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[eng] This thesis is about grassroots strategies of material and political extraversion. It is an ethnography of the provisioning of clothing goods in Equatorial Guinea and it bridges the everyday lives of ordinary people with issues related to political economy and power configurations. Based on more than twelve months of ethnographic fieldwork, mainly localised at Malabo's principal marketplace but also complementarily carried out in Spain, it describes the strategies Guineans engage with in order to generate livelihoods but also to be able to make material statements about their self-worth in a context of uncertainty and precariousness. The exploitation of off-shore oil wells in the mid-nineties has provided an injection of resources to a regime that has been able to consolidate its power and an outside-oriented economy. While the extraversion strategies of the political elite are known and described in the political economic analyses of the country's contemporary situation, studies about how ordinary Guineans deal and engage with this extravert system, an intended contribution of this thesis, are practically non-existent. The protagonists of my ethnography are market women, who have made from clothing provisioning both their source of livelihood and also their mechanism for social inclusion and political participation. The argument begins with a historical account, showing how rentist capitalism and extraversion strategies are not a recent phenomenon related to oil exploitation but have a longer trajectory in Equatorial Guinea. This process has signified the production of specific idioms for wealth and power that are deeply gendered and that make comment upon differential access to foreign rents and goods. These understandings of wealth and power are also associated with particular ideas about space that draw upon specific substantial and imagined geographies. These geographies are reproduced in the provisioning and valuation of foreign goods, but also by keeping trading routes and networks, which I describe for the two main categories of clothing goods consumed in Equatorial Guinea. By accessing valuable geographies and managing rents, market women manage to contest gender roles, reach certain levels of public participation and generate political debates. This participation, however, is co- opted by the elite and more specifically by the first lady who, through a non-profit organisation, offers her protection to female petty traders in exchange for political support. The ethnography of the everyday of these women reveals how, by engaging with rent managing strategies and by connecting with the powerful elite market, women are able to source their households. However, their capacity to generate income, to make political claims, and to gain access to certain levels of power is limited by a hierarchy that is ultimately maintained by such extraversion strategies. The dissertation contributes to debates within economic and political anthropology surrounding rentist capitalism and extraversion, but also about markets and consumption. While it questions extraversion as totalizing theory, and as a particularity of African states and elites, it recovers it as a concept useful to explain processes of active material and political dependency. ; [spa] Esta tesis presenta una etnografía del aprovisionamiento de productos textiles en Guinea Ecuatorial, vincula la vida cotidiana de la gente común con cuestiones relacionadas con la economía política y las configuraciones de poder. Basada en más de doce meses de trabajo de campo etnográfico localizado en el mercado principal de Malabo, pero también complementario en España (Madrid y Elche), describe estrategias ingeniadas por las guineanas para generar medios de vida, pero también para hacer declaraciones materiales sobre su valía personal en un contexto de incertidumbre y precariedad. La explotación de pozos petrolíferos off-shore a mediados de los noventa ha proporcionado una inyección de recursos a un régimen que ha podido consolidar su poder y una economía orientada hacia el exterior. Mientras que las estrategias de extraversión de la élite política son conocidas y descritas en los análisis político-económicos de la situación contemporánea del país, prácticamente no existen estudios sobre cómo las guineanas corrientes se relacionan con este sistema extravertido. Las protagonistas de mi etnografía son las mujeres del mercado, que han hecho de la provisión de ropa su fuente de sustento, pero también su mecanismo para la inclusión social y la participación política. El argumento comienza con un relato histórico que muestra cómo el capitalismo y las estrategias de extraversión rentistas no son un fenómeno reciente relacionado con la explotación petrolera sino que tienen una trayectoria más larga en Guinea Ecuatorial. Este recorrido histórico ha generado ideas particulares sobre el poder y la riqueza que tienen un componente de género importante y que dibujan unas geografías tanto imaginadas como sustanciales. Estas geografías se reproducen en el aprovisionamiento y valoración de mercancías extranjeras, pero también mediante el mantenimiento de rutas y redes comerciales, que describo para las dos principales categorías de artículos de prendas de vestir consumidos en Guinea Ecuatorial. Al acceder a geografías valiosas y gestionar rentas, las mujeres del mercado logran impugnar los papeles de género, alcanzar ciertos niveles de participación pública y generar debates políticos. Esta participación, sin embargo, es cooptada por la élite y más específicamente por la primera dama que, a través de una organización sin fines de lucro, ofrece su protección a las pequeñas comerciantes a cambio de apoyo político. La etnografía de la vida cotidiana de estas mujeres revela cómo al comprometerse con las estrategias de gestión de rentas y al conectarse con la poderosa élite las mujeres son capaces de abastecer a sus hogares. Sin embargo, su capacidad para generar ingresos, hacer reivindicaciones políticas y acceder a ciertas cotas de poder está limitada por una jerarquía que las estrategias de extraversión sólo ayudan a mantener. La tesis contribuye a los debates de antropología económica y política sobre el capitalismo y la extraversión rentistas, pero también sobre los mercados y el consumo. Si bien cuestiona la extraversión como teoría totalizadora y como particularidad de los estados y élites africanos, la recupera como un concepto útil para explicar los procesos de dependencia política y material.

ABSTRACT - The authors' main purpose is to present ideas on defining Health Law by highlighting the particularities of the field of Health Law as well as of the teaching of this legal branch, hoping to contribute to the maturity and academic recognition of Health Law, not only as a very rich legal field but also as a powerful social instrument in the fulfillment of fundamental human rights. The authors defend that Health Law has several characteristics that distinguish it from traditional branches of law such as its complexity and multidisciplinary nature. The study of Health Law normally covers issues such as access to care, health systems organization, patients' rights, health professionals' rights and duties, strict liability, healthcare contracts between institutions and professionals, medical data protection and confidentiality, informed consent and professional secrecy, crossing different legal fields including administrative, antitrust, constitutional, contract, corporate, criminal, environmental, food and drug, intellectual property, insurance, international and supranational, labor/employment, property, taxation, and tort law. This is one of the reasons why teaching Health Law presents a challenge to the teacher, which will have to find the programs, content and methods appropriate to the profile of recipients which are normally non jurists and the needs of a multidisciplinary curricula. By describing academic definitions of Health Law as analogous to Edgewood, a fiction house which has a different architectural style in each of its walls, the authors try to describe which elements should compose a more comprehensive definition. In this article Biolaw, Bioethics and Human Rights are defined as complements to a definition of Health Law: Biolaw because it is the legal field that treats the social consequences that arise from technological advances in health and life sciences; Bioethics which evolutions normally influence the shape of the legal framework of Health; and, finally Human Rights theory and declarations are outlined as having always been historically linked to medicine and health, being the umbrella that must cover all the issues raised in the area of Health Law. To complete this brief incursion on the definition on Health Law the authors end by giving note of the complex relations between this field of Law and Public Health. Dealing more specifically on laws adopted by governments to provide important health services and regulate industries and individual conduct that affect the health of the populations, this aspect of Health Law requires special attention to avoid an imbalance between public powers and individual freedoms. The authors conclude that public trust in any health system is essentially sustained by developing health structures which are consistent with essential fundamental rights, such as the universal right to access health care, and that the study of Health Law can contribute with important insights into both health structures and fundamental rights in order to foster a health system that respects the Rule of Law. --- RESUMO – O objectivo principal dos autores é apresentar ideias sobre a definição de Direito da Saúde, destacando as particularidades desta área do direito, bem como do ensino deste ramo jurídico, na esperança de contribuir para a maturidade e para o reconhecimento académico do mesmo, não só como um campo juridicamente muito rico, mas, também, como um poderoso instrumento social no cumprimento dos direitos humanos fundamentais. Os autores defendem que o Direito da Saúde tem diversas características que o distinguem dos ramos tradicionais do direito, como a sua complexidade e natureza multidisciplinar. O estudo do Direito da Saúde abrangendo normalmente questões como o acesso aos cuidados, a organização dos sistemas de saúde, os direitos e deveres dos doentes e dos profissionais de saúde, a responsabilidade civil, os contratos entre instituições de saúde e profissionais, a protecção e a confidencialidade de dados clínicos, o consentimento informado e o sigilo profissional, implica uma abordagem transversal de diferentes áreas legais, incluindo os Direitos contratual, administrativo, antitrust, constitucional, empresarial, penal, ambiental, alimentar, farmacêutico, da propriedade intelectual, dos seguros, internacional e supranacional, trabalho, fiscal e penal. Esta é uma das razões pelas quais o ensino do Direito da Saúde representa um desafio para o professor, que terá de encontrar os programas, conteúdos e métodos adequados ao perfil dos destinatários, que são normalmente não juristas e às necessidades de um currículo multidisciplinar. Ao descrever as várias definições académicas de Direito da Saúde como análogas a Edgewood, uma casa de ficção que apresenta um estilo arquitectónico diferente em cada uma de suas paredes, os autores tentam encontrar os elementos que deveriam compor uma definição mais abrangente. No artigo, Biodireito, Bioética e Direitos Humanos são