstock provision predicted by the model described above, we deliberately calibrate the optimizing model of bioenergy industry infrastructure to stimulate their respective performances. As a result we discovered a general pattern in the modeled distribution of bioenergy plants: due to the higher transportation cost of biomass feedstock than of bioenergy products, bioenergy plants opt to be situated more closely to the sources of biomass feedstock than to the consumption centers of bioenergy products. In terms of the specific distribution, the model projects that up to 44% of biorefineries and 62% of power plants with the largest scale should be located in northern Jiangsu. These figures support the government's decision to turn the area into a production basis for bioenergy, as outlined in the official development plan. Additionally, we evaluate two proposed policies designed to relieve the pressure of bulky biomass transport on local logistic systems and to shorten the regional development disparity among three sub-regions of the region studied. By combining the above two independent but related models in Chapter 6, we arrive at a decision support system for the bioenergy industry. This system takes into account the whole bioenergy supply chain. Unlike each of the separate sub-models presented in previous chapters, the integrated model adequately depicts the interactions among the upstream and downstream of the bioenergy supply chain. Furthermore, it also describes their feedback to peripheral stakeholders such as the government, local residents, NGOs and other lobbying groups, which do not form part of the supply chain but influence the general setting for the bioenergy industry. Using this model as our analytical tool, we examine two policies aiming to promote the bioenergy industry: a comprehensive policy (a favorable taxation) and a targeted policy (a financial subsidy). Generally speaking, despite the fact that both supportive measures could significantly boost the development of the industry without necessarily jeopardizing food security, their effectiveness relies to a great extent on the scale and the objectives of these measures taken. In the last chapter, we return to our qualitative analysis. This time, however, we widen its temporal and spatial scope. First, we construct a conceptual model describing the cascade use and recycling of biomass resources. Then we compare the short-term and the long-term incentive mechanisms involved. Finally, we apply Porter's diamond model to analyze separately all the factors constituting the advantages of the bioenergy industry. We argue that an unprecedented opportunity for bioenergy industry development has come. The fundamental actors driving the development of the industry are professional bioenergy firms boasting clearly defined and well-enforced property rights, good supervision mechanisms, advanced technological background and effective management methods. Since the bioenergy industry is mostly oriented towards the domestic market, it is likely to become more competitive with the formation of an industrial cluster focused on bioenergy or by receiving appropriate support from the government. The government's intervention is justified in this context by the government's supervisory duties, legislative duties and its responsibility to provide favorable incentives. In this study, we have successfully built an integrated model covering all the actors of the bioenergy industry and proposed a sustainable development strategy for the industry in China. Nevertheless, the study has several limitations that need be overcome before it can be extended to other regions. Firstly, due to the lack of high-quality field data of energy crops plantations, the uncertainties regarding actual agricultural operations and the resultant potential ecological risks cannot be fully reflected in our study. Secondly, only bioethanol and biopower have been included in the mathematical model. In view of the wide variety of biomass conversion routes, more bioenergy products should be included in future models. ; Vor dem Hintergrund des Klimawandels und der Energiekrise hat Bioenergie in einer wachsenden Zahl von Ländern in letzter Zeit beträchtliche Aufmerksamkeit gewonnen. Zum weltweiten Energiemix trägt sie bereits heute den größten Teil bei. Zwar wird das Potenzial von Bioenergie, zu einer Reduktion der Treibhausgasemissionen beizutragen, weithin anerkannt; doch werden immer noch Bedenken in Hinblick auf ihre Nebenwirkungen geäußert. Insbesondere die befürchteten Gefahren für die Ernährungssicherheit und lokale Ökosysteme behindern die Entwicklung der Bioenergie erheblich, was wohl am besten anhand der Rolle veranschaulicht werden kann, die der Bioenergie in der Entwicklungsstrategie "Europa 2020" durch die EU zugeschrieben wird. Vor diesem Hintergrund behandelt die vorliegende Dissertation die Frage, wie eine nachhaltige Entwicklung der Bioenergieindustrie erreicht werden kann. Zur Beantwortung dieser Frage wurde eine küstennahe Provinz im Osten Chinas als Untersuchungsgebiet ausgewählt. China ist das bevölkerungsreichste Land und der größte Treibhausgasemittent der Welt. Es kann daher davon ausgegangen werden, dass die gesamte Völkergemeinschaft einige wertvolle Lehren aus den praktischen Erfahrungen ziehen kann, die China auf dem Gebiet der Bioenergie gesammelt hat. Im Anschluss an eine kurze Darstellung des Hintergrunds unserer Untersuchung in den ersten beiden Kapiteln wird im dritten Kapitel die Struktur der Bioenergiebranche skizziert und die Rolle der einzelnen Akteure beschrieben. Abhängig von deren jeweiliger Bedeutung für die Branche können diese Akteure als entweder Haupt- oder Nebenakteure klassifiziert werden. Ausgehend von der lokalen Praxis stellen wir die Entwicklung der Bioenergiebranche in China sowohl auf der Angebots- als auch auf der Nachfrageseite dar. Diese deskriptive Analyse soll dem Leser ein Grundverständnis der Bioenergiebranche in China vermitteln, auf dem die anschließende quantitative Analyse aufbaut. Das vierte Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit den Landwirten, die als zentrale Akteure am Anfang der Bioenergie-Wertschöpfungskette stehen. Mit Hilfe von GAMS entwickeln wir ein Modell zur Bereitstellung der Biomasserohstoffe, um das Reaktionsverhalten der Landwirte (den Akteuren in unserem dynamischen räumlichen Akteursmodell) auf die Herausforderungen zu simulieren, die mit dem Aufkommen der Energiepflanzen verbunden sind. Unter Verwendung dieses Modells skizzieren wir die durch die Bioenergiesparte ausgelösten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landnutzung. Hierbei legen wir die Anteile für konventionellen Anbau und Energiepflanzen an der gesamten landwirtschaftlichen Produktion auf 85% und 15% fest. Aufgrund der geographischen Beschaffenheit der Region wird für den nördlichen Teil von Jiangsu langfristig eine extensive Bewirtschaftung mit Energiepflanzen empfohlen. Darüber hinaus wurde mit Hilfe unseres Modells die positive Rolle urbar gemachten Wattenmeers als Ressource einer möglichen Entschärfung von Landnutzungskonflikten zwischen konventionellen und Energiepflanzen bestätigt. Analog zum Fokus des vierten Kapitels auf Landwirte konzentriert sich das fünfte Kapitel auf Spediteure und die Betreiber von Bioenergieanlagen, die beide ebenfalls zu der Gruppe der Hauptstakeholder gehören. Ausgehend von den Angaben zur Bioenergie-Versorgungskette, die sich aus Simulationen mit dem oben beschriebenen Modell ergeben, justieren wir das Optimierungsmodell für die Infrastruktur der Bioenergiebranche im Sinne einer Förderung der jeweiligen Leistungen. Als Ergebnis wurde ein allgemeines Muster im Hinblick auf die räumliche Verteilung von Bioenergieanlagen beobachtet: Da die Transportkosten von Biomasserohstoffe höher sind als die von Bioenergieprodukten, bevorzugt das Modell eine Entscheidung für die Platzierung von Bioenergieanlagen nahe bei den Rohstoffquellen gegenüber Nähe zu Konsumzentren. Hinsichtlich der genauen räumlichen Verteilung errechnet das Modell, dass bis zu 44% der Bioraffinerien und 62% der größten Kraftwerke im nördlichen Teil von Jiangsu errichtet werden sollten. Diese Zahlen bekräftigen die Entscheidung der Regierung, die Gegend zu einen Standort der Bioenergieproduktion zu machen, was auch im offiziellen Entwicklungsplan der Region zu finden ist. Zusätzlich werten wir zwei vorgeschlagene Handlungsweisen aus, die zur Reduktion der Auswirkungen sperriger Biomassetransporte auf die lokale Logistikinfrastruktur sowie zur