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The concept of justice has undergone a historical transformation alongside the widening field of its application: the transition has occurred from the level of the family to the city (state), and from the city to the level of humanity. According to K. R. Popper, the open society emerged in the first stage of transformation, i.e., in Athens. Henri Bergson views the rational justice of the city-empire Athens as an engine of the closed society that maintains the tradition of the archaic (family) justice despite the political transformation that was occurring at that time – the emergence of democracy. Bergson believes that an open society is born only when justice becomes absolute, i.e., when the principle of justice is aimed to be applied at the level of humanity, something that got its historical impetus only from Judaism and Christianity. In this article, this evolution of the concept of justice and the transformation of a closed society into an open one are analysed by referring to texts of Aeschylus, Aristotle, Pierre Manent, and other authors. In the end, the question is raised of correspondence of contemporary Europe (the EU) to the concept of an open society.

The concept of justice has undergone a historical transformation alongside the widening field of its application: the transition has occurred from the level of the family to the city (state), and from the city to the level of humanity. According to K. R. Popper, the open society emerged in the first stage of transformation, i.e., in Athens. Henri Bergson views the rational justice of the city-empire Athens as an engine of the closed society that maintains the tradition of the archaic (family) justice despite the political transformation that was occurring at that time – the emergence of democracy. Bergson believes that an open society is born only when justice becomes absolute, i.e., when the principle of justice is aimed to be applied at the level of humanity, something that got its historical impetus only from Judaism and Christianity. In this article, this evolution of the concept of justice and the transformation of a closed society into an open one are analysed by referring to texts of Aeschylus, Aristotle, Pierre Manent, and other authors. In the end, the question is raised of correspondence of contemporary Europe (the EU) to the concept of an open society.

Not only in the past times, but even nowadays people treat God in the Old Testament as cruel and strict, just and demanding Lord, perfect omnipotent Absolute who is never kind and merciful. The latter attributes are ascribed to Jesus Christ. So, there is an impression that G od the Father and G od the Son are two different "gods" with totally different attributes and features. The mercy of G od is one of the essential truths in Judaism and Christianity coming from the divine Revelation. Divine mercy is not only a feeling or an abstraction but a concrete G od's feature revealing itself in the course of all the salvation history, starting with the creation and fulfilling itself in the resurrection of Jesus Christ as the act of salvation of mankind. The entire Bible is full of events witnessing G od's sensitivity, kindness, patience, understanding and mercy. According to some authors, even G od's name "El" is closely connected with mercy. In the Old T estament there is no expression of "merciful love", but G od's mercy is expressed in terms describing G od's patience, kindness and forgiveness. T erms most often used to describe God's mercy are: hesed, emet, rehamim. God's mercy in the Old T estament can be described according to the following levels: • Mercy to a concrete person: Cain, Lotus, David, Jonah etc. • Legislation as the form of G od's mercy • Mercy to the chosen nation showed by two major events: exodus from Egypt, when G od showed mercy answering the sufferings of the chosen nation and led it from slavery to the promised land; and in the book of Prophet Isaiah, where G od showed mercy to his people in the Babylonian exile. • Mercy to different nations and believers. It is showed in G od's behaviour with the people of N ineveh, the pagan capital, where He sends the prophet Jonah to urge the people of Nineveh to repent. [.]

Not only in the past times, but even nowadays people treat God in the Old Testament as cruel and strict, just and demanding Lord, perfect omnipotent Absolute who is never kind and merciful. The latter attributes are ascribed to Jesus Christ. So, there is an impression that G od the Father and G od the Son are two different "gods" with totally different attributes and features. The mercy of G od is one of the essential truths in Judaism and Christianity coming from the divine Revelation. Divine mercy is not only a feeling or an abstraction but a concrete G od's feature revealing itself in the course of all the salvation history, starting with the creation and fulfilling itself in the resurrection of Jesus Christ as the act of salvation of mankind. The entire Bible is full of events witnessing G od's sensitivity, kindness, patience, understanding and mercy. According to some authors, even G od's name "El" is closely connected with mercy. In the Old T estament there is no expression of "merciful love", but G od's mercy is expressed in terms describing G od's patience, kindness and forgiveness. T erms most often used to describe God's mercy are: hesed, emet, rehamim. God's mercy in the Old T estament can be described according to the following levels: • Mercy to a concrete person: Cain, Lotus, David, Jonah etc. • Legislation as the form of G od's mercy • Mercy to the chosen nation showed by two major events: exodus from Egypt, when G od showed mercy answering the sufferings of the chosen nation and led it from slavery to the promised land; and in the book of Prophet Isaiah, where G od showed mercy to his people in the Babylonian exile. • Mercy to different nations and believers. It is showed in G od's behaviour with the people of N ineveh, the pagan capital, where He sends the prophet Jonah to urge the people of Nineveh to repent. [.]

