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Eurocentric approaches to political Islam tend to deploy an internalist methodology that theoretically obscures the generative and constitutive role of international relations. This article addresses this problem through a critical application of Leon Trotsky's idea of 'uneven and combined development' to Ayatollah Khomeini's invention of the concept of 'Islamic government'. It argues that this concept was international in its socio-political stimulus and intellectual content, and, crucially, reflected, influenced, and mobilised an emergent liminal sociality that combined Western and Islamic socio-cultural forms. This heterogeneous character of Iran's experience of modernity is, the article argues, theoretically inaccessible to Eurocentric approaches' homogeneous and unilinear conceptions of history, which, as a result, generate exceptionalist modes of explanations. Adapted from the source document.

AbstractThis article by an Islamic scholar describes the principles governing international law and international relations from an Islamic viewpoint. After presenting the rules and principles governing international relations in the Islamic system, the author emphasizes the principles of sovereignty and non-interference in the internal affairs of other States and the aspiration of Islam to peace and harmony. He goes on to explain the relationship between Muslims and others in peacetime or in the event of war and the classical jurisprudential division of the world into the abode of Islam (dar al-islam) and that of war (dar al-harb). Lastly he outlines the restrictions imposed upon warfare by Islamic Shari'a law which have attained the status of legal rules.

Relations among believers of different religions are often characterized by conflict and disharmony. The interreligious conflict and disharmony are not in line with the doctrine and religious mission itself, which on the contrary promote peace and harmony. If the undesirable opposite happens, it means there is a gap between the normative teachings with the empirical reality. Why does that happen? This article reveals the issues related to the Christian-Muslim relations in Indonesia over a period of time along with the factors underlying the disharmony of Christian-Muslim relations in Indonesia. The method used to analyze this problem was the historical-sociological approach. This study concludes that the Christian-Muslim conflict in Indonesia is triggered by external rather than (internal) problems such as political and economic issues as well as the shalow understanding of the believers themselves.