Verringerung der Entwicklungsunterschiede zwischen drei Gegenden innerhalb der betrachteten Region beitragen sollen. Eine Kombination der beiden oben beschriebenen voneinander unabhängigen aber dennoch miteinander verwandten Modelle im sechsten Kapitel führt zu einem Entscheidungsunterstützungssystem für die Bioenergiebranche. Das System berücksichtigt die gesamte Bioenergieversorgungskette. Anders als die in den vorangegangenen Kapiteln beschriebenen Untermodelle bildet das integrierte Modell das Zusammenspiel zwischen den vorgelagerten und den nachgelagerten Märkten innerhalb der Bioenergiebranche hinreichend ab. Darüber hinaus beschreibt es deren Rückkopplung mit den Nebenstakeholdern, zu denen die Regierung, Bewohner, NGOs und andere Lobbygruppen gehören. Diese sind nicht Teil der Versorgungskette, haben aber einen Einfluss auf die Rahmenbedingungen der Bioenergiebranche. Unter Zuhilfenahme unseres Modells als analytisches Instrument untersuchen wir zwei Ansätze zur Förderung der Bioenergieindustrie: Eine umfassende Politik (günstige Besteuerung) und eine zielgerichtete Politik (finanzielle Förderung). Im Allgemeinen hängt die Effektivität beider Ansätze größtenteils vom Ausmaß und von den Zielsetzungen der getroffenen Maßnahmen ab. Die Herausforderung besteht darin die Förderungsmaßnahmen so auszurichten, dass sie die Branche stärken ohne die Nahrungsmittelsicherheit zu gefährden. Im letzten Kapitel kehren wir zur qualitativen Analyse zurück. Diesmal weiten wir jedoch ihren zeitlichen und räumlichen Rahmen aus. Zunächst entwickeln wir ein konzeptionelles Modell, das die Kaskadennutzung und das Recycling von Biomasseressourcen beschreibt. Daraufhin vergleichen wir die damit verbundenen kurzfristigen und langfristigen Anreizmechanismen. Zum Schluss wenden wir Porters Diamantenmodell an, um all jene Faktoren gesondert zu analysieren, die für die Bioenergiebranche Vorteile bedeuten. Wir legen dar, dass sich derzeit eine noch nie dagewesene Chance für die Entwicklung der Bioenergiebranche bietet. Bei den Hauptakteuren, die die Entwicklung der Branche antreiben, handelt es sich um professionelle Bioenergieunternehmen, die über klar definierte und gut durchsetzbare Eigentumsrechte, etablierte Kontrollmechanismen, einen fortgeschrittenen technologischen Hintergrund und effektive Managementmethoden verfügen. Da die Bioenergiebranche vor allem auf den heimischen Markt ausgerichtet ist, wird sie durch die Bildung eines Branchenclusters oder durch angemessene Förderung durch die Regierung wahrscheinlich wettbewerbsfähiger. Ein Eingreifen der Regierung ist in diesem Zusammenhang durch deren Aufsichtspflicht, deren legislative Aufgaben und deren Zuständigkeit, finanzielle Anreize zu schaffen, gerechtfertigt. In dieser Studie ist es uns gelungen, ein integriertes Modell zu entwickeln, das alle Akteure der Bioenergiebranche umfasst. Wir haben weiterhin eine Strategie zur nachhaltigen Entwicklung der Branche in China ausgearbeitet. Dennoch hat die Studie auch einige Beschränkungen, die überwunden werden müssen, bevor sie auf andere Regionen übertragen werden kann. Zum Einen können die Unsicherheiten hinsichtlich der tatsächlichen landwirtschaftlichen Erzeugung und den aus dieser resultierenden Umweltrisiken in dieser Studie aus Ermangelung hochwertiger Felddaten im Hinblick auf Energiepflanzenplantagen nicht voll und ganz reflektiert werden, zum Anderen wurden in dem mathematischen Modell nur Bioethanol und Biostrom berücksichtigt. Angesichts der großen Bandbreite an Wegen der Biomasse-Konversion sollten in künftige Modellen weitere Bioenergieprodukte eingebaut werden.

The direct estimation of heritability from genome-wide common variant data as implemented in the program Genome-wide Complex Trait Analysis (GCTA) has provided a means to quantify heritability attributable to all interrogated variants. We have quantified the variance in liability to disease explained by all SNPs for two phenotypically-related neurobehavioral disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette Syndrome (TS), using GCTA. Our analysis yielded a heritability point estimate of 0.58 (se = 0.09, p = 5.64e-12) for TS, and 0.37 (se = 0.07, p = 1.5e-07) for OCD. in addition, we conducted multiple genomic partitioning analyses to identify genomic elements that concentrate this heritability. We examined genomic architectures of TS and OCD by chromosome, MAF bin, and functional annotations. in addition, we assessed heritability for early onset and adult onset OCD. Among other notable results, we found that SNPs with a minor allele frequency of less than 5% accounted for 21% of the TS heritability and 0% of the OCD heritability. Additionally, we identified a significant contribution to TS and OCD heritability by variants significantly associated with gene expression in two regions of the brain (parietal cortex and cerebellum) for which we had available expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). Finally we analyzed the genetic correlation between TS and OCD, revealing a genetic correlation of 0.41 (se = 0.15, p = 0.002). These results are very close to previous heritability estimates for TS and OCD based on twin and family studies, suggesting that very little, if any, heritability is truly missing (i.e., unassayed) from TS and OCD GWAS studies of common variation. the results also indicate that there is some genetic overlap between these two phenotypically-related neuropsychiatric disorders, but suggest that the two disorders have distinct genetic architectures. ; Judah Foundation ; NIH ; Tourette Syndrome Association International Consortium for Genetics (TSAICG) ; New Jersey Center for Tourette Syndrome and Associated Disorders ; NIMH ; Obsessive Compulsive Foundation ; Ontario Mental Health Foundation ; Tourette Syndrome Association ; American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) ; Anxiety Disorders Association of America (ADAA) ; University of British Columbia ; Michael Smith Foundation ; American Recovery and Re-investment Act (ARRA) ; Australian Research Council ; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council ; German Research Foundation ; NIH Genes, Environment and Health Initiative [GEI] ; Gene Environment Association Studies (GENEVA) under GEI ; NIH GEI ; National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism ; National Institute on Drug Abuse ; Univ Chicago, Dept Med, Med Genet Sect, Chicago, IL 60637 USA ; Harvard Univ, Massachusetts Gen Hosp, Dept Psychiat,Sch Med, Psychiat & Neurodev Genet Unit,Ctr Human Genet Re, Boston, MA USA ; Broad Inst Harvard & MIT, Stanley Ctr Psychiat Res, Cambridge, MA USA ; Univ Chicago, Dept Med, Chicago, IL 60637 USA ; Univ Chicago, Dept Human Genet, Chicago, IL 60637 USA ; Univ Amsterdam, Acad Med Ctr, Dept Psychiat, NL-1105 AZ Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Massachusetts Gen Hosp, Analyt & Translat Genet Unit, Boston, MA 02114 USA ; Univ Queensland, Diamantina Inst, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia ; Univ Queensland, Queensland Brain Inst, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia ; Univ Hlth Network, Toronto Western Res Inst, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Hosp Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada ; Univ Vita Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy ; Hadassah Hebrew Univ Med Ctr, Herman Dana Div Child & Adolescent Psychiat, Jerusalem, Israel ; Univ Pontificia Bolivariana, Univ Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia ; Johns Hopkins Univ, Sch Med, Dept Psychiat & Behav Sci, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA ; Yale Univ, Dept Psychiat, New Haven, CT 06520 USA ; Yale Univ, Sch Med, Ctr Child Study, New Haven, CT 06510 USA ; North Shore Long Isl Jewish Med Ctr, Manhasset, NY USA ; NYU Med Ctr, New York, NY 10016 USA ; North Shore Long Isl Jewish Hlth Syst, Manhasset, NY USA ; Hofstra Univ, Sch Med, Hempstead, NY 11550 USA ; Inst Nacl Psiquiatria Ramon de la Fuente Muniz, Mexico City, DF, Mexico ; UCL, London, England ; Univ Hong Kong, Dept Psychiat, Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Peoples R China ; Univ São Paulo, Sch Med, Dept Psychiat, São Paulo, Brazil ; Vrije Univ Amsterdam, Med Ctr, Dept Psychiat, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Univ Utrecht, Dept Clin & Hlth Psychol, Utrecht, Netherlands ; Altrecht Acad Anxiety Ctr, Utrecht, Netherlands ; Univ Milan, Osped San Raffaele, I-20127 Milan, Italy ; Univ Calif Los Angeles, Dept Psychol, Los Angeles, CA 90024 USA ; Univ Calif San Diego, Dept Psychiat, La Jolla, CA 92093 USA ; Univ Montreal, Montreal, PQ, Canada ; Univ Calif Los Angeles, Keck Sch Med, Div Biostat, Dept Preventat Med, Los Angeles, CA USA ; Univ Illinois, Dept Psychiat, Inst Juvenile Res, Chicago, IL 60612 USA ; Univ Ghent, Lab Pharmaceut Biotechnol, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium ; Inst Pasteur, Paris, France ; French Natl Sci Fdn, Fondat Fondamental, Creteil, France ; Hop Robert Debre, AP HP, Dept Child & Adolescent Psychiat, F-75019 Paris, France ; Univ Montreal, Dept Psychiat, Montreal, PQ H3C 3J7, Canada ; Univ Wurzburg, Dept Child & Adolescent Psychiat Psychosomat & Ps, D-97070 Wurzburg, Germany ; Univ Munich, Dept Psychiat & Psychotherapy, Munich, Germany ; Yale Univ, Sch Med, Dept Psychiat, New Haven, CT USA ; Harvard Univ, Sch Med, Dept Psychiat, Massachusetts Gen Hosp,OCD Program, Boston, MA 02115 USA ; Univ Med Greifswald, Helios Hosp Stralsund, Dept Psychiat & Psychotherapy, Greifswald, Germany ; Butler Hosp, Brown Med Sch, Dept Psychiat & Human Behav, Providence, RI 02906 USA ; Shaare Zedek Med Ctr, Neuropediatr Unit, Jerusalem, Israel ; Rutgers State Univ, Dept Genet, Human Genet Inst New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ USA ; Univ Stellenbosch, Dept Psychiat, ZA-7600 Stellenbosch, South Africa ; Univ São Paulo, Fac Med, Dept Psychiat, BR-05508 São Paulo, Brazil ; Baylor Coll Med, Dept Neurol, Parkinsons Dis Ctr, Houston, TX 77030 USA ; Baylor Coll Med, Dept Neurol, Movement Disorders Clin, Houston, TX 77030 USA ; Massachusetts Gen Hosp, Dept Psychiat, Boston, MA 02114 USA ; Ctr Addict & Mental Hlth, Neurogenet Sect, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Univ Toronto, Dept Psychiat, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Yale Univ, Sch Med, Dept Genet, Yale Child Study Ctr, New Haven, CT 06510 USA ; Overlook Hosp, Atlantic Neurosci Inst, Summit, NJ USA ; Carracci Med Grp, Mexico City, DF, Mexico ; Inst Mondor Rech Biomed, Creteil, France ; Yale Univ, Ctr Child Study, New Haven, CT 06520 USA ; Univ Bonn, Dept Psychiat & Psychotherapy, Bonn, Germany ; Univ Illinois, Dept Psychiat, Inst Human Genet, Chicago, IL 60612 USA ; Univ Stellenbosch, Dept Psychiat, MRC Unit Anxiety & Stress Disorders, ZA-7600 Stellenbosch, South Africa ; Univ Calif San Francisco, Dept Psychiat, San Francisco, CA USA ; UCI, Sch Med, Dept Psychiat & Human Behav, Irvine, CA USA ; Univ Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA ; NIMH Intramural Res Program, Clin Sci Lab, Bethesda, MD USA ; Med City Dallas Hosp, Dept Clin Res, Dallas, TX USA ; Univ Med Ctr, Rudolf Magnus Inst Neurosci, Dept Psychiat, Utrecht, Netherlands ; Univ Calif Los Angeles, Semel Inst Neurosci & Human Behav, Ctr Neurobehav Genet, Los Angeles, CA 90024 USA ; Yale Univ, Sch Med, Dept Genet, New Haven, CT 06510 USA ; Univ So Calif, Keck Sch Med, Zilkha Neurogenet Inst, Dept Psychiat & Behav Sci, Los Angeles, CA 90033 USA ; Univ Calif Los Angeles, David Geffen Sch Med, Dept Psychiat & Biobehav Sci, Los Angeles, CA 90095 USA ; Yale Univ, Dept Psychol, New Haven, CT 06520 USA ; Partners Psychiat & McLean Hosp, Boston, MA USA ; Sunnybrook Hlth Sci Ctr, Frederick W Thompson Anxiety Disorders Ctr, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada ; St George Hosp, London, England ; Sch Med, London, England ; Hosp Nacl Ninos Dr Carlos Saenz Herrera, San Jose, Costa Rica ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Dept Psychiat, Child & Adolescent Psychiat Unit UPIA, São Paulo, Brazil ; Wayne State Univ, Dept Psychiat & Behav Neurosci, Detroit, MI 48207 USA ; Detroit Med Ctr, Detroit, MI USA ; McGill Univ, Montreal Neurol Inst, Montreal, PQ, Canada ; Univ Cologne, Dept Psychiat & Psychotherapy, D-50931 Cologne, Germany ; Univ Fed Bahia, Univ Hlth Care Serv SMURB, Salvador, BA, Brazil ; Youthdale Treatment Ctr, Toronto, ON, Canada ; Johns Hopkins Univ Sch Med, Baltimore, MD USA ; Univ Cape Town, ZA-7925 Cape Town, South Africa ; Univ Med Ctr Utrecht, Dept Med Genet, Utrecht, Netherlands ; Vanderbilt Univ, Kennedy Ctr Res Human Dev, Dept Psychiat, Nashville, TN 37235 USA ; Vanderbilt Univ, Kennedy Ctr Res Human Dev, Dept Pediat & Pharmacol, Nashville, TN 37235 USA ; Vanderbilt Univ, Inst Brain, Nashville, TN 37235 USA ; Univ Zurich, Dept Child & Adolescent Psychiat, Zurich, Switzerland ; Univ Wurzburg, Dept Child & Adolescent Psychiat, D-97070 Wurzburg, Germany ; Univ Amsterdam, Acad Med Ctr, Ctr Psychiat, NL-1105 BC Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Inst Royal Netherlands Acad Arts & Sci NIN KNAW, Netherlands Inst Neurosci, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; NIMH Intramural Res Program, Unit Stat Genom, Bethesda, MD USA ; Univ Utah, Dept Psychiat, Salt Lake City, UT USA ; Natl Inst Genom Med SAP, Carracci Med Grp, Mexico City, DF, Mexico ; Vrije Univ Amsterdam, Ctr Neurogen & Cognit Res, Dept Funct Genom, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Vrije Univ Amsterdam Med Ctr, Dept Clin Genet, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Erasmus Univ, Med Ctr, Dept Child & Adolescent Psychiat, Rotterdam, Netherlands ; Univ Michigan, Dept Psychiat, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA ; Vrije Univ Amsterdam, Med Ctr, Dept Clin Genet, Sect Med Genom, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; German Ctr Neurodegenerat Dis, Tubingen, Germany ; Hosp Sick Children, Program Genet & Genome Biol, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada ; Erasmus MC, Dept Clin Genet, Rotterdam, Netherlands ; Univ British Columbia, British Columbia Mental Hlth & Addict Res Inst, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada ; Brigham & Womens Hosp, Div Cognit & Behav Neurol, Boston, MA 02115 USA ; Massachusetts Gen Hosp, Dept Neurol, Boston, MA 02114 USA ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Dept Psychiat, Child & Adolescent Psychiat Unit UPIA, São Paulo, Brazil ; NIH: NS40024 ; NIH: NS16648 ; NIH: MH079489 ; NIH: MH073250 ; NIH: NS037484 ; NIH: 1R01MH079487-01A1 ; NIH: K20 MH01065 ; NIH: R01 MH58376 ; NIH: MH085057 ; NIH: MH079494 ; NIH: HHSN268200782096C ; NIMH: R01MH092293 ; American Recovery and Re-investment Act (ARRA): NS40024-07S1 ; American Recovery and Re-investment Act (ARRA): NS16648-29S1 ; Australian Research Council: FT0991360 ; Australian Research Council: DE130100614 ; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council: 1047956 ; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council: 1052684 ; German Research Foundation: DFG GR 1912/1-1 ; NIH Genes, Environment and Health Initiative [GEI]: U01 HG004422 ; NIH GEI: U01HG004438 ; : R01 MH090937 ; : P50MH094267 ; Web of Science

Tropische Entwaldung ist eines der dringendsten Umweltprobleme unserer Zeit. Sie ist einer der wichtigsten Treiber des Klimawandels und führt zu hohen Verlusten von Biodiversität und Ökosystemdienstleistungen. Bolivien ist eines der Länder mit den höchsten Entwaldungsraten weltweit. Im Rahmen der weltweiten Bemühungen zur Lösung dieses Problems unter dem REDD- Mechanismus ist es wichtig, konkrete und länderspezifische Handlungsoptionen für eine effektive und effiziente Entwaldungsreduktion zu identifizieren. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung dafür ist ein tiefgehendes Verständnis der komplexen Prozesse, die zu Entwaldung führen. Räumliche Modelle können hierfür wertvolle Informationen liefern, indem sie mögliche Einflussfaktoren in der Vergangenheit auswerten und Szenarien über künftige Entwicklungen generieren. In dieser Arbeit wird die logistische Regression als Schlüsselinstrument für eine systematische Identifikation von Handlungsoptionen angewendet, um die Ausbreitung der wichtigsten waldersetzenden Landnutzungsaktivitäten einzudämmen. Die gesamte Arbeit untersucht das bolivianische Tiefland als Modellregion. In einer Fallstudie wird zunächst die Expansion der mechanisierten Landwirtschaft im Department Santa Cruz untersucht. Der großflächige Soja-Anbau macht diese Region zu einem der Brennpunkte der Entwaldung in Südamerika. Ein logistisches Regressionsmodell über fünf Beobachtungszeitpunkte (1976, 1986, 1992, 2001 und 2005) identifiziert die wichtigsten Einflussfaktoren für die Ausbreitung der mechanisierten Landwirtschaft und analysiert ihre Wirkung über die Zeit. Es zeigt sich, dass die übergeordnete Entwaldungsdynamik über die Zeit stabil blieb, wobei es jedoch eine Tendenz zum Vordringen in die amazonischen, feuchteren Wälder im Norden von Santa Cruz gibt; eine analoge Entwicklung ist auch aus Brasilien