Abstract. An apparent lack of economic benefit from performing well in schools, coupled with the UAE governments' over-investment in its citizens in the public sector has been seemingly having an impact on their citizens that not only grants unique privileges to the adults but also transcends into the minds of their young ones; in a way that it reflects in the educational settings by affecting the students' participation and their educational attainment. In the beginning, this study shall briefly elaborate on the unique privileges that are garnered by the UAE governments' over-investment in its citizens. Then, review the impact of these national investments as presented by other studies that have been implemented within the UAE. Later, this study will focus on the perceptions of the teachers in the UAE to essentially explore the beliefs and assumptions that they might have, based on the influences due to nationalization, of their students. The motive of this research is to explore and identify the stereotypes, if any, that exist when it comes to teaching the local students (UAE citizens) in UAE public schools, and to identify whether these perceptions lead to a positive or negative judgement with an effect on their teaching preferences. With a qualitative approach, this research gathers teachers' perceptions through a semi-structured open-ended questionnaire. The selected participants are employed teachers in the UAE public schools who are delivering primary, intermediate, and secondary education. By discussing the beliefs, perceptions and experiences that reflect within the questionnaire responses from the teachers, the authors have identified what perceptions the teachers have about their students, what stereotypes are constructed, and are these perceptions resulting in positive or negative judgement. Through a thematic analysis of the data collected from the respondents, various stereotypes were identified within teachers' perceptions that not only were found to be embedded within their reasoning but also ...
The objective of the research was to explore challenges and successes that street children centres encounter while reintegrating and educating their children. Research questions divide in two: what kind of nonformal education is available for street children in certain organisations and what are the challenges and successes of children's nonformal education and the reintegration process? Research targets are two centres, a closed and an open one in Maputo city, Mozambique. The research approach was based on ethnographic and theoretical framework of constructs of socialization process, nonformal education and street children intervention models. Besides this, previous studies of street children have been examined to gain understanding and reflections about the street children phenomenon. The research made use of participatory observation, document readings and semi-structured interviews both for children and workers during five month field work period. The data analysis was done through thematic division and using a SWOT frame. Findings of the study demonstrate that successes of these centres were satisfied children, successful reintegration, and ability to provide for children's primary needs, relatively satisfied workers and encouraging approaches of the centres. Opportunity for children to receive education at various levels was a strength of both centres. Better success of the reintegration process and children's education could be achieved through improving the cooperation and coordination of the centres, training the workers and continuing to listen and raise awareness of street children and their rights. Findings also uncovered elements that are considered as challenges for both centres. These were lack of financing, centre's limitation due to location and space available, limited educational opportunities and relevance of education. In addition both workers and children had some motivation problems, emotional challenges and dissatisfaction in the centres. Threats to these centres were poverty, poor family relations, lack of cooperation and coordination of the various street children centres, society's poor attitude and difficulties and temptations of street life and culture. To prevent the street children phenomenon from growing, governments should provide more open and flexible educational possibilities. Also at the global and local level people should think how to create and strengthen the sense of belonging to communities in positive ways. Then for the children, hopefully the street does not become the only option with its hardships and cruelties. Keywords: Street children, nonformal education, socialization, reintegration, developing country
The major goal of this thesis was to reach an understanding if the reforms brought by the Bologna Process are needed for the higher education system of Ukraine. This was examined by the following research questions: 1. How much are the university lecturers and students aware about the aims and goals of the Bologna Process? 2. Does Ukrainian system of higher education need to be reformed and if so, what the reforms should be? 3. Is Ukrainian system of higher education ready for the reforms brought by the Bologna Process? 4. Is the two-tier degree system effective within the Ukrainian social and economic conditions? 5. What positive and negative consequences of the Bologna Process reforms for the Ukrainian system of higher education could be singled out? The research subjects were lecturers and professors from the Ukrainian universities. The universities chosen represent the different stages of involvement into the Bologna Process initial, middle and advanced. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were chosen to get the insight on the Bologna Process of the lecturers and professors as one of the main participants in the Bologna Process. The general attitude to the Bologna Process and its reforms was positive; thus, the conclusion was reached that the Bologna Process reforms are needed by the Ukrainian system of higher education. However the view that Ukraine has to overcome certain difficulties in order to be a full member of the process was shared by the respondents. Key words: Bologna Process, Ukraine, higher education system, harmonization.
Internationalisation has been a major trend in higher education since early 1990s. The Finnish polytechnics came to exist at the same time. A lot of interest and efforts were focused on their internationalisation since early on. There were, however, no clear-cut models or guidelines on why, how and what polytechnic internationalisation should be all about. As a polytechnic Head of Internationalisation in 1995-2001, the author of the present study came to work on exploring and defining higher education internationalisation through a case study. The study was introduced in 1997 by semi-structured interviews of some 20 different actors of Vantaa Temporary Polytechnic (VAMK). Questions were posed to teachers, students and managers concerning conceptions of internationalisation in general and at VAMK. The interviews, as typed out, comprise some 300 pages of text. The theoretical study revealed there was very little written theory or studies concerning higher education internationalisation. Also, a more recent phenomenon, globalisation, was introduced into the same sphere as internationalisation, making the picture more blurred. Un understanding of internationalisation is approached through examining definitions of the term as well as by a brief study on globalisation. Another small study is done on Finland's internationalisation process with the EU membership in 1995 as a crucial turning point. More extensively, the author examines definitions of higher education internationalisation with particular focus on the rationales or motivations of the phenomenon. The research approach as concerns the empirical data is mainly ethnographic, i.e. the researcher is, typical of internationalisation study perhaps, setting on a journey of discovery, investigating the phenomenon as it was experienced by the various actors in the target institution. The research is also a discourse analysis focusing both on the discourse of the polytechnic actors as well as some political, academic and media texts of the time of the study, mid to late 1990s. The focus of the empirical study is on the rationales of internationalisation. While considering her research approach, the author had intuitively looked for metaphors as characteristic phrasings of internationalisation in the empirical data. One metaphor is used in the title of the study, under a bright star, which an informant used in order to describe how internationalisation was organised and targeted at VAMK in the early years. In the final phases of the study, metaphors formed a vital tool in the study besides the more conventional text analysis. Through the study of the empirical data the author has been able to refresh the mainstream typology of the rationales of higher education internationalisation as well as to contribute to the definition of the phenomenon. The author contends that the role of unofficial internationalisation rationales is bigger than conveyed in mainstream definitions. The metaphor study helped describe and understand concepts of polytechnic (higher education) internationalisation, at least at its early stages, by suggesting root metaphors or common underlying understandings of internationalisation such as travel, natural forces and fears of the foreign (languages). As this is a case study, it is not meaningful to make generalisations of the findings. They may, however, be helpful in understanding and analysing the features of education internationalisation, especially as concerns the early stages of the phenomenon in an institution. KEY WORDS: Higher education internationalisation, globalisation, rationales of internationalisation, metaphors of internationalisation.