descritos como complementos de uma definição de Direito da Saúde: o Biodireito, dado que é o campo jurídico que trata as consequências sociais que surgem dos avanços tecnológicos na área da saúde e das ciências da vida; a Bioética cujas evoluções influenciam normalmente o quadro jurídico da Saúde; e, por fim, a teoria dos Direitos Humanos e as suas declarações as quais têm estado sempre historicamente ligadas à medicina e à saúde, devendo funcionar como pano de fundo de todas as questões levantadas na área do Direito da Saúde. Para finalizar a sua breve incursão sobre a definição de Direito da Saúde, os autores dão ainda nota das complexas relações entre este último e a Saúde Pública, onde se tratam mais especificamente as leis aprovadas pelos governos para regular os serviços de saúde, as indústrias e as condutas individuais que afectam a saúde das populações, aspecto do Direito da Saúde que requer uma atenção especial para evitar um desequilíbrio entre os poderes públicos e as liberdades individuais. Os autores concluem afirmando que a confiança do público em qualquer sistema de saúde é, essencialmente, sustentada pelo desenvolvimento de estruturas de saúde que sejam consistentes com o direito constitucional da saúde, tais como o direito universal ao acesso a cuidados de saúde, e que o estudo do Direito da Saúde pode contribuir com elementos importantes para a realização de um sistema de saúde que respeite o Estado de Direito e os Direitos Fundamentais. ; publishersversion ; published

This study contributes to a scarcely worked topic, the lack of regulations that regulate the recovery of vacant urban land in the city of Toluca. The foundations of urban planning, territorial ordering and the law made it possible not only to identify the complexity of the recovery of the ownership of unoccupied urban land, but also the lack of cohesion in urban matters of the different systems at the state and local level. The results show that the regulatory framework of urban land uses does not include strategies for the reintegration of urban gaps into the city's economy. What sharpens its abandonment, commercial speculation, fraudulent alienation and underutilization under the weakness of urban policy. The legislative gaps identified in the State of Mexico defined the normative nature of the capital gains exchange policy and the recovery strategies that are proposed, which are subject to a long process of discussion in the local congress according to the Constitution of the State from Mexico; and approval in the different spheres of government of the State of Mexico and in the city councils. The contribution of this research constitutes a viable initiative in the context of the New General Law of Human Settlements, Territorial Planning and Urban Development, which raises the need to update the municipal plans of urban development, incorporating strategies that guarantee urban innovation in the medium and long term. The exchange of capital gains policy should be considered as a proposal for public regulation of the problems and contradictions of vacant urban land. This policy instructs on the fiscal mechanisms to recover the value of the uncultivated land, provides intervention 10 instruments that will contribute to the containment of commercial speculation of the urban land and to mitigate the outbreaks of unhealthiness. The fiscal mechanisms of the exchange of capital gains policy respond not only to the phenomenon of vacant urban land in the city of Toluca, in its general nature have an impact on the regulation of the real estate processes of the State of Mexico and previous adjustment applicable to other entities from the country. The contribution of this research constitutes an innovative initiative in the context of the provisions of the New General Law of Human Settlements, Territorial Planning and Urban Development. The State of Mexico and all the federal entities have the challenge of adapting the guidelines to the particularities demanded by urban development. It represents the opportunity to reformulate soil regulation instruments to adapt them to a new order to optimize urban uses and functions. The municipal plans of urban development that derive require policies and strategies of medium and long term that guarantee the reinsertion of the urban uncultivated lands to the economic dynamics and contribute in the urban densification. Based on the results of this research, additions are proposed to the New General Law of Human Settlements, Territorial Planning and Urban Development, which make up the general support of the exchange policy of capital gains proposed for the recovery of vacant urban land. The analytical method was applied in the literature review, orders, plans and programs, and the inductive method through a reference list and a technical sheet to update the information of urban wastelands. ; Resumen Este estudio contribuye con un tema escasamente trabajado, la carencia de ordenamientos que regulen la