bekannt. Die Modellierungsergebnisse werden genau validiert; dafür werden projizierte mit tatsächlichen Entwaldungsmustern verglichen und versteckte Korrelationen zwischen unabhängigen Variablen aufgedeckt. Die Fallstudie zeigt, dass die logistische Regression ein geeignetes Werkzeug für die weitergehenden Studien ist, unter der Voraussetzung, dass sie von sorgfältigen Evaluierungen und Plausibilitätschecks begleitet wird. In einer Folgeanalyse werden die drei wichtigsten direkten Ursachen für Entwaldung im gesamten bolivianischen Tiefland identifiziert: Mechanisierte Landwirtschaft war für 54% der Entwaldung zwischen 1992 und 2004 verantwortlich, gefolgt von Rinderzucht mit 27% und kleinbäuerlicher Landwirtschaft mit 19%. Mithilfe eines multinomialen Logitmodells werden die Einflussfaktoren dieser drei Landnutzungsformen analysiert. Die Resultate zeigen, dass die Expansion der mechanisierten Landwirtschaft hauptsächlich mit einem guten Zugang zu den Exportmärkten, fruchtbaren Böden und moderaten Niederschlagsbedingungen im Zusammenhang steht. Die Ausbreitung der kleinbäuerlichen Landwirtschaft ist mit einem eher feuchten Klima assoziiert, außerdem mit fruchtbaren Böden und einem guten Zugang zu lokalen Märkten. Die Umwandlung von Wald in Weideland zeigt nur geringe Korrelationen mit Umweltfaktoren und lässt sich am besten mit dem Zugang zu lokalen Märkten erklären. Landnutzungsrestriktionen, etwa Schutzgebiete, scheinen die Expansion von mechanisierter Landwirtschaft zu verhindern, zeigen aber wenig Wirkung in Bezug auf kleinbäuerliche Landwirtschaft und Viehzucht. Eine Analyse von zukünftigen Entwaldungstendenzen zeigt die wahrscheinliche künftige Ausbreitung jeder der drei Landnutzungsformen und identifiziert insbesondere zwei mögliche neue Expansionsgebiete der mechanisierten Landwirtschaft bei Puerto Suarez und San Buenaventura. Die quantitativen Modellierungsergebnisse werden ergänzt durch eine qualitative Analyse historischer Prozesse, die die Landnutzungsmuster in verschiedenen Teilen des bolivianischen Tieflands geformt haben. Während die quantitative Analyse die neueren räumlichen Entwaldungsdynamiken gut erklären kann, scheinen die Zeitpunkte von Entwaldungsereignissen vor allem durch historische Faktoren und politische Interventionen bestimmt zu werden. In einer dritten Analyse wird – wieder am Beispiel Boliviens – ein systematischer Ansatz zur Identifikation von Handlungsoptionen entwickelt, wobei die Modellierungsergebnisse ein wichtiges Element bilden. Die Ableitung von Handlungsoptionen basiert auf dem räumlichen und ökonomischen Potenzial landwirtschaftlicher Expansion, auf den erwarteten Kosten einer Entwaldungsreduktion sowie auf den aktuellen rechtlichen und politischen Rahmenbedingungen in Bolivien. Alle Analysen beziehen sich auf die drei direkten Ursachen von Entwaldung; für diese Landnutzungsformen werden spezifische Handlungsoptionen diskutiert. Die Eindämmung der Viehwirtschaft zeigt sich trotz des höheren Entwaldungsanteils der mechanisierten Landwirtschaft als Priorität, da die Umwandlung in Weideland für nahezu alle zugänglichen Wälder eine Bedrohung darstellt und da eine Reduktion zu relativ geringen Kosten möglich sein sollte. Eine schärfere gesetzliche Kontrolle sowie die Stärkung von zuständigen Institutionen auf nationaler und lokaler Ebene sind von höchster Bedeutung für die Reduktion aller drei Entwaldungstypen. Spezifische Maßnahmen sollten eine effizientere Produktion auf bereits genutzten Flächen gegenüber dem Vordringen in bewaldete Gebiete attraktiver machen. In diesem Zusammenhang könnten höhere Gebühren für legale Entwaldung die Ausbreitung von mechanisierter Landwirtschaft und Viehwirtschaft eindämmen. Auch eine Rückführung der Diesel-Subventionen dürfte die Expansion der mechanisierten Landwirtschaft bremsen. Solche Maßnahmen sollten durch die Förderung einer höheren räumlichen Produktionseffizienz ergänzt werden, etwa durch verbesserten Zugang zu Dünger oder technische Beratung und Unterstützung für höhere Bestockungsdichten. Die Ausbreitung der kleinbäuerlichen Landwirtschaft scheint aufgrund der hohen Zahl von Akteuren schwerer kontrollierbar zu sein; wichtig wäre es aber, das Eindringen in Schutzgebiete zu verhindern und effizientere und nachhaltigere Anbauformen sowie auch Arbeitsplätze außerhalb der Landwirtschaft zu fördern. Die Entwaldungsmodellierung zeigt sich als wichtiges analytisches Werkzeug zum Verständnis der zugrunde liegenden Prozesse; sie kann wichtige Informationen zur Ableitung von Handlungsoptionen liefern. Zukünftige Forschung könnte die Möglichkeiten von komplexeren Szenarien durch die Integration dynamischer Elemente ausloten; entsprechende Möglichkeiten sind in bestehenden Modellierungsprogrammen angelegt. Im Ausblick dieser Arbeit wird außerdem die Technik des Kartierens von Opportunitätskosten des Waldschutzes vorgestellt: Sie ermöglicht Szenarien auf der Basis von nicht-räumlichen Faktoren, etwa von Preisen landwirtschaftlicher Produkte. Für die praktische Anwendung von Modellen scheint es allerdings wichtig zu sein, eine hohe Transparenz zu wahren, um regelmäßige Plausibilitätschecks zu ermöglichen. Es besteht weiterer Forschungsbedarf zur Identifikation geeigneter Handlungsoptionen für eine effektive und effiziente Entwaldungsreduktion. In der Diskussion um REDD scheint die Bekämpfung der Entwaldung durch industrielle Landwirtschaft und große Rinderfarmen nur eine untergeordnete Rolle zu spielen. Dies könnte im Vorherrschen traditioneller Naturschutzkonzepte begründet sein sowie in einem ungerechtfertigten Fokus auf Kleinbauern. Auch der Schwerpunkt auf marktbasierten Lösungsansätzen scheint fragwürdig; nach den Ergebnissen dieser Arbeit könnte die direkte Unterstützung der Regierungen von tropischen Ländern bei der Umsetzung der erfolgsversprechendsten Maßnahmen zielführender sein. Des Weiteren scheint es wichtig, bei existierenden entwaldungsrelevanten globalen Märkten anzusetzen, etwa beim Handel mit Agrarrohstoffen wie Soja, Rindfleisch, Palmöl oder Tropenholz aus Kahlschlägen. ; Tropical deforestation represents one of the most urgent environmental problems of our time; it contributes heavily to climate change, causes immense losses of biodiversity and endangers important environmental services. Bolivia is among the countries with the highest deforestation rates in the world. In light of the current international efforts to reduce deforestation within the framework of REDD, effective and efficient country-specific policy options need to be identified to make progress on the ground. A prerequisite for the prioritization of such policy options is a detailed understanding of the complex processes driving deforestation. Spatial models can contribute valuable information to this end. They can provide quantitative evaluations of hypothesized drivers of deforestation in the past and also generate scenarios that represent probable developments in the future. This study applies spatially explicit regression models as a key instrument for the systematic identification of specific policy options suitable for mitigating the expansion of the main forest-depleting land uses. The entire study is based on Bolivia as a model country. The expansion of mechanized agriculture in the department of Santa Cruz is analyzed as a first case study. Soybean production has converted this area into one of the hotspots of deforestation in the entire Amazon. A logistic regression model covering five time steps (1976, 1986, 1992, 2001 and 2005) identifies the main determinants of the expansion of mechanized agriculture and explores the development of their effects over time. It shows that – while deforestation dynamics have been generally stable over time – there is a tendency of increased penetration into the more humid Amazonian forests in northern Santa Cruz, a development that is also known from Brazil. The model's results are thoroughly validated, including a comparison between projected and observed deforestation patterns and the investigation of hidden correlations between independent variables. The case study shows that logistic regression is a suitable tool for the purposes of the entire study, provided that careful evaluations and plausibility checks of the model outputs are conducted. In a subsequent analysis covering the entire Bolivian lowlands, three main proximate causes of deforestation are identified: mechanized agriculture was responsible for 54% of deforestation between 1992 and 2004, followed by cattle ranching with 27 %, and small-scale agriculture