In this research topics of intercultural development are examined through a phenomenographical case study. The study centres around a Comenius Multilateral School Partnership Project, which aims to improve cooperation and intercultural learning between European schools. As part of the initiative to promote intercultural learning of children in the countries of the European Union, the European Commission launched a Comenius Project in 2009-2011 linking schools in Austria, England, Finland and Germany. The partnership of these countries actualised on multilateral and bilateral level. This study provides an analysis of the practises and learning outcomes from the Finnish perspective through a school partnership between a fifth grade class in Finland and a seventh grade class in Austria. The main focus of the study is the experiences and learning outcomes of the 22 Finnish pupils, that were participants in the Project. Research data is comprised of interviews of pupils, their parents and class teacher, pupil surveys, written narratives and observation of the researcher. Practical aspects of implementing the multi-faceted intercultural learning situations, which culminated to a 7-day study visit as the Austrian pupils visited Finland and were hosted in homes, are addressed. Key themes of the study involve various aspects of intercultural learning, such as development of intercultural sensitivity, role of national identity, situated learning, language acquisition and curricular frameworks. These themes are approached from theoretical as well as practical viewpoints and aim to build a holistic understanding of intercultural learning in practice. The theoretical basis to intercultural matters discusses the current need for intercultural competence, a challenge posed by globalisation and its various representations. In short, the demand for international cooperation and intercultual skills has increased while the notion of global citizenship has gained ground. The postmodern concept of globalisation is covered in this study through argumentation by scholars such as Anthony Giddens and Zygmunt Bauman. An inseparable element of intercultural development, national identity is discussed based on theories of Stuart Hall. At the core of the theoretical framework, Milton Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity outlines the fundamental components of intercultural development setting the standard for analysis of research findings. The most significant learning outcomes from pupils' viewpoint are increased competence and courage to speak a foreign language as part of developed intercultural skills, and motivation to become acquainted with foreign cultures and people. Pupils also shifted in their thinking to a more accepting attitude towards cultural difference while learning to appreciate and embrace the uniqueness of their own culture. Eagerness to claim every culture as equal increased as well as understanding of global issues. Other findings suggest that teaching intercultural topics may be integrated into the objectives of the National Curriculum, although readiness to integrate and implement these topics require intercultural awareness and competence from teachers. Overall, participation in the Comenius Project was regarded a positive experience and a privilege by nearly all participants, which indicates a progressive development to the direction where the countries of European Union are encouraged. Key words: intercultural learning, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural development, national identity, global citizenship, curricular integration, situated learning
The basis of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of an education programme which is a part of the North-South Local Governance Co-operation Programme. This programme aims to sustainable development and to diminish the gap between the northern and southern municipalities. The training programme was implemented in Mwanza, Tanzania, which is the twin city of Tampere. The basis of the education programme was the local government reform programme of Mwanza which aims to develop good governance and increase the citizens' participation in decision-making. The purpose of the training was to increase people's knowledge of issues like good governance and customer care. The training was implemented in Mwanza during the years 2005 and 2006 having 76 participants. The facilitators were both from Tampere and from Mwanza and the training was carried out both in Swahili and in English. This evaluation study examines what the effects of the training were and what can be done differently if there will be more training in the future. This study is a qualitative evaluation study using both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. The methodological approach in this study is the constructivist paradigm which tries to make the voice of the participants of the training heard, not to seek for a right or wrong answer. The data consists of documents and training materials, as well as of interviews both with the facilitators and the participants. Also a questionnaire was sent to Mwanza and the answers formed the basis for the interview themes. These ten interviews were carried out in August 2007 in Mwanza. The results of this study show that the participants thought that the training was really good and they enjoyed it very much. Because there were two different cultures and languages involved in the training, the participants did not understand everything and it seemed to be a problem for some of them. A few themes were above the others, like customer care and treating customers equally. Also the facilitators were praised very much and almost everybody asked for more training. Anyway, the most notable change has to take place in the attitudes, and there has already been some change. However, a lot needs to be done to decrease corruption and to make a change in the attitudes. The training explained to the participants what the effects of corruption are, and the results show that they understand the bad effects of corruption and that they are as an example to their colleagues. The results also show that people had already forgotten themes of the training, and thus it can be asked how deep the learning was and do the participants have the will to change. When considering the reliability of the study, it has to be noticed that the researcher was from the city of Tampere which also finances this training. Therefore, there is a possibility that people did not want to answer in a totally honest way. There were also some language problems in the training which have to be considered in relation to the reliability of the study. All in all, the participants thought that the training was really good and said that now they understand the meaning of their work task. This increases the motivation of the employees and their desire to develop and continue participating in training in the future. Keywords: good governance, evaluation research, constructivist paradigm, Tanzania, Mwanza, training, cooperation, sustainable development Tässä tutkielmassa lähtökohtana on arvioida koulutusohjelman vaikuttavuutta. Kyseinen koulutus on osa pohjoisen ja etelän paikallishallintojen kestävän kehityksen projektia ja se toteutettiin Mwanzassa, Tansaniassa, joka on Tampereen kaupungin ystävyyskaupunki. Lähtökohtana oli Mwanzan paikallishallinnon reformiohjelma, jonka tavoitteena on luoda hyvä hallinto ja lisätä kaupunkilaisten osallistumismahdollisuuksia päätöksentekoon. Koulutuksen tarkoituksena oli lisätä osallistujien tietoisuutta muun muassa hyvästä hallinnosta, asiakaspalvelusta sekä osallistumisesta kaupungin hallintoon. Koulutus toteutettiin Mwanzassa vuosien 2005 ja 2006 aikana ja siihen osallistui yhteensä 76 työntekijää. Kouluttajia oli sekä Tampereelta että Mwanzasta ja koulutus toteutettiin sekä suahilin että englannin kielellä. Tämä arviointitutkimus kartoittaa, mitä vaikutuksia koulutuksella oli ja mitä tulisi tehdä toisin, jos koulutusta jatketaan tulevaisuudessa. Tutkimus on laadullinen arviointitutkimus, joka toteutettiin yhdistämällä sekä laadullisia että määrällisiä aineistokeruumetodeja. Metodinen lähestymistapa tässä tutkielmassa on konstruktivistinen paradigma, jonka tarkoituksena on saada koulutettujen ääni kuuluviin, ei etsiä oikeaa tai väärää vastausta. Aineisto koostuu Tampereen kaupungilta saaduista dokumenteista ja koulutusmateriaaleista, kouluttajien haastatteluista niin Suomessa kuin Tansaniassa sekä kyselylomakkein ja haastatteluin kerätyistä tiedoista itse koulutetuilta. Kyselylomakkeet lähetettiin Mwanzaan toukokuussa 2007 ja niiden perusteella työstettiin teemahaastattelurunko. Itse haastattelut toteutettiin Mwanzassa elokuussa 2007 ja haastateltavia oli yhteensä kymmenen. Tutkimustulosten perusteella koulutus oli erittäin suosittu ja osallistujat nauttivat sen sisällöstä. Koska kyseessä on kaksi erilaista kulttuuria ja kieltä, koettiin muun muassa yhteisen kielen puute välillä ongelmaksi ja englanniksi pidetyistä osioista ei ymmärretty kaikkea. Muutamat koulutuksen aiheet nousivat selkeästi ylitse muiden, yhtenä esimerkkinä asiakaspalvelu ja asiakkaiden kohtelu tasavertaisesti. Myös kouluttajia ja järjestelyjä kehuttiin ja kaikki haastateltavat pyysivät, että jatkossa olisi lisää koulutusta. Suurin muutos tulee kuitenkin tapahtua asenteissa ja se tulee ilmi myös tutkimustuloksista. Asenteissa on saattanut tapahtua pientä muutosta, mutta paljon on vielä tehtävä, jotta esimerkiksi lahjontaa saadaan kitkettyä pois kulttuurista ja asenteista. Koulutus sai kuitenkin osallistujat ymmärtämään mitä haittaa lahjonnasta on ja selvensi, että osallistujat ovat esimerkkejä muille työntekijöille ja vaikuttavat käytöksellään koko osaston toimintaan. Havaittavissa oli, etteivät kaikki osallistujat tällä hetkellä toimi tavoitteen mukaisesti, vaan eri osastojen välillä on suuriakin eroja. Tuloksissa tuli myös ilmi, että vuoden takaisesta koulutuksesta oli unohdettu asioita ja tämä herätti kysymyksen siitä, kuinka paljon oppimista ja muutosta on tapahtunut, jos asiat unohtuvat vuodessa. Tutkimuksen luotettavuutta pohdittaessa täytyy nostaa esille kysymys siitä, kuinka rehellisesti ihmiset vastaavat arvioijalle, joka on rahoittajan puolelta tuleva arvioija. Myös kieliongelmia ilmeni haastatteluissa, mikä osaltaan vaikuttaa luotettavuuteen. Kaiken kaikkiaan koulutuksesta pidettiin kovasti ja yhdeksi tärkeimmäksi vaikutukseksi nousi se, että moni haastateltava sanoi nyt tietävänsä miksi on työssään ja mikä on hänen merkityksensä. Tämä puolestaan lisää motivaatiota ja työntekijöiden halua tehdä asiat kunnolla sekä jatkaa kehittymistä sekä kouluttautumista tulevaisuudessa. Asiasanat: hyvä hallinto, arviointitutkimus, konstruktivistinen paradigma, Tansania, Mwan-za, koulutus, yhteistyö, kestävä kehitys