recuperación de los predios urbanos baldíos en la ciudad de Toluca. Los fundamentos del urbanismo, el ordenamiento territorial y el derecho permitieron identificar no solo la complejidad de la recuperación de la propiedad de los predios urbanos baldíos, sino también la carencia de cohesión en materia urbana de los diversos ordenamientos en el ámbito estatal y local. Los resultados muestran que el marco regulatorio de los usos de suelo urbano no contempla estrategias de reinserción de los vacíos urbanos a la economía de la ciudad. Lo que agudiza su abandono, la especulación comercial, la enajenación fraudulenta y la subutilización al amparo de la debilidad de la política urbana. Los vacíos legislativos identificados en el Estado de México definieron la naturaleza normativa de la política de intercambio de plusvalías y las estrategias de recuperación que se proponen, mismas que están sujetas a un proceso largo de discusión en el congreso local de acuerdo a la Constitución del Estado de México; y aprobación en los diversos ámbitos de gobierno del Estado de México y en los ayuntamientos. El aporte de esta investigación se constituye en una iniciativa viable en el contexto de la Nueva Ley General de Asentamientos Humanos, Ordenamiento Territorial y Desarrollo Urbano, misma que plantea la necesidad de actualizar los planes municipales de desarrollo urbano, incorporando estrategias que garanticen la innovación urbana a mediano y largo plazo. La política de intercambio de plusvalías debe considerarse como propuesta de regulación pública de los problemas y contradicciones de los predios urbanos baldíos. Esta política instruye sobre los mecanismos fiscales para recuperar el valor de la renta de los baldíos, dota de instrumentos de intervención que coadyuvarán en la contención de la especulación comercial del suelo urbano y en la mitigación de los focos de insalubridad. Los mecanismos fiscales de la política de intercambio de plusvalías responden no solo al fenómeno de los predios urbanos baldíos en la ciudad de Toluca, en su carácter general tienen incidencia en la regulación de los procesos inmobiliarios del Estado de México y previa adecuación aplicables a otras entidades del país. El aporte de esta investigación constituye una iniciativa innovadora en el contexto de las disposiciones de la Nueva Ley General de Asentamientos Humanos, Ordenamiento Territorial y Desarrollo Urbano. El Estado de México y todas las entidades federativas tienen el reto de adaptar los lineamientos a las particularidades que demanda el desarrollo urbano. 9 Representa la oportunidad para reformular los instrumentos de regulación del suelo para adaptarlos a un nuevo orden para optimizar los usos y funciones urbanas. Los planes municipales de desarrollo urbano que se deriven requieren de políticas y estrategias de mediano y largo plazo que garanticen la reinserción de los predios urbanos baldíos a la dinámica económica y coadyuven en la densificación urbana. A partir de los resultados de esta investigación se proponen adiciones a la Nueva Ley General de Asentamientos Humanos, Ordenamiento Territorial y Desarrollo Urbano, las cuales conforman el sustento general de la política de intercambio de plusvalías que se propone para la recuperación de los predios urbanos baldíos. Se aplicó el método analítico en la revisión de literatura, ordenamientos, planes y programas, y el método inductivo mediante un listado de referencia y una ficha técnica para actualizar la información de los baldíos urbanos. ; CONACYT Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México

ACHIVEMENT OF THE GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE IN THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF POLAND AND IN SEARCH FOR MINERAL DEPOSITSSummaryHISTORICAL OUTLINE OF THE ACTIVITY OF THE GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTEThe activity of the Geological Institute may be subdivided into three periods: from 1919 to 1939, from 1939 to 1944, and from 1945 to the present day.1. The period from 1919 to 1939 corresponds to the time of organization of geological survey backward owing to the fact that the territories of Poland were for more than 150 years under the foreign domination, and the western territory came back to Poland only after the World War II. During the period here considered a uniform reconnaissance geological survey was made for the entire area of Poland, most investigations being concentrated in the regions of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, Upper Silesian Coal Basin and Carpathians. As a result of these works some sheets of the detailed geological map of Poland were published on a scale 1: 100 000 for the area of the Carpathians, Silesian Coal Basin and Świętokrzyskie Mauntains, and the map of mineral resources of Poland was issued on a scale 1: 750 000. As concerns search for mineral raw materials a deposit of iron ores was discovered at Rudki and a deposit of phosphorites at Rachów.2. In the years 