with 19%. A multinomial logit model is applied to analyze the determinants of each of these proximate causes of deforestation. The results suggest that the expansion of mechanized agriculture occurs mainly in response to good access to export markets, fertile soil and intermediate rainfall conditions. Increases in small-scale agriculture are mainly associated with a humid climate, fertile soil and proximity to local markets. Forest conversion into pastures for cattle ranching occurs mostly irrespective of environmental determinants and can mainly be explained by access to local markets. Land use restrictions, such as protected areas, seem to prevent the expansion of mechanized agriculture but have little impact on the expansion of small-scale agriculture and cattle ranching. An analysis of future deforestation trends reveals possible hotspots of future expansion for each proximate cause and specifically highlights the possible opening of new frontiers of deforestation due to mechanized agriculture in the areas of Puerto Suarez and San Buenaventura. The quantitative insights of the model are substantiated with a qualitative analysis of historical processes that have shaped land use patterns in different zones of the Bolivian lowlands to date. Whereas the quantitative analysis effectively elucidates the spatial patterns of recent agricultural expansion, the interpretation of long-term historic drivers reveals that the timing and quantity of forest conversion are often triggered by political interventions and historical legacies. In a third analysis, a systematic approach is developed in order to prioritize policy options for effective and efficient deforestation reduction, making use of the model outputs, among other things. Again, Bolivia is taken as a model country. The derivation of policy options is based on analyses of the spatial and economic potential of agricultural expansion, the expected costs of deforestation reduction, and the current legal and political framework in Bolivia. All analyses focus on the three proximate causes of deforestation; and specific policy options are discussed for these types of land use. It is concluded that, although mechanized agriculture caused more than half of all past deforestation in lowland Bolivia, cattle ranching activities should be targeted as a priority since their expansion threatens forests in many different locations and improvements could be achieved at relatively low costs. Enforcing legislation while strengthening institutions on both national and local levels is of utmost importance for the reduction of the expansion of all three land use categories. Specific measures should aim at giving an advantage to more efficient production on existing farms over the expansion into forested areas. In this context, a higher legal fee for deforestation has potential to mitigate forest conversion due to mechanized agriculture and cattle ranching farms, while a removal of subsidies for agro-diesel may specifically reduce the expansion of mechanized agriculture. Such measures could be complemented by a support for higher production efficiency, such as better access to fertilizer and techniques allowing increased cattle stocking densities. The expansion of small-scale agriculture seems to be difficult to control, due to the large number of agents; measures should focus on mitigating the encroachment into areas with land use restrictions, fostering more sustainable and space-efficient agricultural practices, as well as off-farm employment. Models of deforestation are found to be important analytical tools for a better understanding of the processes leading to deforestation; they can render important information for the development of policy options to combat deforestation. Further investigations may explore the possibilities of building more complex scenarios by adding dynamic elements that are contained in some existing land use modeling frameworks. In the outlook of this study, the mapping of opportunity costs of forest conservation is shortly introduced as a promising possibility of generating scenarios based non-spatial factors such as prices of agricultural goods. It is however concluded that, for practical applications, it seems reasonable to keep the transparency of models as high as possible in order to allow for constant plausibility checks of the model outputs. The study concludes that more research is needed to identify and evaluate suitable policy options to reduce deforestation on the ground. In the discussion on REDD, only little attention seems to be given to the development of mitigation strategies for large forest clearings driven by corporate agents and large cattle farms. This may be due to a certain prevalence of traditional approaches to biodiversity conservation within selected conservation areas and an unjustified focus on smallholders. Also the strong focus on market-based solutions may be questionable; according to this study it would be more appropriate to directly support the governments of tropical countries to implement the most promising measures. It may also be important to target existing markets that drive deforestation, i.e., global markets for beef, soybean, palm oil and tropical timber stemming from clear-cuts.

Im Folgenden stelle ich den Sammelband Performing Politics vor, der anlässlich der ersten Internationalen Sommerakademie 2010 in Hamburg entstanden ist. Die zentrale Fragestellung der Akademie lautete: "wie man heute im Sinne der von Jean-Luc Godard vorgeschlagenen Unterscheidung statt politischer Kunst politisch Kunst machen kann" (S. 7). Außerdem sollte der Austausch zwischen Theorie und Praxis gepflegt und die Veranstaltung für eine größere Öffentlichkeit geöffnet werden. Trotz der Heterogenität ergänzen sich einige Beiträge und vermitteln einen Eindruck des vielfältigen und weiten Feldes. Unter der Überschrift "Politik (in) der Kunst" wurden Beiträge versammelt, die sich mit den grundlegenden Voraussetzungen dafür beschäftigen, wie Kunst politisch sein kann. Es geht dabei vor allem um künstlerische Methoden und Vorgangsweisen. Der Gemeinschafts-Begriff bzw. der Begriff des Kollektiven spielt eine wichtige Rolle in mehreren Beiträgen. Das Nature Theater of Oklahoma (NTO) – Pavol Liska und Kelly Copper – versucht ein krisenhaftes Moment in ihre Arbeiten einzuführen, das ihre eigene Arbeitsweise, die der Schauspieler_innen und die Erwartung des Publikums herausfordert. So sollen neue Formen entstehen, die die traditionellen Grenzen des Theaters überschreiten. Die Theatermacher_innen verwenden einen Begriff von "Echtheit" bzw. "Realismus", der einen Zwischen-Zustand meint, in dem die Darsteller_innen weder sie selbst noch ihre Rolle sind. Robin Arthur thematisiert das Problem der Gemeinschaft und 'der Anderen' im Kontext des Politischen. Dabei wirft der Autor die Frage auf: Ist jede Art von Performance schon Politik, weil sie eine bestimmte (wenn auch exklusive) Kollektivität erzeugt? Reinhard Strobl und Jasna Žmak versuchen mit ihrem Text "High Hopes" eine fiktive Gemeinschaft mit ihren Lesern_innen herzustellen. Man könnte diese Textform auch als 'performatives Texten' beschreiben, da es den/die Leser_in aktivieren soll, eigene Gedanken anzuschließen. Sebastian Blasius fragt sich angesichts der Arbeit … although I live inside … my hair will always reach towards the sun … der Choreographin Robyn Orlin, "ob überhaupt innerhalb des theatralen Mediums Alternativen oder Lösungen politischer Fragen erdacht werden können, die nicht schon anderswo versucht wurden" (S.42). Spannend finde ich seine Schlussfolgerung, dass die Form an sich in Frage gestellt werden müsse, um politisch Theater zu machen. Auch in Astrid Deuber-Mankowskys Beitrag geht es um das Herstellen einer Gemeinschaft, genauer um "das Fehlen des Volkes" in Filmen der Nachkriegszeit. Die Formel des "Fehlens des Volkes" geht auf Gilles Deleuze zurück. Nach Deleuze sei es die Aufgabe des modernen Kinos, zu zeigen "wie das Volk fehlt" – was verbunden sei mit der Herstellung der Bedingungen von Kollektivität, dem Problem der Wahrnehmung und dem Problem des Denkens (vgl. S.30). Rudi Laermans spricht in seinem Text über Meg Stuart hingegen vom "kollektive[n] Blick" bzw. dem "kollektiven Ohr". Gemeint ist einerseits die Gemeinschaft von Zuschauer_innen/Zuhörer_innen und andererseits eine kulturelle Gemeinschaft, die dieselben Zeichen lesen kann. Die sogenannte "Politik des Zuschauens" tritt dann ein, wenn die Voraussetzungen und kulturellen Normen des Schauens/Hörens oder die Beziehung