Tämä tutkimus erittelee yhteisöjen osallistumisen ominaispiirteitä Kambod an maaseutu kouluissa. Tutkimus tarkastelee hallinnon hajauttamisen, joka koulutuksen osalta on toteutettu pääasiassa kahden ohjelman; koulujen klusterionnin ja Priority Action Program ohjelman kautta, luomia osallistumisen mahdollisuuksia. Vaikka institutionaaliset puitteet yhteisöjen osallistumiselle ovat verrattain uusia, kambod alaiset yhteisöt, kahdestakymmenestäviidestä poliittisen sekasorron vuodesta huolimatta, ovat tarjonneet tukea kouluille perinteisten kouluyhdistysten kautta. Määrittäessään yhteisöjen jäsenten välisiä horisontaalisia suhteita ja kollektiivisen toimiman muotoja, sekä vertikaalisia suhteita yhteisöjen, koulujen ja hallinnollisten toimielinten välillä tutkimus tukeutuu sosiaaliseen pääoman teorioihin. Tutkimus on toteutettu kahdella tasolla. Poliittisten ohjelmien analyysi sisältää kirjallisuuskatsauksen sosiaalisen pääoman teoriaan, hallinnon hajauttamisen periaatteisiin, Kambo an historiaan, Kambo an hallituksen toteuttamiin hallinnon hajauttamisohjelmiin, ja Kambo an inhimillisen kehityksen profiiliin. Toinen paikallisen tason analyysi kuvaa yhteisön osallistumisen tapoja, normeja ja arvoja pakalliskehityksessä ja kouluissa Kampong Thomin läänissä. Tutkimuksen empiirinen kvalitatiivinen ja kvantitatiivinen aineisto on kerätty; observoimalla, kyselylomakkeiden ja tarkistuslistojen avulla, kehityshankkeiden seuranta-aineistoista, sekä haastattelemalla yhteisön jäseniä, paikallisvirkamiehiä ja kehitysyhteistyöntekijöitä. Tulokset Kampong Thomin läänistä osoittavat paikallisten yhdistysten, ja erityisesti pagodojen (Buddhalainen luostari) yhteydessä toimivien yhdistysten, edustavan ensimmäisiä siviilisodan ja Punaisten Khmerien aikakauden päätyttyä 1970 elpyneitä yhteisöllisen toiminnan muotoja. Jäsenten väliset suhteet näissä perinteisissä yhdistyksissä ovat vankat ja perustuvat keskinäiseen luottamukseen. Jäsenten keskinäisten siteiden muodostama sosiaalinen pääoma onkin tukemassa yhteisöjen osallistumista mukaan lukien avunantoa kouluille. Samaan aikaan yhteydet perinteisten kouluyhdistysten ja muiden yhteisön sisällä toimivien ryhmien välillä ovat kuitenkin yhä heikot. Tämän lisäksi epäluottamus kouluviranomaisia kohtaan ja vanhempien haluttomuus osallistua koulutuksen kehittämiseen haittaa institutionaalisen sosiaalisen pääoman kehittämistä koulujen ja perinteisten kouluyhdistysten välillä. Tämän tutkimuksen päätelmänä perinteisten yhdistysten osallistuminen koulujen sisäiseen päätöksentekoon ja koulutuksen sisältöön on vähäistä, vaikka ne tarjoavatkin merkittävää aineellista tukea ja lahjoituksia kouluille. Sodan aiheuttama trauma ja Kambo an yhteiskunnalliset ja kulttuuriin luomat normit selittävät osaltaan demokraattisten osallistumisen muotojen puuttumisen. Lisäksi hallinnon hajauttaminen koulutussektorilla on tähän asti toteutettu ohjelmien kautta, jotka luovat uusia komiteoita ja neuvostoja tukemaan yhteisön osallistumista kouluissa. Nämä uudet rakenteet eivät ole saaneet samanlaista asemaa ja luottamusta yleisöissä kuin paikalliset perinteiset kylä- ja kuntatason yhdistykset. ; This study analyses the characteristics of community participation in Cambodian rural schools. It looks at the spaces for participation created by the decentralisation reforms that the government of Cambodia has undertaken in the education sector through two main policies: school clustering and Priority Action Programme. While institutionalised spaces of participation created by these policies are relatively new, Cambodian communities, despite twenty five years of political turmoil, have traditionally provided support to schools through school associations. The study refers to bonding, bridging, and institutional social capital to explore, respectively, the characteristics of the horizontal links between community members as well as different forms of collective action, and the vertical links between community, schools and local government institutions. Research activities have been conducted at two levels. The first, policy level analysis , concerned the review of relevant literature on social capital theory, the principles of democratic decentralisation, Cambodian modern history, national decentralisation reforms, and the human development profile of Cambodia. The second level, local level analysis , focused on the province of Kampong Thom to investigate traditions, norms and values that characterise community participation in schools and local social development. Qualitative as well as quantitative empirical data have been obtained through participant observations, questionnaires and checklists, project monitoring data, and semi structured interviews with community members, local government authorities, development workers, and project staff. The analysis from Kampong Thom demonstrates that traditional associations, particularly under the umbrella of the local pagoda (Buddhist temple), represent forms of community actions that were among the first institutions to re-activate after the end of the civil war and Khmer Rouge period in 1979. The linkages between members of these traditional associations are strong and based on trust. This shows that bonding social capital is the driving force behind community mobilization and community support to schools. At the same time, bridging social capital between school association and other types of community based groups is still weak. Likewise, institutional social capital between school associations and schools is hampered by mistrust towards school officials and parents reluctance to become more involved in educational matters. The conclusion of the study is that, while traditional associations provide material contributions and support to schools, their participation in internal decision making process as well as educational matters is still limited. The trauma caused by years of conflicts and the Cambodian socio cultural norms are factors that explain the difficulty in establishing more democratic spaces for participation. In addition, decentralisation policies in education have so far promoted community participation in schools through the creation of ad hoc committees and councils that have failed to gain the same legitimacy enjoyed by traditional associations at village and community level.
The aims and objectives of the study are to explore and analyse the principles of higher education policies in the EU and China. The purpose is two-fold. The first is to identify the similarities and differences between the EU and China. The second is to explore if there are any lessons for China to learn from the EU in the field of higher education policy. To this end, this study reviews descriptive materials on higher education policies produced by Chinese and European Union authorities. The argumentation and task presented above may serve as a frame of categorization and analysis of the materials. As the nature of the materials does not permit much quantitative analysis, conventional qualitative research methods of document and content analysis will be used. The approach used in this research is basically historic-genetic with the aim of examining the process of the forming of higher education policy in a problem-centered way. The materials of the EU's and Chinese higher educational policies will be dissected from the policy texts and then arranged by classifying according to the subjects. After this, through close reading and elaborate analysis of the content, answers to the research questions will be sought. In the course of qualitative study, specific attention will be given to the exploratory and descriptive of the EU's and Chinese higher education policies in nature. Not all comparative research seeks general explanations, but all research that seeks to offer general explanations must be comparative. Another important tool in the analysis is the comparative method. The very essence of comparison in this dissertation will be three steps: identification of differences and similarities; explanations of possible reasons or causes for these differences and similarities and then analysis, assessment, and conclusions including lessons to be drawn. Comparison will be involved in inductive reasoning process. As a result of careful study, I have given a detailed picture of the status and development of the basic educational ideologies, strategies, contents, governance and decision-makings in both the EU and China systems. I have also explored the different backgrounds and considered the distinctive responses in Europe and China to future challenges in higher education. In addition, I have approached with much attention the role of higher education in promoting European integration, a topic that may have special relevance for China, given the huge size of the country and the diversity of different regions. Regions and countries with different political and socioeconomic systems and dissimilar higher education traditions have similar patterns in reforms in higher education. On the basis of the study, it seems that the coherency of the Chinese system is deteriorating. It has become more flexible, the