1939–1944, the activity and development of the Geological Institute was set back by the Nazi occupation. Geological collections and buildings were devasted and numerous prominent geologists were murdered.3. After the World War II, thanks to the assistance of the Party and the Government of the Polish Peoples Republic, the activity of the Geological Institute revived. The extent and scope of works rapidly increased, geological staff raised, and financial means increased each year so that in 1952 the geological researches and prospections were carried en in all possible directions, according to the requirements of the developing national economy. The most intense development of the Geological Institute, however, was noted in 1953, i.e. since the moment of the establishment of the Central Office of Geology that included also the Geological Institute. Geological researches were part of the national economical plan, the Institute disposed of adequate staff of geologists, laboratories were equipped with modern instruments, and considerable financial means were at the disposal of the Geological Institute. At Kielce, Cracow, Sosnowiec and Wrocław, the branches of the Geological Institute were extended and their tasks comprised the investigations of geological problems in the individual regions of the country.The period from 1953 to 1967 is distinguished by the greatest development of the researches ·of the geological structure of Poland, and by considerable discoveries of mineral deposits.MOR IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES OF THE GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTEThe achievements of the Geological Institute may be observed in all trends of the geological sciences, i.e. in the fundamental researches, geophysics, regional investigations, prospectings, in hydrogeological and engineering-geological examinations, as well as in information, documentation and publications.1. In the domain of the fundamental researches including geological surveys, stratigraphical examinations, petrography, lithology, sedimentology, mineralogy, geochemistry, palaeogeography and tectonics, notable progress may be observed. The results of the researches guarantee the right development of the prospections for oil and .gas and other mineral deposits, as well as hydrogeological and engineering-geological examinations. The level of these researches do not differ greatly from the researchers conducted in other countries referred to the leaders in this domain.2. Geophysical surveys are carried on using all methods, and the achievements completely cover the demands as concerns the reconnaissance of the deep geological structure of the country and the search for mineral deposits. Magnetic and gravimetric maps on the scale 1: 2 000 000, 1: 1 000 000 and 1: 300 000 were elaborated by the Geological Institute for the entire area of the country, some sheets of the detailed maps being also prepared.Intense geoelectrical investigations are made by means of various methods mainly in connection with the prospections of the deposits situated in shallow zones and in deep zones (telluric method). To recognize the deep geological structure of the country, several thousands of seismic profiles were made by the Geological Institute by means of reflexion and refraction methods.3. As to the regional researches concerning the deep geological structure in terms of oil and gas deposits, the works are concentrated within the areas of Alpine type, i.e. in the Carpathians and the Carpathian Foredeep, particularly, however, in the platform areas.Drillings were made parallelly to the fundamental and geophysical researches. Location of the deep bore holes made for this purpose by the Geological Institute in 1963–1967 is illustrated in Fig. 2. With the aid of these researches a series of regional geological units of the first, second and third order were distinguished and over 450 local geological structures promising in search for bitumens were discovered in the platform area. Numerous bore holes show the presence of oil and gas, particularly in the Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations.4. As a result of searching for stable mineral deposits, some tens of these deposits were discovered and documented in the category C2 (Fig. 3), characterized by the total resources amounting to over 63 milliards tons. For this purpose, several thousand metres of drillings were performed. Fig. 4 presents the amounts of metres of drillings and their costs for the individual mineral raw materials. For comparison, there are presented also the drillings made for the regional and cartographical surveys.The part of the individual mineral raw materials in the total increase of the reserves discovered and documented by the Geological Institute is illustrated in Fig. 5. The increase in the reserves of mineral raw materials in the last fifteen years is presented in Fig. 6. Beside the large salt deposits occurring in the Ziechstein formations, hard