zwischen Zuschauern_innen und Akteuren_innen in Frage gestellt werden (vgl. S.43f.). Im Abschnitt "Interventionen – Kunst und (subversive) Aktionen" geht es um die Rolle von Kunst als 'politisches Instrument' sowie um die Frage, inwiefern Kunst konkrete Auswirkungen auf politische und gesellschaftliche Zusammenhänge haben kann. Sergej A. Romashko betont die Bedeutung des jeweiligen situativen und historischen Kontextes für die Frage, wann Kunst politisch ist. Mit Walter Benjamin weist er außerdem darauf hin, dass das Politische an der Kunst nicht allein am Inhalt festgemacht werden könne, sondern auch die Form zu berücksichtigen sei. So können die Arbeiten von Kollektive Aktionen (Kollektivnye dejstvija), einer russischen Künstlergruppe, der der Autor selbst angehört, im Kontext der Sowjetzeit und im Verhältnis der gesellschaftlichen Spielregeln als 'politisch' gedeutet werden. Die Teilnehmer_innen stellen nichts dar, sondern vollziehen eine bestimmte Handlung, die sich zu kulturellen, historischen und politischen Rahmenbedingungen ins Verhältnis setzt. André Schallenberg bezieht sich in seinem Beitrag ebenfalls auf Arbeiten von Kollektive Aktionen (KA), aber auch auf aktuelle Aktions- und Interventionsprojekte von Labofii, den Yes Men, 01.org und der russischen Gruppe Voina. Er unterscheidet zweckorientierte Kunst, die sich in den Dienst von Protest oder einer pädagogischen Funktion stellt von jenen Praktiken, die versuchen Freiräume für Kunst zu schaffen, die außerhalb jeglichen Systemzwangs stehen. Daher unterscheidet er das Laboratory of Insurrectionary Imagination (Labofii), das als erklärtes Ziel "die (Zurückeroberung) öffentlichen Raumes durch eine Gruppe Fahrradfahrer sowie die Herstellung einer sich einig wissenden Gemeinschaft von politisch Aktiven" habe, radikal von Gruppen wie KA oder Voina (S. 74). Demgegenüber erläutert John Jordan die Innenperspektive des Labofii. Die Künster_innen betrachten "de[n] Aufstand als eine Kunstform und Kunst als Mittel zur Vorbereitung auf den kommenden Aufstand" (S.79). Zu diesem Zweck bauten sie z.B. zurückgelassene Fahrräder in Kopenhagen/Hamburg um, und in einer Reclaim-The-Street-Aktion sollten die Straßen 'zurückerobert' werden. Fraglich ist einerseits, inwiefern Kunst die Realität auf Dauer verändern kann und andererseits, ob die Unterordnung von Kunst unter andere Zwecke – seien diese pädagogischer, politischer oder wirtschaftlicher Art – diese nicht ihrer selbst zu sehr entfremdet. Shalaby und Bansemir beziehen sich ebenfalls auf die Aktion FLOOD von Labofii, die am 22.August 2010 in Hamburg stattfand. Sie betonen die Ambivalenz der Aktion, die weder eindeutig als Kunst noch als politische Demonstration einzuordnen war, was zu einer Auflösung der Grenzen beider Bereiche führte. Maximilian Haas beurteilt die Aktionen von Labofii im Sinne von Walter Benjamin als "reine Mittel ohne Zweck, die sich dem Kontext der repräsentativen Ordnung von Kunst und Politik entziehen, und die – folgt man Benjamin – also als gewaltlos zu bezeichnen wären" (S. 87). Für Haas bleiben sowohl der Kunstcharakter der Intervention als auch die jeweilige politische Forderung unausgesprochen, was die Aktionen zu reinen Mitteln werden lasse. Die Beiträge, die unter "Konfigurationen – Politiken des Raumes" gesammelt wurden, thematisieren einerseits die Inszenierung des öffentlichen urbanen Raumes und andererseits künstlerische Interventionen, die sich mit diesem auseinandersetzen. Die Autor_innen nähern sich der Thematik aus historischer, künstlerischer, architektonischer, sozialer und kapitalismuskritischer Perspektive an. Ulrike Haß hat sich angesehen, wie kulturelle, politische, religiöse und andere Faktoren städtische Topographien im Laufe der Zeit verändern. Genauer untersucht die Autorin die Relation zwischen Raum und Sichtbarkeit in Bezug auf die Städte der Renaissance, die filmischen Topographien deutscher Filmemacher am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts und in Bezug auf den Städtebau der BRD. Die totale Sichtbarkeit in der Kontrollgesellschaft lässt dabei "übersehene Räume" – Zwischenräume, die noch nicht vom Konsum bestimmt werden –als potentielle Orte des Widerstands erscheinen, die zurückerobert und teilnehmend erkundet werden können. Das Kollektiv Bauchladen Monopol begann 2010 in Hamburg, öffentliche Plätze und Gebäude durch ihre Tanz-Aktionen zu besetzen und damit den Raum für die begrenzte Zeit von jeweils vierzig Minuten für sich zu beanspruchen. In der Reflexion ihrer Arbeit kommen sie zu dem Schluss, dass die Besetzung öffentlicher urbaner Räume, die keinem bestimmten Zweck dient, sowohl als Eingriff in die bestehende Ordnung, aber auch als willkommene Abwechslung gelesen werden kann. Jasmin Stommel weist in ihrem Beitrag ebenfalls auf den Zusammenhang von kapitalistischen Interessen und dem urbanem Raum hin. Ein Symptom davon seien sogenannte "Nicht-Orte" (Marc Augé) an der Peripherie von Städten, die monofunktional und transitorisch sind. Als Beispiel führt die Autorin das Kampnagelgelände in Hamburg an, in dessen vielfältiger Nutzung sich dieses Spannungsverhältnis widerspiegle. Unter dem Titel "Überschreitungen – Politiken (in) der Institution" wurden Beiträge gruppiert, die sich mit den Bedingungen von Kunstproduktion in jenen institutionellen Gefügen beschäftigen, die Kunst oftmals erst ermöglichen, aber auch behindern können. Aus ihrer Perspektive als Kuratorin führt Amelie Deuflhard vier Kategorien an, in die sie künstlerische Arbeiten einordnet, die "politisch Kunst machen": "neue theatrale Formen (Experiment), transkulturelle Arbeiten, partizipatorische Formate und performative Interventionen" (S.124). Das Problem an den genannten Kategorien ist meiner Meinung nach, dass diese sehr allgemein und weit gefasst werden. Des Weiteren müssten folgende Aspekte einbezogen werden: der geschichtliche Kontext, die raum-zeitlichen Konfigurationen sowie die spezifische Ästhetik der Darstellung. Anneka Esch-van Kan weist auf die starke Tendenz hin, Theorie und Praxis des zeitgenössischen Theaters zu verbinden, was sich sowohl in den Produktionsweisen als auch in der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit niederschlägt. Sie betont jedoch die damit verbundenen Spannungen, die es erschweren eine Sprache zu finden, "die den vielfältigen komplexen Verhältnissen begegnen könnte". Das Finden einer solchen Sprache ist ihrer Ansicht nach ein wichtiger Schritt für die "Theoriebildung zum Politischen im Theater" (S.128). Als Theaterpraktiker plädiert Matthias von Hartz dafür, das Potential der Institutionen zu nutzen, um eine – nicht näher definierte – Öffentlichkeit zu erreichen. Einerseits sieht er die Relevanz des Theaters als Ort gesellschaftlicher Auseinandersetzung schwinden, andererseits will er für dessen Re-Politisierung kämpfen. Unter den verschiedenen Institutionen sieht er Festivals als "theoretisch ideale Formate", da für diese "alle Freiheiten des Theaters, aber nur wenige seiner Zwänge" gälten (S.131). Obwohl die Idee, die Institutionen von Seiten der Künstler_innen mehr zu nutzen, durchaus interessant ist, scheinen mir die zugrunde gelegten Begriffe von "Politik" und "Öffentlichkeit" sehr vage und unreflektiert. Außerdem denke ich, dass der Autor eher "politisches Theater" meint – und weniger Theater, das auf politische Weise gemacht ist. Nina Jan weist in ihrem Beitrag darauf hin, dass Festivals genauso bestimmten "Zwängen" folgen wie andere Kunstinstitutionen und demnach nicht unbedingt mehr Freiheiten bieten. Während die Relevanz von Festivals für das Networking zwischen Künstler_innen unbestreitbar sei, betont sie auch die den Festivals inhärente Marktlogik. Als Versuch, sich dieser zu entziehen, nennt die Autorin das Festival Pleskavica, das im Juni 2011 in Ljubljana (Slowenien) stattfand. Unter dem Titel "Jenseits des Spektakels" wurden Beiträge versammelt, die sich mit dem Begriff des Spektakels bzw. des Spektakulären auseinandersetzen. In Bezug auf Letzteres geht es um reale und imaginäre Bilder, die in und durch Performances/Theater generiert werden. Das postspektakuläre Theater, das André Eiermann beschreibt, setzt sich kritisch mit den Postulaten der "Unmittelbarkeit" und der "zwischenmenschlichen Begegnung von Angesicht zu Angesicht" auseinander, die in den letzten zehn Jahren zentral für den Diskurs um das Politische im Theater und die "Mitverantwortung des Publikums" waren (S.145). Im Unterschied zum oft spektakulären Mitmach-Theater, das – ganz im Sinne der Gesellschaft des Spektakels – darauf ausgerichtet sei, sich selbst