trend towards internationalization is obvious, and it is expanding and yet holding on to its competitiveness through increased effectiveness and commercialization. The Chinese higher education policies is also directing towards a more segmented and, regarding the needs of education, a more equipment oriented education supply. In the EU on the other hand, the system seems to be moving towards higher coherence, but the above described principles concerning China can also be applied to the EU. The common contextual factors, particularly the increasingly trend of globalization, seem to have considerably shaped higher education policy in the EU and China. The higher educational systems are, thus, at least at a normative level becoming more homogenized. No nation has all the answers to the perplexing questions facing the new challenges of the 21st century, especially in the field of higher education system. National circumstances in terms of specific economic, sociological, political and educational realities are just too complicated for one to simply transfer institutions or even ideas from one country to another. Yet, perspectives from other countries can at least suggest ways of approaching problems that might lead to potential solutions. Comparative or joint higher education policies can illuminate and pose alternatives. This in itself is the right reason for this study to pay adequate attention. The study will give readers some well-argumented information on how these two giants make use of higher education as a tool to face the challenges of knowledge-based economy and globalization. ; The aims and objectives of the study are to explore and analyse the principles of higher education policies in the EU and China. The purpose is two-fold. The first is to identify the similarities and differences between the EU and China. The second is to explore if there are any lessons for China to learn from the EU in the field of higher education policy. To this end, this study reviews descriptive materials on higher education policies produced by Chinese and European Union authorities. The argumentation and task presented above may serve as a frame of categorization and analysis of the materials. As the nature of the materials does not permit much quantitative analysis, conventional qualitative research methods of document and content analysis will be used. The approach used in this research is basically historic-genetic with the aim of examining the process of the forming of higher education policy in a problem-centered way. The materials of the EU's and Chinese higher educational policies will be dissected from the policy texts and then arranged by classifying according to the subjects. After this, through close reading and elaborate analysis of the content, answers to the research questions will be sought. In the course of qualitative study, specific attention will be given to the exploratory and descriptive of the EU's and Chinese higher education policies in nature. Not all comparative research seeks general explanations, but all research that seeks to offer general explanations must be comparative. Another important tool in the analysis is the comparative method. The very essence of comparison in this dissertation will be three steps: identification of differences and similarities; explanations of possible reasons or causes for these differences and similarities and then analysis, assessment, and conclusions including lessons to be drawn. Comparison will be involved in inductive reasoning process. As a result of careful study, I have given a detailed picture of the status and development of the basic educational ideologies, strategies, contents, governance and decision-makings in both the EU and China systems. I have also explored the different backgrounds and considered the distinctive responses in Europe and China to future challenges in higher education. In addition, I have approached with much attention the role of higher education in promoting European integration, a topic that may have special relevance for China, given the huge size of the country and the diversity of different regions. Regions and countries with different political and socioeconomic systems and dissimilar higher education traditions have similar patterns in reforms in higher education. On the basis of the study, it seems that the coherency of the Chinese system is deteriorating. It has become more flexible, the trend towards internationalization is obvious, and it is expanding and yet holding on to its competitiveness through increased effectiveness and commercialization. The Chinese higher education policies is also directing towards a more segmented and, regarding the needs of education, a more equipment oriented education supply. In the EU on the other hand, the system seems to be moving towards higher coherence, but the above described principles concerning China can also be applied to the EU. The common contextual factors, particularly the increasingly trend of globalization, seem to have considerably shaped higher education policy in the EU and China. The higher educational systems are, thus, at least at a normative level becoming more homogenized. No nation has all the answers to the perplexing questions facing the new challenges of the 21st century, especially in the field of higher education system. National circumstances in terms of specific economic, sociological, political and educational realities are just too complicated for one to simply transfer institutions or even ideas from one country to another. Yet, perspectives from other countries can at least suggest ways of approaching problems that might lead to potential solutions. Comparative or joint higher education policies can illuminate and pose alternatives. This in itself is the right reason for this study to pay adequate attention. The study will give readers some well-argumented information on how these two giants make use of higher education as a tool to face the challenges of knowledge-based economy and globalization.
Peruskoulutuksen tarjonta ja siihen osallistuminen Afarin ja Somalin paimentolaisalueilla Etiopiassa Laadukkaan ja tasa-arvoisen peruskoulutuksen tarjonta on ratkaisevan tärkeää kaikille yhteiskunnille ja varsinkin kehittyvissä maissa eläville vähäosaisille ihmisille. Korkealaatuinen ja tasa-arvoinen koulutus tasoittaa sosioekonomisia ja poliittisia eroja, mikä puolestaan edistää paikallista, alueellista ja kansallista kehitystä ja eheyttä. Siksi tämän tutkimuksen tärkein tavoite oli tutkia peruskoulutuksen järjestämistä ja siihen osallistumista paimentolaisalueilla Afarin ja Somalin osavaltioissa Etiopiassa. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin laadullisia menetelmiä. Tutkimusta varten haastateltiin ministereitä, asiantuntijoita, johtajia, yliopisto-opiskelijoita ja kasvatustoimen johtajia alueelliselta tasolta vyöhykkeitten ja piirien (woreda) tasoille. Fokusryhmäkeskusteluilla kerättiin aineistoa koulujen opettajilta ja vanhempainyhdistysten jäseniltä. Kouluista kerättiin aineistoa myös havainnoimalla, ja lisäksi analysoitiin koulutusta käsitteleviä asiakirjoja. Näillä menetelmillä hankittu aineisto analysoitiin temaattisesti. Tulokset osoittivat, että sekä peruskoulutuksen tarjonta että siihen osallistuminen oli Afarin paimentolaisalueella vähäisempää kuin Somalin paimentolaisalueella tai Etiopiassa keskimäärin. Vaikka asiat olivat paremmin Somalin paimentolaisalueella, sielläkin on vielä paljon tehtävää Unescon Koulutus kaikille -tavoitteitten (EFA) toteuttamiseksi. Tutkimus toi esiin myös useita koulujen sisäisiä ja niiden ulkopuolisia tekijöitä, jotka haittaavat peruskoulutuksen järjestämistä ja siihen osallistumista sekä EFA-tavoitteitten saavuttamista molemmilla alueilla yleensä ja Afarissa erityisesti. Tutkimuksessa ehdotetaan tuloksiin perustuen tapoja, joilla koulutussuunnittelijat ja päättäjät voisivat puuttua havaittuihin epäkohtiin. Tutkimus osoitti myös perusteellisempien jatkotutkimusten tarpeen, jotta koulutuksen tarjontaan liittyviä monitahoisia ongelmia voitaisiin ratkaista ja jotta EFA-tavoitteet voitaisiin saavuttaa molemmilla alueilla. ; Provision of quality and equitable primary education is crucial to all societies, including the disadvantaged people living in developing countries. Such education fills not only socioeconomic but also political gaps, which, in turn, fosters local, regional and national development and integrity. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the provision and participation in primary education in the pastoralist regions of the Afar and Somali in Ethiopia. To achieve this purpose, a qualitative research method was employed. Interviews were conducted to gather data from state ministers, experts, directors, university students, heads of education at regional, zonal and woreda (district) level. Focus group discussions were used to gather data from school teachers and members of parent teacher associations. Observation and document review were also used to gather data from schools and documents respectively. The data obtained through these data collection instruments were analysed thematically. The results show that the status of provision and participation in primary school in the Afar region was lower than that of the Somali regional state and the national average. Even though the Somali region outperformed the Afar region, much remains to be done to achieve the EFA goals in this region too. The result also indicates several in-school and out of school constraints inhibit the provision and participation of primary education and thereby the achievement of EFA in both regions in general and in Afar in particular. Thus, based on the findings, recommendation is made to planners and policymakers so as to alleviate the observed shortcomings. In this manner, it was also forwarded that further and thorough studies are needed to solve the interwoven problems of educational delivery towards EFA in both regions.