Not only in the past times, but even nowadays people treat God in the Old Testament as cruel and strict, just and demanding Lord, perfect omnipotent Absolute who is never kind and merciful. The latter attributes are ascribed to Jesus Christ. So, there is an impression that G od the Father and G od the Son are two different "gods" with totally different attributes and features. The mercy of G od is one of the essential truths in Judaism and Christianity coming from the divine Revelation. Divine mercy is not only a feeling or an abstraction but a concrete G od's feature revealing itself in the course of all the salvation history, starting with the creation and fulfilling itself in the resurrection of Jesus Christ as the act of salvation of mankind. The entire Bible is full of events witnessing G od's sensitivity, kindness, patience, understanding and mercy. According to some authors, even G od's name "El" is closely connected with mercy. In the Old T estament there is no expression of "merciful love", but G od's mercy is expressed in terms describing G od's patience, kindness and forgiveness. T erms most often used to describe God's mercy are: hesed, emet, rehamim. God's mercy in the Old T estament can be described according to the following levels: • Mercy to a concrete person: Cain, Lotus, David, Jonah etc. • Legislation as the form of G od's mercy • Mercy to the chosen nation showed by two major events: exodus from Egypt, when G od showed mercy answering the sufferings of the chosen nation and led it from slavery to the promised land; and in the book of Prophet Isaiah, where G od showed mercy to his people in the Babylonian exile. • Mercy to different nations and believers. It is showed in G od's behaviour with the people of N ineveh, the pagan capital, where He sends the prophet Jonah to urge the people of Nineveh to repent. [.]

One of the most known titles for Paul of Tarsus is the Apostle of Nations. To Galatians Paul writes that the Lord called him to "preach Him among the Gentiles [ethnēs]" (Gal 1:16). Nevertheless, during his mission, he always attempted to preach in synagogues, and only in the case of resistance he turned to the pagan citizens. The question about Paul's relationship with his own Jewish background and even with Judaeo-Christian community is still one of the most problematic. During the course of two millennium of Christianity, he was treated as the inventor of Christianity, as a Pharisee convert and promoter of anti-Semitism. The work of the Jewish Talmud professor and post-modern culture critic Daniel Boyarin "A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity" (1994) was a radical novelty in the understanding of Paul from the Jewish orthodox perspective. The author not only calls a Christian apostle "an important Jewish thinker" and his letters "the most remarkable texts in the canon of western literature", but tries to present him as a type of internal critic of the Jewish culture. Paul himself is in a sense paradigma of "the Jew". Describing who Paul was and what was his impact on the formation of Christian and Jewish identity, he uses specific saussurian distinction of signified and signifier typical of postmodern text criticism. He tries to reveal the structure that lies behind the teaching of the "radical Jew". Paul himself is a convert not from Judaism to Christianity, but rather a Pharisee who was caught by the Hellenist idea of human universality on his way to Damascus, if that concrete event had ever happened. He believes that Paul was motivated not by an abnormal psychological state but by a set of problems and ideas generated by his cultural, religious situation.[.].

One of the most known titles for Paul of Tarsus is the Apostle of Nations. To Galatians Paul writes that the Lord called him to "preach Him among the Gentiles [ethnēs]" (Gal 1:16). Nevertheless, during his mission, he always attempted to preach in synagogues, and only in the case of resistance he turned to the pagan citizens. The question about Paul's relationship with his own Jewish background and even with Judaeo-Christian community is still one of the most problematic. During the course of two millennium of Christianity, he was treated as the inventor of Christianity, as a Pharisee convert and promoter of anti-Semitism. The work of the Jewish Talmud professor and post-modern culture critic Daniel Boyarin "A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity" (1994) was a radical novelty in the understanding of Paul from the Jewish orthodox perspective. The author not only calls a Christian apostle "an important Jewish thinker" and his letters "the most remarkable texts in the canon of western literature", but tries to present him as a type of internal critic of the Jewish culture. Paul himself is in a sense paradigma of "the Jew". Describing who Paul was and what was his impact on the formation of Christian and Jewish identity, he uses specific saussurian distinction of signified and signifier typical of postmodern text criticism. He tries to reveal the structure that lies behind the teaching of the "radical Jew". Paul himself is a convert not from Judaism to Christianity, but rather a Pharisee who was caught by the Hellenist idea of human universality on his way to Damascus, if that concrete event had ever happened. He believes that Paul was motivated not by an abnormal psychological state but by a set of problems and ideas generated by his cultural, religious situation.[.].

One of the most known titles for Paul of Tarsus is the Apostle of Nations. To Galatians Paul writes that the Lord called him to "preach Him among the Gentiles [ethnēs]" (Gal 1:16). Nevertheless, during his mission, he always attempted to preach in synagogues, and only in the case of resistance he turned to the pagan citizens. The question about Paul's relationship with his own Jewish background and even with Judaeo-Christian community is still one of the most problematic. During the course of two millennium of Christianity, he was treated as the inventor of Christianity, as a Pharisee convert and promoter of anti-Semitism. The work of the Jewish Talmud professor and post-modern culture critic Daniel Boyarin "A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity" (1994) was a radical novelty in the understanding of Paul from the Jewish orthodox perspective. The author not only calls a Christian apostle "an important Jewish thinker" and his letters "the most remarkable texts in the canon of western literature", but tries to present him as a type of internal critic of the Jewish culture. Paul himself is in a sense paradigma of "the Jew". Describing who Paul was and what was his impact on the formation of Christian and Jewish identity, he uses specific saussurian distinction of signified and signifier typical of postmodern text criticism. He tries to reveal the structure that lies behind the teaching of the "radical Jew". Paul himself is a convert not from Judaism to Christianity, but rather a Pharisee who was caught by the Hellenist idea of human universality on his way to Damascus, if that concrete event had ever happened. He believes that Paul was motivated not by an abnormal psychological state but by a set of problems and ideas generated by his cultural, religious situation.[.].