darzustellen und einen nur scheinbar gleichwertigen Austausch mit den Darstellern_innen zu simulieren, sind postspektakuläre Arbeiten abstrakter oder formaler, bieten jedoch dem Publikum Anschlussstellen für die eigenen Imagination. Jemma Nelson und Caden Manson – zwei Mitglieder der New Yorker Performance Gruppe The Big Art Group – stellen ihren Begriff des Spektakulären vor. Für ihre Performances dienen die massenwirksamen Bildproduktionsmaschinen von Internet-Foren, Online-Games, Webseiten, Talkshows oder Nachrichtensendungen als Inspirationsquellen und Rohmaterial. Es geht den Verfassern jedoch um die "Brechung des Spektakulären", die ihrer Meinung nach nicht mehr durch eine kritische oder analytische Distanz bewerkstelligt werden könne (S.151). Statt Aussagen blieben in den Aufführungen die Bildlichkeit und die Formen des medialen Informationskrieges übrig. Es geht den Theatermachern aber auch um eine Kritik an der Massenwirksamkeit von Bildern. Sanna Albjørks Außenperspektive auf zwei Produktionen der Big Art Group hilft, deren Arbeitsweise besser zu verstehen. Charakteristisch ist laut der Autorin "[d]ie Gleichzeitigkeit der Betrachtung spektakulärer Bilder […] und die Ausstellung ihrer Produktion". Es gehe nicht um den 'Inhalt' der Bilder, sondern um deren "Manipulierbarkeit" (S.153). Interessant ist vor allem die Frage, die sich Albjørk selbst stellt: Wird wirklich eine Brechung des Spektakulären bewerkstelligt, oder wird der/die Zuschauer_in durch das "Bombardement von Bildern und Sounds" (S.154) mit dieser Überforderung allein gelassen? Krystian Lada untersucht anhand von drei Beispielen "den kreativen Prozess des Herstellens von Bildern auf der Bühne" (S.155). Wie bei Eiermann kommt dem Publikum eine wichtige Rolle zu. Erst in der Vorstellung der Zuschauer_innen entstehen die 'fertigen' Bilder, die durch die Bühnenvorgänge angeregt werden. Der Prozess der Imagination kann z.B. nur durch Sprache und die Körper der Performer_innen initiiert werden. Unter dem Titel Ein anderes Subjekt des Politischen wurden Beiträge versammelt, die sich mit der Subjekt-Werdung und deren politischen Implikationen auseinandersetzen. Einerseits wird der cartesianische Subjekt-Begriff philosophisch befragt, andererseits geht es um die Subjekt-Konstitution in/durch Performances und Theateraufführungen. In seinem Beitrag "Theaterkörper" denkt Jean-Luc Nancy Martin Heideggers Da-Seins-Begriff radikal weiter, indem er das Subjekt als Körper versteht, der nicht gedacht werden kann, sondern sich zeigt. Da dieses Körper-Subjekt nicht mehr im Rahmen der Philosophie gedacht werden kann, dehnt Nancy seine Überlegungen auf das Theater aus, das derjenige Ort sei, wo Präsenz erfahren werden könne. Nancy denkt Existenz als gleich-ursprüngliche Mitzugehörigkeit (coappartenance) (vgl. S.158), als Nebeneinander von Körpern in einer zeitlich-räumlichen Konfiguration, die über Relationalitäten miteinander in Beziehung treten. Dieser Gedanke ist immens politisch, da er den Menschen nicht als vereinzeltes Individuum begreift, sondern als Teil einer Gemeinschaft von Körpern, die immer schon aufeinander bezogen sind. Maria Tataris Kommentar zu Nancys Text trägt viel zu dessen Verständlichkeit bei und ergänzt diesen um wertvolle Informationen. Das "als Solche" der Präsenz denkt Nancy als Äußerlichkeit, was dem philosophischen Denken, das immer am Immateriellen festhält, widerspricht. Folgendes Zitat fasst Nancys Text auf wunderbare Weise zusammen: "Heideggers ontologische Differenz, die die Entfaltung des Seins nicht als Bestandheit der Präsenz, sondern als Emergenz der Zeit denkt, von Nancy als Körper radikalisiert, als Errichtung von bezügezeitigenden und raumgreifenden Intensitäten im Außen, endet im Theater" (S. 175). Mayte Zimmermann wendet in ihrem Beitrag Nancys Konzept eines Körper-Subjekts auf deufert&plischkes Arbeit Anarchiv#2: second hand an. In dieser Arbeit wird das Subjekt herausgefordert, weil es keine fixe Position mehr einnimmt, von der aus es sich seiner Machtposition versichern und die Performer_innen zu angeblickten Objekten machen kann. Die Verhandlung der Frage des Gemeinschaftlichen im Theater ist für die Autorin eine politische Frage. Das Politische kann für sie jedoch nur als "quasi gespenstische Repräsentation" gedacht werden (S.176). Die Konfrontation mit dem Anderen generiert die Subjekt-Werdung: Die Körper im Raum setzten sich zueinander in Relation; sie prallen aufeinander, stoßen einander ab oder ziehen einander an. Aber sie verhalten sich immer zu-einander, sie sind immer schon mit-einander. Laut Zimmermann geht es in Anarchiv#2 auch darum, dass der Abgrund bzw. der "Zwischen-Raum" und die "Zwischen-Zeit" zwischen uns und dem Anderen geöffnet werden sollen, auf eine Weise, dass das "gespenstische Eigenleben" des Anderen erhalten bleiben kann (vgl. S. 184f.). Nikolaus Müller-Schöll untersucht in seinem Beitrag den Zusammenhang zwischen dem Verschwinden der Figur des Chores und der des Harlekins in der europäischen Theatergeschichte sowie deren Renaissance im Theater der Gegenwart. Der Harlekin bricht, wie der Chor, mit der Illusion der Bühnenhandlung, weil wir ihn immer als Harlekin/Chor erkennen und wissen, dass er "nur spielt". Beide sind nicht Teil der Handlung des Dramas, sondern ihnen kommt die "Funktion eines Trägers, Begleiters, Zeugen und Richters der Handlung zu, letztlich also eine Art von Neutrum und insofern die eines bloßen Spielers" (S.193). Müller-Schöll nennt u. a. die Performance-Gruppe Forced Entertainment als herausragendes Beispiel für die Wiederkehr des Harlekins im Gegenwartstheater. Die Geschichten, die sie erzählen, scheitern, denn es gibt keine Wahrheit mehr, die im dramatischen Dialog zutage kommen könnte (vgl. S.197ff.). Sowohl der Harlekin als auch der Chor stellen traditionelle Möglichkeiten dar, innerhalb der Theatertradition auf die Unsicherheit von Identität hinzuweisen. Für Müller-Schöll geht es um die "abgründige Erfahrung" der Existenz, um das Bewusstsein, dass wir immer schon in einem Medium sind, das "das Ende jeder geschlossenen Repräsentation und die Eröffnung unabsehbarer Möglichkeiten" bedeutet (S.200). Jurga Imbrasaite geht in ihrem Beitrag ebenfalls auf die Frage des Subjektes und dessen politische Bedeutung ein. Am Beispiel von Jérôme Bels Tänzerporträts wird aufgezeigt, wie "das choreographische Subjekt" (vgl. Zimmermann) erzeugt wird, indem es sich der Choreographie unterwirft. Die Machtkonstellation Choreograph – Tänzer wird subvertiert, indem die Stücke die Namen der porträtierten Tänzer tragen. Neben der unorthodoxen Namensgebung stellt die Art und Weise, wie die Tänzer_innen agieren, ebenfalls eine Verschiebung der Normen dar. Das private Selbst und das "choreographisches Selbst" werden einander gegenübergestellt und höhlen sich dadurch gegenseitig aus. Insgesamt gibt der Sammelband Performing Politics einen guten Überblick über aktuelle Debatten im Kontext des Politischen und der darstellenden Künste. Die Beiträge decken ein weites thematisches Spektrum ab; durch die Bündelung unter übergreifende Themen gelingt es jedoch, Querverbindungen zwischen den einzelnen Beiträgen herzustellen. Viele Autoren_innen arbeiten sich an der Schnittstelle von Theorie und Praxis der Kunst ab, tun dies jedoch aus sehr unterschiedlichen Perspektiven. Es finden sich aber auch spannende Beispiele und Berichte aus der Praxis von/über: Nature Theater of Oklahoma, Labofii, Kollektive Aktionen (KA), The Big Art Group, Kollektiv Bauchladen Monopol, deufert&plischke, Jérôme Bel und Forced Entertainment. Theoretisch besonders anregend ist der Abschnitt "Ein anderes Subjekt des Politischen", der Einblick in aktuelle philosophische Debatten (Jean-Luc Nancy) gibt, ohne jedoch den Kunstkontext hinter sich zu lassen. Die Beiträge zu "Politiken des Raumes" geben ungewohnte und spannende Perspektiven in Hinblick auf Raum, Stadt, Kapitalismus und Öffentlichkeit. Der Abschnitt "Interventionen" spiegelt wiederum sehr gut den aktuellen Trend zu aktionistischen und interventionistischen Kunstformen wieder. Andererseits taucht darin die alte Debatte um den "Zweck von Kunst" überhaupt auf, in der die Verfechter des l'art pour l'art jenen gegenüberstehen, die Kunst dem Zweck der Politik (oder anderen Zwecken) unterordnen wollen. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass es sich um eine vielseitige und spannende Lektüre für all jene handelt, die einen Überblick über aktuelle Debatten zur Thematik suchen. Es finden sich aber sicher auch Anregungen für auf diesem Gebiet bereits versierte Leser_innen.