Etninen ja Uskonnollinen Moninaisuus Etiopian Yliopistoissa Monikulttuurisuus kuuluu Etiopian yliopistojen ohjaaviin arvoihin, joita ne tukevat ja toteuttavat. Yliopistot pyrkivät luomaan kampuksilleen ilmapiirin, jossa jokainen kokee olevansa tervetullut ja joka osaltaan helpottaa ja parantaa opiskelijoiden henkilökohtaista ja sosiaalista kehitystä. Tällaisen ilmapiirin luominen alkaa siitä, että selvitetään kunkin yliopiston kampuksella vallitseva moninaisuuteen suhtautuminen (campus climate for diversity). Tämän tutkimuksen tavoite oli tutkia Bahir Dar yliopiston (BDU) kampuksen ilmapiirin eri elementtejä. Työssä keskityttiin etniseen ja uskonnolliseen moninaisuuteen. Tutkimus perustui viitekehykseen, jonka kautta moninaisuuteen suhtautumista pyrittiin hahmottamaan. Tutkimus on luonteeltaan laadullinen tapaustutkimus. Tietoa hankittiin haastattelemalla opiskelijoita, opettajia, johtoa ja hallintohenkilöstöä. Myös ryhmähaastattelujen ja asiakirjojen avulla kerättiin tietoa toisaalta opiskelijoilta, toisaalta dokumenteista. Aineiston analyysiin käytettiin temaattista analyysia. Tulokset osoittavat, että BDU:n opiskelijat ovat etnisesti ja uskonnollisesti moninainen joukko, mutta yksi etninen ryhmä oli suurempi kuin muut, ja siten vuorostaan yksi uskonnollinen ryhmä oli muita suurempi. Yleisesti kampusyhteisö suhtautuu opiskelijajoukon sisäiseen moninaisuuteen myönteisesti. Tulokset osoittavat myös, että eri uskonnollisten ryhmien väliset suhteet ovat myönteisemmät kuin etnisten ryhmien väliset suhteet. Opiskelijat jättävät usein huomiotta uskontoon liittyvät kysymykset tai välttävät niiden käsittelemistä muiden kuin oman ryhmänsä kesken. Heitä ei myöskään kiinnosta keskustella etnisiin kysymyksiin liittyvistä aiheista muiden kuin oman etnisen ryhmänsä kesken. Eri syistä kampuksella esiintyy myös etnisiä ja uskonnollisia jännitteitä ja konflikteja. Vaikka BDU on ilmoittanut yhdeksi ydinarvokseen moninaisuuden edistämisen, se ei ole kehittänyt toimivia strategioita tai toteuttanut moninaisuuteen liittyviä suunnitelmia eikä tue moninaisuuteen liittyviä ohjelmia ja toimia. Jotta moninaisuuteen suhtautumisen ilmapiiri paranisi, yliopiston tulisi järjestää opiskelijoille paremmat mahdollisuudet moninaisuutta koskevan tietoisuuden kohottamiseen ja lisäksi tukea eri ryhmien välisiä myönteisiä yhteyksiä ja suhteita. Myös Etiopian hallituksen tulisi ymmärtää, millainen vaikutus sen toimintaohjelmilla, strategioilla ja poliittisella järjestelmällä on kampuksella vallitsevaan moninaisuuteen suhtautumiseen. ; Multiculturalism is one of the guiding values that universities in Ethiopia promote and uphold in pursuance of their mission. Universities also aspire to create a campus climate in which everyone feels welcome, and which contributes to facilitate and improve students' personal and social development. The first step toward creating such an environment is to understand the campus climate for diversity in each university. The purpose of this study was to provide a better understanding of the campus climate for diversity in Bahir Dar University (BDU) by examining different elements of the campus climate with regard to ethnic and religious diversity. The study was guided by a framework for understanding the campus climate for diversity. The research design was a qualitative case study. Interviews were used to generate data from students, teachers, managers and staff. Focus groups and document review were also used to collect data from students and documents respectively. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. The results show that BDU has an ethnically and religiously diverse student population, but there is a numerical dominance of one ethnic group which in turn contributed to a numerical dominance of one religious group. The campus community has generally a positive perception of diversity and diverse student population. The results also show that there are more positive relationships between members of different religious groups than between different ethnic groups. Students often ignore or avoid discussing religion-related issues with outgroup members. They also lack interest in discussing ethnic-related issues with ethnic outgroup members. There are also ethnic and religious tensions and conflicts on campus due to various reasons. Although BDU has identified promoting diversity as one of its core values, it lacks developing good strategies, implementing diversity-related plans, and supporting diversity-related programs and activities. To enhance a positive campus climate for diversity the University should provide more opportunities to create diversity awareness as well as to facilitate positive intergroup contacts and relations. The government of Ethiopia also should understand the impact of some of its policies, strategies and political system on the campus climate for diversity.
Karvaasta pettymyksestä kasvattavaan kokemukseen varusmiesten sopeutumisen syyt ja seuraukset Varusmiespalvelus synnyttää vahvoja tunteita. Palvelus tapahtuu elämän käännekohdassa, jossa keskiasteen opinnot ovat takana ja irtautuminen kodin vaikutuspiiristä on alkanut. Samalla varusmiespalvelus tarjoaa mahdollisuuden yksilön kasvuun ja kehittymiseen palvelus totuttaa aikaisin heräämiseen, ohjattuun aikatauluun, esimiehen kanssa toimimiseen ja asetettujen tavoitteiden saavuttamiseen. Parhaimmillaan armeija kasvattaa itseluottamusta, pinnaa ja pitkäjänteisyyttä ja varusmies oppii kantamaan vastuuta itsestään ja muista. Varusmiespalvelus on viimeinen lenkki lähes koko miesten ikäluokan kouluttamisessa ja osallistamisessa yhteiskunnan aktiiviseksi jäseneksi. Varusmiehet voivat nähdä palveluksensa merkityksen aivan toisin. Palvelusvelvollisuus saattaa tuntua pakolta, joka täytyy tavalla tai toisella täyttää. Silloin ei välttämättä ensimmäisenä tule mieleen, mitä henkilökohtaista hyötyä palveluksesta saattaisi olla. Toisaalta nuorten miesten syrjäytyminen alkaa yhä nuoremmassa iässä samalla, kun varusmiespalveluksen keskeyttäminen on yleistynyt. Siten kaikki eivät pääse tai edes halua olla osana miesten koulua , ja päällimmäisenä mieleen jää karvas pettymys. Lähes kaksi kolmasosaa palveluksensa keskeyttäneistä poistuu palveluksesta ensimmäisen kahden viikon aikana. Suurimmalla osalla heistä on lievään sopeutumishäiriöön liittyvä syy, on kyse sitten siviilipalvelukseen hakeutuvasta tai muutoin palveluksensa keskeyttävästä henkilöstä. Väitöskirjan perusteella keskeyttäminen tapahtuu todennäköisimmin, jos yksi tai useampi seuraavista tekijöistä toteutuu: keskeyttämisen pohtiminen, alhainen koulutustausta, huonot peruskoulukokemukset, negatiiviset odotukset, rikosrekisteritiedot, heikko fyysinen kunto, riidat seurustelusuhteessa tai siviilikavereiden palveluksenvastainen asenne. Väitöskirjatutkimuksessa tutkittiin erityisesti varusmiesten sopeutumista ja sopeutumattomuutta selittäviä tekijöitä. Esille tuli seitsemän sopeutumiseen vaikuttavaa osa-aluetta. Yli kahdesta tuhannesta varusmiehestä kerättyjen tietojen perusteella varusmiespalveluksen sopeutumistekijöitä ovat 1) asenne, 2) kuri ja käskyvaltasuhteet, 3) fyysinen kunto, 4) sosiaalisuus, 5) henkinen sopeutuminen, 6) koulutus ja oppiminen sekä 7) ero perheestä ja ystävistä. Jos näistä tekijöistä pitää valita yksi osa-alue tärkeimmäksi, se on positiivinen asenne, joka myös varusmiespalveluksessa kantaa pitkälle. Palveluksen epäonnistunut vaikutus näkyy, kun varusmies a) suorittaa palveluksensa kehnosti, b) välttää palvelustaan tekeytymällä sairaaksi tai hakeutumalla lääkärin vastaanotolle ilman fyysistä sairautta, mikä varusmiesten vastausten perusteella lisääntyi palveluksen aikana, c) tekee rikkeitä tai rikoksia tai d) keskeyttää palveluksen "muuten vain kun ei huvita" esimerkiksi hakeutumalla siviilipalvelukseen. Pahimmillaan näiden henkilöiden joukossa millään ei juuri ole ollut merkitystä: itsellä, kavereilla saati puolustusvoimilla. Valitettavaa on jos, palvelusaika ei pysty saamaan vaikeuksissa olevaa henkilöä jaloilleen vaan hän vain jatkaa yhteiskunnasta syrjäytymiseen johtavaa polkua. Kasvattavia kokemuksia sen sijaan selittävät positiivinen asenne ja koulutusmotivaatio, sopeutumiskokemukset, komppanian ilmapiiri, ryhmäkiinteys ja haastava koulutus. Tulosten perusteella kouluttajat ja varusmiesjohtajat eivät vaikuta suoraan sopeutumiseen ja kasvukokemuksiin vaan epäsuorasti laadukkaan koulutuksen ja toimintaympäristön suunnittelijoina ja toteuttajina. Keskeinen johtopäätös onkin, että haastava koulutus, positiivinen ilmapiiri ja yhteistoiminnallisuuteen ja ryhmäkiinteyteen panostaminen ovat tehokkaita keinoja tukea varusmiesten sopeutumista ja hyvinvointia. Siksi juuri nämä tekijät tulisi huomioida varusmiespalvelusta kehitettäessä. Palveluksen keskeyttäminen ennakoi yhteiskunnasta syrjäytymistä. Haastavalla koulutuksella ja laadukkaalla johtamisella voidaan vaikuttaa siihen, miten yksilö selviytyy varusmiespalveluksesta, ja tukea yhteiskuntaan sopeutumista. Parhaita tuloksia on mahdollista saavuttaa kuusi kuukautta palvelevien motivaatioon ja positiivisiin palveluskokemuksiin vaikuttamalla. Siten varusmiesten sopeutumisen edistäminen on osa yhteiskunnallisen syrjäytymisen estämistä. ; Determinants of Military Adjustment and Attrition During Finnish Conscript Service Adjustment to the military is determined by two main factors: the situational and organizational experiences of the new service member (the environment) and the member s characteristics and background (personal features). In the Finnish conscript service, an aggregate of diverse individuals is socialized into the military. Most of the conscript population adjusts to this process, but a portion of the conscripts fails to adjust and their service is terminated prematurely. The study looks at how well conscripts are expected to adjust to the military, how well they actually do adjust to basic training and later service, and how the adjustment changes over the service period. In addition, the research examines why some conscripts fail to fulfill their military obligation, resulting in military turnover (i.e. attrition). The data were collected with Finnish-language questionnaires from 2,003 conscripts immediately after reporting for duty, at the end of basic training, and at the end of the conscript service. Information was obtained on a number of background variables, the trainees' attitudes towards various topics, and their experiences. Interviews were utilized to verify that the measures covered relevant aspects of the military adjustment process. The adjustment-related measures were refined by factor and Bayesian analyses and reliability tests. The results show that numerous background variables are related to differences in adjustment perceptions and attitudes toward military experiences. Four main dimensions of adjustment were found: affective commitment, sociability, physical health, and perceptions about obedience and regimentation. Together they explained 50% of the variance of adjustment expectations at time 1, 58% of basic training adjustment at time 2, and 61% of later adjustment at time 3. In structural equation models, 56% of the later adjustment experiences were explained by the four dimensions. Most attrition (i.e. separation from service) occurred during the first two weeks, and most of the later attrition during the first 8 weeks of service. In all, 211 (10.5%) of the 2,003 conscripts were dropped from military service. A series of logistic regression and discriminant function analyses were carried out to explain the differences between the attrition group and those who completed their military service. Attrition was best predicted by the conscript's intent to stay or quit, education level and schooling experiences, expected adjustment, criminal background, physical health, the quality of civilian relationships, and attitudes towards military service. Overall, the research extends previous research by considering a wider set of predictors over time, and allowing generalization of the findings about military adjustment through the use of a non-U.S. conscript sample. Alternative approaches, policy interventions, and adjustment-related considerations for instructors and service members are suggested.