coal of the Upper Carboniferous, and brown coal of the Miocene formations, also sulphur deposits in the Tortonian formations of the Carpathian Foredeep, copper deposits in the Lower Zechstein formations in the Fore-Sudetic monocline, and zinc-lead deposits in the Triassic carbonate formations within the Silesian-Cracow area are worthy of being stressed here. These no doubt are of world-wide importance. Moreover, recently also an interesting deposit of palyhalites was discovered in the Zechstein formations in the Pomeranian areas, and a new coal basin was found to occur in the Upper Carboniferous formations in the Lublin region.5. As concerns hydrogeological and engineering-geological researches, regional studies were made throughout the entire area of Poland. As a result of these studies numerous maps were published, and a series of examinations were made for the industrial objects being constructed, and for newly discovered deposits.Fig. 7. Presents areas and more important objects investigated from the hydrogeological and engineering-geological points of view.6. Archives with geological documents and those with geological collections, as well as quantities of published text and cartographical elaborations considerably increased (Fig. 8). The Geological Institute has published more than 220 Bulletis including in them 17 specialistic branches of study. Moreover, in Prace there are published papers of monographic character. "Kwartalnik Geologiczny" (Geological quarterly) includes recent results of the geological researches, and geological bibliography of Poland appears once a year. As far as cartographical publications are concerned, numerous serial, regional, general and detailed maps were issued. After the World War II, the Geological Institute published about 600 titles of maps, i.e. more than 1200 sheets, and about 480 volumes, i.e. over 1800 papers. At present, the text publications are thought to correspond to about 8255 sheets.The Geological Institute exchange its publications with over 500 institutions abroad and 80 in the country. The library of the Geological Institute comprises over 145 000 volumes, among them 50 000 books and 95 000 periodicals. The Geological Institute is the greatest geological scientific-research centre in Poland with its 1060 persons, including 480 scientific workers and 400 engineering-technical employees.

Los Practicantes de la Armada, desde principios de siglo XX hasta finalizar la guerra civil, en las distintas zonas marítimas de nuestra geografía, fueron protagonistas destacados de la institución colegial. Eran profesionales muy bien formados y con amplias competencias laborales, gran bagaje de vivencias y con un elevado sentido del corporativismo como arma para defender unos derechos que no les eran reconocidos. El objetivo de este estudio consiste en describir la vida de Pedro J. Martínez desde la doble perspectiva de militar y practicante. Para ello, hemos empleado una metodología basada en el proceso heurístico de fuentes primarias de origen archivístico localizadas en el Archivo Central del Cuartel General de la Armada y Archivo del Colegio de Enfermería de Cádiz. También hemos obtenido importante información de la prensa profesional del momento, como es el caso de El Practicante Gaditano y recurrido a la documentación personal con la Catedrática Victoria Fernández Díaz. Toda la documentación obtenida ha sido analizada siguiendo las orientaciones de la disciplina histórica, especialmente la biográfica y de vida. Los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación nos llevan a perfilar a Martínez Moreno como un individuo que, por sus cualidades y conocimientos, destacaba en su actividad profesional y en el ambiente social. Cartagenero de nacimiento y practicante de la Armada, era algo más que un personaje. Desde su tierra natal, donde fue presidente del Colegio Departamental de Cartagena, fundador y propietario de la revista "El Practicante Moderno", hasta llegar a la capital gaditana donde resultó elegido presidente del Colegio de Practicantes de Cádiz. No pasaba nunca desapercibido y destacaba en todos los ámbitos donde residía. También era un profesional militar muy considerado por sus superiores y así le era oficialmente reconocido. En cumplimiento al Decreto del Gobierno provisional de la República de 23 de abril de 1931, prestó la preceptiva promesa de adhesión y fidelidad a la República. Esa lealtad, le costaría salir exiliado al finalizar la guerra civil, y morir años después, en tierra extranjera (Túnez), sin el reconocimiento debido y el mayor de los olvidos. Por tanto, las conclusiones extraídas de nuestro trabajo son que la vida de Pedro José Martínez Moreno se desarrolló de forma especialmente relevante tanto desde la perspectiva militar como sanitaria, dado que los diferentes cargos en las presidencias colegiales denotan unas habilidades sociales y profesionales altamente infrecuentes, del mismo modo que denotan su continuo y profundo compromiso