Dottorato di ricerca in Storia e cultura del viaggio e dell'odeporica in età moderna ; Expedition into Sicily di Richard Payne Knight, il testo argomento della presente tesi di dottorato, è il resoconto del viaggio svolto in Sicilia, sul finire del diciottesimo secolo, da un ricco inglese accompagnato da due altrettanto benestanti acquarellisti: il noto paesaggista tedesco Philipp Hackert e il ricco dilettante inglese Charles Gore. Creduto perso per più di due secoli, il manoscritto di Knight fu ritrovato soltanto nel 1980 e pubblicato nella sua interezza per la prima volta nel 1986. Scopo del mio lavoro di tesi è far conoscere quest'opera - a lungo considerata come 'minore' - al pubblico italiano attraverso una traduzione critica e metterne in luce l'originalità così come la coerenza interna. Rifacendomi agli studi di chi mi ha preceduto, ho infatti cercato di dimostrare la sostanziale unitarietà del testo, insieme al fatto che tale unitarietà avesse lo scopo di veicolare un messaggio ben preciso: la libertà è condizione necessaria per l'eccellenza umana. Si tratta di un messaggio di chiara matrice illuminista: il giovane Knight – illuminista convinto – legge il suo viaggio attraverso la Sicilia classica come un ritorno alle origini della cultura occidentale, un viaggio a ritroso nel tempo fino all'ideale Winkelmaniano di nobile semplicità e quieta grandezza. Il suo ritorno alle origini è però ostacolato dalla realtà della Sicilia del diciottesimo secolo. L'esperienza del presente va insinuandosi progressivamente nella sua concezione di un passato ideale, imponendo allo sguardo attento di Knight una realtà fatta d'ignoranza e miseria. Queste condizioni sono state portate dall'azione di una classe dirigente e di un clero troppo potenti e corrotti e quindi, in ultima analisi, dalla mancanza di libertà. Nei passaggi della Expedition che descrivono le sue esperienze di viaggio (che caratterizzano almeno due terzi del testo), Knight analizza questa dicotomia tra passato e presente e infine, nella parte finale, dà una forma più generale alle sue idee, fino a giungere alla conclusione che la Sicilia moderna potrebbe tornare alla grandezza delle origini soltanto in seguito a un moto rivoluzionario che coinvolgesse l'intera Europa. E' interessante notare come queste riflessioni precedano di pochi anni la Rivoluzione Francese che però, pur avendo alterato profondamente gli equilibri europei, non fu sufficiente per far emergere la Sicilia dalla sua arretratezza. Il primo capitolo della tesi riporta la traduzione integrale in italiano della Expedition into Sicily con testo inglese a fronte. Il secondo capitolo: L'autore, l'argomento e la storia del manoscritto, è suddiviso in due sezioni. La prima sezione [2.1]: Notizie sulla vita e le opere di Richard Payne Knight, si propone di inquadrare la figura dell'autore del diario e fornire una panoramica sulle sue opere, mentre la seconda sezione [2.2]: Il lungo viaggio di un diario di viaggio ricostruisce, sulla base di dati oggettivi e congetture, la genesi e la storia del manoscritto della Expedition. Il terzo capitolo: Il contesto del viaggio di Knight, tratta del contesto socio-culturale in cui si è svolto il viaggio in Sicilia ed è composto da cinque sezioni. La prima sezione [3.1]: Il contesto storico: dall'Inghilterra alla Sicilia, descrive brevemente la situazione storico-politica dell'Europa, dell'Inghilterra, dell'Italia e della Sicilia in pieno periodo di rivoluzione industriale e dopo la Pace di Utrecht. La seconda sezione [3.2]: Il contesto filosofico: l'Illuminismo inglese e il pensiero di Knight, traccia le linee generali dell'Illuminismo europeo, inglese e italiano che influenzarono Knight prima, e durante e dopo il viaggio in Sicilia. La terza sezione [3.3]: Il contesto artistico: alla riscoperta dei classici tra luci ed ombre, fornisce cenni sul contesto culturale e artistico sia europeo che inglese di quegli anni, soffermandosi in modo particolare sugli autori che svilupparono teorie per definire tali stili. La quarta sezione [3.4]: Il problema del tempo nel Settecento, tratta del dibattito scientifico sul significato e sull'età dei fossili collegato, a sua volta, a quello dell'età della Terra. Si tratta del principale dibattito scientifico del Settecento ed influenza l'idea del tempo, della storia e della geologia di Knight. La quinta sezione [3.5]: Il Grand Tour nella seconda metà del Settecento, presenta una panoramica sulle condizioni logistiche del viaggio in Italia e le motivazioni dei Grand Tourists. Il quarto capitolo: L'analisi del testo e il pensiero di Knight, si suddivide in due sezioni. La prima sezione [4.1]: Analisi del testo, ripercorre brevemente le tappe del viaggio di Knight, approfondisce le scene del diario che si rifanno al pittoresco letterario ed ai caratteri sociali dei siciliani e traccia le conclusioni finali del viaggio. La seconda sezione [4.2]: Gli stereotipi sull'Italia, discute la posizione di Knight su alcuni luoghi comuni che i viaggiatori del suo tempo avevano sugli italiani ed, in particolare, sui siciliani. Infine, aspetti di non stretta attinenza con l'argomento del presente lavoro, ma da me trattati in altra sede, hanno incontrato l'interesse e l'epprezzamento della comunità scientifica internazionale. Si tratta, in particolare, dello studio presentato a Malta in occasione del convegno Encountering Malta: British Writers and the Mediterranean 1760-1840 (novembre 2011), in cui ho proposto un'interpretazione originale del pensiero storico di Knight, collegandolo con quello del noto storico inglese suo contemporaneo Edward Gibbon. Il lavoro è stato accettato per la pubblicazione dalla rivista The Wordsworth Circle. ; Expedition into Sicily by Richard Payne Knight, the text subject of this PhD thesis, is the account of the journey through Sicily taken, at the end of the Eighteenth Century, by a rich Englishman, together with two equally wealthy watercolorists: the renowned German landscape painter Philipp Hackert and the English amateur Charles Gore. Believed lost for more than two centuries, Knight's manuscript was rediscovered only in 1980, and published for the first time in English in 1986. Aim of my thesis is to introduce this work to the Italian audience through a critical translation, and to point out its originality as well as its internal coherence. Referring to the studies of those who preceded me, I have tried to demonstrate the substantial unity of the text, along with the fact that this internal consistency was intended to convey a very precise message: freedom is a necessary condition for human excellence. This is a message clearly influenced by Enlightenment culture: the young Knight saw his journey through Sicily as a return to the classical origins of Western culture, a journey back in time to the Winkelmanian ideal of noble simplicity and quiet grandeur. His return to the origins, however, was hampered by the reality of Eighteenth Century Sicily. The experience of the present crept gradually into his conception of an ideal past, imposing to his watchful eye a reality of ignorance and misery. These dramatic conditions had been brought by a corrupted ruling class and a too powerful clergy, in other words by a lack of freedom. In the analysis of the scenes depicting his travel experiences (featuring at least two thirds of the text), Knight examines the dichotomy between past and present, and finally, in the end, he gives a more general form to his ideas, coming to the conclusion that Sicily could return to the greatness of its origins only after a revolutionary movement involving the whole of Europe. It's interesting to note that these reflections preceded of a few years the French Revolution, which, despite having profoundly altered the European balance, was not enough to bring out the Sicily from its backwardness. The first chapter of the thesis contains the complete translation of the Expedition into Sicily in Italian with the English text opposite. The second chapter: The author, the topic, and the history of the manuscript, is divided into two sections. The first section [2.1]: The life and works of Richard Payne Knight, intends to frame the figure of the author of the diary and provide an overview of his works, while the second section [2.2]: The long journey of a travel diary reconstructs, on the basis of objective data and conjectures, the genesis and history of the manuscript of the Expedition. The third chapter: The context of Knight's trip, traces the socio-cultural context of the trip to Sicily and is composed of five sections. The first section [3.1]: The historical context: from England to Sicily, briefly describes the historical and political situation of Europe, England, Italy and Sicily at the height of the Industrial Revolution and after the Peace of Utrecht. The second section [3.2]: The philosophical context: the English Enlightenment and the thought of Knight, traces the general lines of the European, English and Italian Enlightenment that influenced Knight before, during and after his trip to Sicily. The third section [3.3]: The artistic context: the rediscovery of classics between lights and shadows, provides an outline of the cultural and artistic contexts of the second half of the Eighteenth Century, focusing in particular on the authors who developed theories to define concepts like Beauty, Picturesque and Sublime. The fourth section [3.4]: The problem of time in the Eighteenth Century, focuses on the scientific debate on the significance and the age of fossils, which is linked, in turn, to the age of the Earth. This was the main scientific debate of the Eighteenth Century and it influenced Knight's ideas on time, history and geology. The fifth section [3.5]: The Grand Tour in the second half of the of the Eighteenth Century, presents an overview of the logistical conditions of travel in Italy and the motivations of the Grand Tourists. The fourth chapter: The analysis of the text and of Knight's thought, is divided into two sections. The first section [4.1]: Text Analysis, briefly reviews the stages of Knight's journey, discusses the scenes of the Expedition referring to the literary picturesque and to the social characteristics of Sicilians and, finally, draws the final conclusions of the trip. The second section [4.2]: The stereotypes about Italy, discusses Knight's position on some clichés that the travelers of his time had on Italians and, in particular, on Sicilians. Finally, aspects not strictly relevant to the topic of this work, which I have treated elsewhere, have met the interest and appreciation of the international scientific community. This is, in particular, the study presented at the conference in Valletta Encountering Malta: British Writers and the Mediterranean 1760-1840 (November 2011), in which I have proposed an original interpretation of Knight's historical thought, connecting it with that of the English historian Edward Gibbon's. The work has been accepted for publication by the journal The Wordsworth Circle.