Mitä luottamus oikein on? Mitä luottamus on suomalaisten työpaikkojen esimies-alaissuhteissa? Koulutuspäällikkö Nina Laine on väitöskirjassaan tutkinut luottamusta suomalaisten esimiesten ja alaisten välillä. Väitöskirjan mukaan luottamus rakentuu yhdistelmästä tunnetta ja kokemusperäistä tietoa. Esimiehet voivat lisätä luottamusta omalla käytöksellään. Luottamaan on mahdollista oppia. Esimiestyön oppiminen tapahtuu usein käytännön työelämässä ja sitä tuetaan esimiesvalmennuksilla. Ensin opitaan yksi ammatti (esim. insinööri tai opettaja) ja sitten opitaan johtamistaitoja esimiestehtävään siirryttäessä. Luottamus on yksi toimivan esimies-alaissuhteen peruselementti. Tämän vuoksi esimieheksi siirtyvän on opittava myös luottamuksen rakentamista. Aiempi luottamustutkimus on perustunut pitkälti kysely- ja tilastotutkimuksiin. Laine on ensimmäisiä työpaikkojen luottamusta laadullisesti analysoineita tutkijoita. Väitöstutkimuksen aineistona oli suomalaisilta esimiehiltä kerätyt syvähaastattelut ja kirjoitukset. Laineen tutkimuksessa uutta on tunteen, moraalin ja oppimisen korostaminen. Se poikkeaa aiemman luottamustutkimuksen valtavirrasta, jossa luottamuksen keskeisimpänä tekijänä on pidetty tietoa. ; This qualitative study in the field of vocational education explores the phenomenon of trust in superior-subordinate relationship. The study, using phenomenological research method, is based on the constructivist paradigm. The research data was collected in Finland, in Finnish. The writing process was conducted in English, both in Finland and in the United States. The data consisted of in-depth interviews and writings. Informants were from business world and public sector, and included both men and women. Becoming a manager requires learning to lead people and to manage organization s operations. Often these skills are learned at the workplace and in extension studies. Therefore learning to become a leader can be seen as vocational education learning the profession of leadership. Building trust is essential in leadership and learning to build trusting work relationships is leaders task, among others. Trust is an intriguing topic to study because it is relevant both socially and scientifically. Nowadays people live in an interdependent world where globalization brings forth new challenges for cooperation. As people working together tend to have ever tighter interlinkages, trust becomes a necessity. This has led to a contradiction: While trust is at the same time diminishing in Western countries, it s significance is increasing and new forms of building trust are evolving. Scientifically trust has raised interest in different literatures psychology, sociology, political science, economics, anthropology, history, and social biology but each literature has approached trust with its own disciplinary lenses and filters. Remarkably little effort has been made to integrate these different perspectives. Trust in superior-subordinate relationship merits to be researched because, for majority of people, social networks at work are central in their daily human interaction. Also, the power hierarchy in superior-subordinate relationship makes it scientifically interesting. Being a superior and subordinate are work related roles, which are always affected by power asymmetries. Another reason for studying trust in superior-subordinate relationship is the need of empirical qualitative research related to trust. According to this study, trust is both emotion and knowledge, but the emphasis is clearly on emotion. The building blocks of trust are: Integrity of talk and action, respecting and allowing emotions related to trust, active communication, and taking time to build trusting relationships. Also, superior s support is essential in trust. However, superior-subordinate relationship is reciprocal and subordinates impact is crucial, too. This study binds learning and trust together by presenting three aspects: 1) learning to trust in relationships, 2) learning to trust as single-loop and double-loop learning (see below), and 3) learning to trust as a transformative process. Learning in relationships refers to constant mirroring of our values, thoughts and actions with other people. All this enables trust. Learning to trust can also be described by using Argyris s (1982) theory of single-loop and double-loop learning. In single-loop learning, learning to trust may be based on generalizations and what is taught. In double-loop learning, ideas are confronted and challenged, and the processes are disconfirmable and not self-sealing. When people challenge themselves to take a double look over their views, they can remodel their operating norms and come to conclusion that their criteria for trust or distrust were too narrow. Learning to trust can sometimes be a transformative process, which fundamentally changes the frame of reference and affects values and attitudes of the trustor. Theoretically this research has added to previous theories of trust a view that puts priority on feelings and binds learning and trust together. It has brought forth, to a concrete level, the topic related differences and similarities of superiors and subordinates viewpoints. The study has also stressed the moral and value related aspects of leadership and trustworthiness by describing leaders transformative learning processes and personal narrative moral stories, both of which emerged spontaneously from the data. In addition, this study has contributed to the research of trust in leadership by addressing the lack of empirical qualitative study. In addition to theoretical contribution, this study has several managerial (practical) implications. These are related to the development of leadership and promoting well-being at work. This research has created new knowledge about trust in work context, and can provide tools for thinking for leaders. Getting acquainted with different aspects of trust in superior-subordinate relationship can help leaders to realize its significance.
Tämän väitöskirjatutkimuksen keskiössä on valtion ja valtiollisen koulutusjärjestelmän puitteissa harjoitetun kansalaiskasvatuksen keskinäinen suhde murroskautena 1980-2000. 1980-luvun puolivälistä alkaen sekä Venäjällä että Suomessa on koettu merkittäviä valtioon ja kansakuntaan vaikuttaneita yhteiskunnallisia mullistuksia. Neuvostoliiton romahdettua Venäjä on pyrkinyt löytämään uusia tapoja kansallisen yhtenäisyyden ylläpitämiseksi, valtiovallan uudelleen rakentamiseksi ja maan kansainvälisen aseman parantamiseksi. Suomessa puolestaan Euroopan yhdentyminen ja lisääntyvä maahanmuutto ovat asettaneet muutospaineita kansalaisuudelle ja kansalliselle identiteetille. Tästä kontekstista käsin väitöskirjassa kysytään miten peruskoulussa harjoitetun kansalaiskasvatuksen tavoitteet ja sisällöt ovat muuttuneet vastaamaan 1990- ja 2000-lukujen sisä- ja ulkopoliittisia muutoksia. Tutkimuksen tutkimusaineiston muodostavat venäläiset ja suomalaiset koulutuspoliittiset asiakirjat sekä kahden kansainvälisen järjestön - Euroopan Neuvoston ja YK:n kasvatus-, tiede- ja kulttuurijärjestön (UNESCO) - viralliset dokumentit. Historiallisista ja yhteiskuntapoliittisista eroistaan huolimatta sekä Suomi että Venäjä antavat edelleen suuren arvon kansalaisuudelle ja kansalliselle identiteetille. Venäjä on 1990-luvun lopulta lähtien lujittanut kansalaisuuden ja kansallisuuden suhdetta. Valtiovalta korostaa kansalaisten uskollisuutta Venäjän valtiota kohtaan ja alleviivaa tätä kautta keskeistä asemaansa kansalaiskasvatuksen koulutuspolitiikan määrittämisessä. Isänmaallisuuskasvatuksen ohjelmat ovat 2000-luvun alusta lähtien korostaneet alistumista aktiivisen osallistumisen sekä konsensusta mielipiteiden monimuotoisuuden sijaan. Yksilöllisen identiteetin asemasta etusija annetaan kollektiiviselle identiteetille. Suomi on sen sijaan alkanut purkaa valtion ja kansakunnan vahvaa historiallista sidettä ja painottaa yhä selkeämmin kansallisen identiteetin kulttuurista ulottuvuutta. Tämä kulttuurinen käännös on tullut väistämättömäksi Suomen pyrkiessä säilyttämään kansallisen identiteettinsä ja legitimiteettinsä globalisoituvassa maailmassa. Kansalaisuuden ja kansallisuuden vahvan yhteyden purkaminen avaa mahdollisuuden yhdistää uudella tavalla käsitykset kansalaisuudesta ja kansallisesta identiteetistä. Toisaalta tässäkin mallissa kansallinen taso nähdään ytimenä ja muiden tasojen lähtökohtana. ; This doctoral dissertation studies citizenship education policies in Finland and Russia in relation to the supranational citizenship education rhetoric shaped by two large intergovernmental organizations, the Council of Europe (COE) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The research pursues two broad research aims. First, to understand the supranational agenda of citizenship education, and second, to analyse citizenship education policies in Russia and Finland since the mid 1980s up to 2007, and to compare them to the supranational agenda of citizenship education. The dissertation is concerned with the macro level and thus the research data comprises policy documents issued by the Russian and Finnish state authorities, and the two intergovernmental organisations. The analysis of policy content draws on the rhetorical and policy-as-discourse approaches in order to elucidate the objectives of citizenship education, as well as the arguments employed to justify the proposed objectives throughout the studied period. Individualising comparison enhances the interpretative task of the dissertation, as it increases the visibility of one national context by contrasting it with another, and therefore helps to find adequate explanations to particular policy outcomes. In selecting Russia and Finland as the two national case studies, the dissertation concentrates on countries embedded in different state models and citizenship traditions. The main motivation behind the selection of the COE and UNESCO is to acknowledge and analyse the rising supranational educational governance, which increasingly provides models for and restrictions on actions and policies at national level. The study is particularly interested in the relationship between the state and citizenship education in public schooling at the time of state (re)formation and nation (re)building. Citizenship education is perceived as a means to legitimise and maintain state power unsettled in periods of political changes. Equally, citizenship education offers a prism through which to examine larger processes in a given society, in particular, changes in the relationship between the state, citizenship and nationality, and possible modifications in the meanings of these essential socio-political categories. For the national cases examined in the dissertation the period since the second half of the 1980s has been rich in political changes related to, and leaving their mark on, the state and the nation. Whereas since the collapse of the Soviet regime Russia has striven to find ways to regenerate national cohesion, rebuild statehood and reconsolidate its status in the international arena, Finland has attempted to adjust its national identity and citizenship to European integration and increasing immigration. The analysis of the COE and UNESCO reveals that there is no one modality of citizenship education embraced by the examined supranational actors. On one hand, in clear contrast to the traditional model of citizenship education, they advocate proactive political participation, critical scrutiny of state institutions and action against the state on the basis of universal human rights. They also promote diversity and perceive citizenship as a multilayered concept extending to the local, national, regional and global levels. Instead of linking rights and duties to membership in a territorially demarcated polity of the nation-state, the COE and UNESCO often advocate the notion of human rights and link rights and duties to the global humanity. In this manner, supranational organisations decouple citizenship from nationality and, by doing so, advance the postnationalisation of citizenship. On the other hand, the intergovernmental character of the organisations and their origin embedded in the consolidation of the nation-state system lead to inconsistencies in the agenda and somewhat surprising repetition of the traditional citizenship rhetoric, for instance, in linking society narrowly to the territorially demarcated nation-state. The supranational agenda also continues to emphasise the key role of national governments in implementing citizenship education and therefore still posits the nation-state as a central player in education policy and practice. The Russian case exemplified convergence with the post-national supranational citizenship education rhetoric only during the first half of the 1990s when the new country leaders did not pay serious attention to regenerating national cohesion and building an all-embracing national identity. In this period, preference was given to the de-legitimation of the Soviet type of political education, and slightly later to the development of citizenship education policies stressing citizens´ rights, knowledge of the legislation and lawful conduct for the purpose of building a constitutional state. In terms of national identity, the authorities advocated a vague category of universal human values and encouraged the re-consolidation of sub-state national identities. Toward the end of the 1990s, the contents of citizenship education policies shifted radically. The state has re-emphasised its leading role in defining citizenship education policies with the main objective to craft citizens´ loyalty to the Russian state. The programmes of patriotic education, which appeared in the beginning of the 2000s, prioritise subordination over active participation, consensus over pluralism, duties over rights and collective identity over an individual one. Compared to the mid 1980s, when citizenship education in Finland was premised on the idea that the vitality of the Finnish nation is invariably linked to the sovereignty of the Finnish state, the latest curricula documents stress national culture as the prime source of national integrity. In its return to a predominantly cultural understanding of the nation, Finland exemplifies the debundling of the state and the nation, and nationality and citizenship. The transformation into a Kulturnation is a necessary step to secure Finland´s national being in a globalising world, which transforms and weakens state sovereignty, without putting the legitimacy of the Finnish nation into question. The decoupling of nationality and citizenship opens up the possibility for a multilayered conceptualisation of both citizenship and nationhood. However, the national still constitutes the core, with the sub- and supranational layers as additional ingredients of the emerging citizenship recipe. Despite major differences in their historical and current socio-political contexts, Russia and Finland continue to attach strong value to national identity and national citizenship. However, whereas Russia, since the late 1990s, has moved in the direction of state nationalism and a closer bond between the nation and the state, which preclude any possibility for a multilayered conception of citizenship, Finland has forsaken a previously strong link between the state and the nation and seems to be strengthening its cultural identity in peaceful alliance with Europeanness.
This study explores primary school curriculum development in Tanzania. Curriculum development is part of a wider socio-political discussion within a society, and has powerful implications in overall educational planning. Therefore, the actors and influences that have the power in curriculum development should be approached critically. With the help of the case study of Tanzania, national curriculum theorising is situated in a transnational and global discussion. Two predominant Western curriculum traditions, the Anglo-American curriculum and the European-Scandinavian Bildung-Didaktik, are used to test the theories of curriculum development in Tanzania. The aspects of curriculum politicisation and the decentralisation process in education are used to help to identify who holds curricular power in the national curriculum development process in Tanzania. The study is based on a case study methodology as it aims to build a holistic picture of the Tanzanian curriculum development process and uses Tanzania as a specific case. The case study methodology draws on general qualitative research and the data is gathered and analysed with methods used in many qualitative research projects. The primary data was gathered during fieldwork in Tanzania. The primary data includes fifteen interviews that were conducted with stakeholders in Tanzanian curriculum development. Simultaneously, the study encompasses features from theoretical research, as it incorporates the curriculum theories into the analyses. The reason for this lies in the opportunity to analyse the questions of curricular power on a general level, and to distinct certain transnational features in Tanzanian curriculum planning. The Tanzanian curriculum development process is currently marked by the lack of access to the curriculum document and the overall lack of knowledge about the curriculum development process. The curriculum is developed at a central level while there is a rising need to involve teachers and other local stakeholders in the development process. The findings of the research demonstrate that curriculum development in Tanzania is strongly influenced by international forces. The international influences guide the curriculum to follow transnational and global curriculum traditions that draw deeply on the Anglo-American curriculum. Simultaneously, due to strong post-independent self-reliance policies, a strong need for a national curriculum can be distinguished in Tanzanian curriculum theorising. This calls for strong local involvement in the curriculum in order to maintain a self-reliant Tanzania, in which education serves the nation and its population. With reference to the theoretical analysis, the findings demonstrate that traces from both of the two transnational curriculum traditions can be distinguished in the Tanzanian curriculum theorising. The presence of these transnational features should not guide the interpretations of the Tanzanian curriculum development process towards a narrow global interpretation of curriculum development. Rather, the findings show that Tanzanian national curriculum development can be situated into a larger global discussion of curriculum, in order to identify the actors and forces that eventually are influential in curriculum theorising. TIIVISTELMÄ Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on perehtyä Tansanian perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelman suunnitteluun. Opetussuunnitelman suunnittelu on osa laajempaa sosiopoliittista keskustelua ja sillä on suuret vaikutukset yhteiskunnan opetusjärjestelmään. Tämän vuoksi opetussuunnitelman suunnitteluun vaikuttavien tahojen ja toimijoiden valtaa tulee lähestyä kriittisesti. Tansania tapaustutkimuksenaan, tämä tutkimus tarkastelee valtiollista opetussuunnitelma teoretisointia suhteessa ylikansalliseen ja globaaliin keskusteluun. Länsimaisessa opetussuunnitelmateoriassa vaikuttaa vahvasti kaksi opetussuunnitelma traditiota, angloamerikkalainen opetussuunnitelma ja eurooppa-skandinaavinen Bildung-didaktik traditio, joiden ilmenemistä ja vaikutteita tarkastellaan Tansanian opetussuunnitelman yhteydessä. Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnittelun valtaa pitävät tahot pyritään selvittämään opetussuunnitelman politisoinnin ja desentralisaatio prosessin avulla. Tutkimus perustuu tapaustutkimuksen metodologiaan ja sen tavoitteena on muodostaa holistinen kuva Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnittelusta ja käyttää Tansaniaa tapaustutkimuksena. Tapaustutkimuksen metodologia perustuu laadullisen tutkimuksen pohjalle ja tutkimuksen aineisto on kerätty ja analysoitu laadullisen tutkimuksen metodien avulla. Aineisto kerättiin tutkimusmatkan aikana Tansaniasta. Tämä aineisto sisälsi viisitoista haastattelua eri sidosryhmän jäsenten kanssa. Samanaikaisesti tutkimus muodostuu osittain teoreettisen tutkimuksen muotoon, sillä aineistonanalyysi yhdistää Tansanian tapaustutkimuksen aineiston ja opetussuunnitelmateorian teoreettista kirjallisuutta. Tutkimustulokset mahdollistavat sekä yleisemmän opetussuunnitelman tarkastelun että Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnittelun tarkastelun suhteessa ylikansalliseen opetussuunnitelmateoriaan. Tämän hetkistä Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnittelua hankaloittaa se, että opetussuunnitelma ei ole saatavilla. Lisäksi tietämys opetussuunnitelman suunnittelusta on vähäistä. Opetussuunnitelman suunnittelu on keskitettyä, vaikka tarve sisällyttää opettajat ja paikallisia sidosryhmiä suunnitteluprosessiin on vahva. Tulokset osoittavat, että Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnitteluun vaikuttaa kansainväliset virtaukset. Tansanian opetussuunnitelma seuraa ylikansallisia ja globaaleja malleja, jotka pohjautuvat angloamerikkalaiseen opetussuunnitelma traditioon. Samanaikaisesti itsenäistymisen jälkeen omaksutut self-reliance ohjelmat vaikuttavat yhä Tansanian koulutussuunnittelussa ja vaativat kansallista opetussuunnitelmaa. Tästä johtuen opetussuunnitelma suunnitteluun kaivataan myös vahvaa paikallista osaamista, joka mahdollistaa Tansanian omavaraisuuden koulutussuunnitellussa ja edesauttaa koko yhteiskunnan osaamista ja hyvinvointia. Ylikansallisten virtausten näkymisen Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnittelussa ei tule johdattaa tulkintoja kohti kapeakatseista opetussuunnitelman suunnittelua. Sen sijaan tulokset osoittavat, että ylikansallisia piirteitä voidaan havaita myös Tansanian opetussuunnitelman suunnittelusta ja tätä tietoa voidaan hyödyntää, kun pyritään selvittämään mitkä tahot ja toimijat ovat oikeasti vallassa opetussuunnitelman teoretisoinnissa.
Kirja käsittelee kasvatuksen disiplinaarisia kiistoja kolmesta näkökulmasta. Ensimmäisen osan artikkelit analysoivat kasvatuksen disiplinaarista luonnetta käytäntönä ja instituutioina. Toisessa osassa kohteena on teoriaa ja käytäntöä välittävän kasvatustiedon oikeutus. Kolmannessa osassa pohditaan kasvatuksen päämääriä ja tarkoituksia, jotka ovat kriittisiä sitä koskevien disiplinaaristen kiistojen ymmärtämisen kannalta. Vaikka kirjoitukset kohdistuvat kasvatuksen eri muotoihin, aikakausiin ja konteksteihin, ne tarjoavat aineksia myös yleisempään keskusteluun kasvatuksen eklektisistä ja vaihtelevista teorioista ja käytännöistä. CONTENTS Preface 9 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pätäri, Gabriele Molzberger Introduction. The many meanings of disciplinary struggles in education 11 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pätäri & Gabriele Molzberger Section 1: Discipline in Education Control justified. Discipline as moral regulation in adult education 25 Leena Koski 'How to cultivate freedom through coercion'. Defining discipline in anarchist education 41 Ivan Zamotkin Struggles for identity. A Finnish university's identity transition in its own policies after reform 61 Henry Yuan Wang Section 2: Justification of Educational Knowledge Disciplinary struggles in and between adult, vocational and general education in the Academy. Lessons from Finland 83 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pätäri & Sini Teräsahde (Re)thinking the disciplinary relationship between the researcher and object of study in educational practices in the Brazilian context 117 Lais Oliveira Leite Thinking outside the box. De-structuring continuing and higher education 135 Markus Weil & Balthasar Eugster Multiculturalism in education and political philosophy 155 Tarna Kannisto Changing vocational special needs education. From teacher to developer 173 Maija Hirvonen & Raija Pirttimaa Section 3: Meanings and Functions of Education Ecological wisdom as a challenge for the philosophy of education 195 Kari Väyrynen How does phenomenological psychology contribute to current concepts of sustainability in Germany's vocational education system? A brief historical outline and remarks on current problems 215 Burkhard Vollmers, Werner Kuhlmeier & Sören Schütt-Sayed Financing and institutions as key elements of the future of adult education. Disciplinary struggles about empirical observations 239 Lorenz Lassnigg & Stefan Vogtenhuber ; This book discusses disciplinary struggles in education from three perspectives. The chapters in the first section analyse the disciplinary character of educational practice and institutions. The second section focuses on justification of educational knowledge in transmission between theory and practice. The contributions of the third section problematise the aims and functions of educational practice and theory, which are critical for understanding the implications of disciplinary struggles in education for the future. Although the chapters focus on certain historical periods, forms and contexts of education, they provide insights, which are useful and relevant for a wider discussion in the eclectic and diverse theories and practices of education. CONTENTS Preface 9 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pätäri, Gabriele Molzberger Introduction. The many meanings of disciplinary struggles in education 11 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pätäri & Gabriele Molzberger Section 1: Discipline in Education Control justified. Discipline as moral regulation in adult education 25 Leena Koski 'How to cultivate freedom through coercion'. Defining discipline in anarchist education 41 Ivan Zamotkin Struggles for identity. A Finnish university's identity transition in its own policies after reform 61 Henry Yuan Wang Section 2: Justification of Educational Knowledge Disciplinary struggles in and between adult, vocational and general education in the Academy. Lessons from Finland 83 Anja Heikkinen, Jenni Pätäri & Sini Teräsahde (Re)thinking the disciplinary relationship between the researcher and object of study in educational practices in the Brazilian context 117 Lais Oliveira Leite Thinking outside the box. De-structuring continuing and higher education 135 Markus Weil & Balthasar Eugster Multiculturalism in education and political philosophy 155 Tarna Kannisto Changing vocational special needs education. From teacher to developer 173 Maija Hirvonen & Raija Pirttimaa Section 3: Meanings and Functions of Education Ecological wisdom as a challenge for the philosophy of education 195 Kari Väyrynen How does phenomenological psychology contribute to current concepts of sustainability in Germany's vocational education system? A brief historical outline and remarks on current problems 215 Burkhard Vollmers, Werner Kuhlmeier & Sören Schütt-Sayed Financing and institutions as key elements of the future of adult education. Disciplinary struggles about empirical observations 239 Lorenz Lassnigg & Stefan Vogtenhuber