con la profesión de enfermería desde la representatividad colegial. ; The Navy Surgery Practitioners, from the beginning of the twentieth century until the civil war, the different maritime of our geography, they were prominent protagonist of the collegiate institution. They were very well trained professionals with extensive work skills, great baggage of experiences and with a high sense of corporatism as a weapon to defend rights that were not recognized to them. The objective of this study is describing the life of Pedro J. Martínez Moreno from the dual perspective of military and surgery practitioner. To do this, we have used a methodology based on the heuristic process of primary sources of archival origin located in the Central Archive of the Headquarters of the Navy and file of the College of Nursing of Cádiz. We have also obtained important information from the professional press of the moment, as is the El Practicante Gaditano and resorted to personal documentation with Professor Victoria Fernández Díaz. All the documentation obtained has been analyzed according to the orientation of historical discipline, especially biographical and life. The results obtained in this research lead us to profile Martínez Moreno as an individual who, for his qualities and knowledge, he exceled in his professional activity and in the social environment. Cartagenero by birth and navy surgery practitioner, was more than just a character. From his homeland, where he was president of the Departmental College of Cartagena, founder and owner of the professional magazine "El Practicante Moderno", until arriving in the capital of Cádiz where he was elected president of College of Surgery Practitioners of Cádiz. It never went unnoticed and stood out in all areas where he resided. He was also a military professional highly regarded by his superiors and thus was officially recognized. In compliance with the Decree of the Provisional Government of the Republic of 23 April 1931, it provided the mandatory promise of accession and fidelity to the Republic. That loyalty would cost him to go into exile at the end of the civil war, and die years later, in a foreign land (Tunisia), without due recognition and the greatest oblivion. Therefore, the conclusions drawn from our work are that the life of Pedro José Martínez Moreno developed in an especially relevant way from both the military and health perspective, given that the different positions in the collegiate presidencies denote highly infrequent social and professional skills, in the same way that they denote their continuous and deep commitment to the nursing profession from collegiate representation. ; Os Praticantes da Marinha, desde o início do século XX até ao fim da guerra civil, nas diferentes áreas marítimas da nossa geografia, foram protagonistas notáveis da instituição colegial. Eram profissionais muito bem treinados, com vastas competências de trabalho, uma grande experiência e um forte sentido de corporativismo como arma para defender direitos que não eram reconhecidos. O objectivo deste estudo é descrever a vida de Pedro J. Martínez a partir da dupla perspectiva de militar e praticante. Para tal, utilizámos uma metodologia baseada no processo heurístico de fontes primárias de origem arquivística localizadas no Arquivo Central do Quartel-General da Marinha e no Arquivo do Colégio de Enfermagem de Cádis. Obtivemos também informações importantes da imprensa profissional da época, como é o caso de El Practicante Gaditano e recorremos à documentação pessoal com a Professora Victoria Fernández Díaz. Toda a documentação obtida foi analisada seguindo as directrizes da disciplina histórica, especialmente a biografia e a história de vida. Os resultados obtidos nesta investigação levam-nos a traçar o perfil de Martínez Moreno como um indivíduo que, devido às suas qualidades e conhecimentos, se destacou na sua actividade profissional e no meio social. Cartaginês de nascimento e estagiário da Marinha, ele era mais do que uma personagem. Desde a sua pátria, onde foi presidente do Colégio Departamental de Cartagena, fundador e proprietário da revista "El Practicante Moderno", até à capital de Cádis, onde foi eleito presidente do Colégio de Praticantes de Cádis. Ele nunca passou despercebido e destacou-se em todas as áreas onde viveu. Era também um profissional militar altamente considerado pelos seus superiores e foi oficialmente reconhecido como tal. Em conformidade com o Decreto do Governo Provisório da República de 23 de Abril de 1931, fez a promessa obrigatória de adesão e lealdade à República. Esta lealdade custar-lhe-ia ir para o exílio no final da guerra civil, e morrer anos mais tarde, numa terra estrangeira (Tunísia), sem o devido reconhecimento e o maior esquecimento. Portanto, as conclusões retiradas do nosso trabalho são que a vida de Pedro José Martínez Moreno se desenvolveu de uma forma particularmente relevante tanto do ponto de vista militar como do ponto de vista da saúde, uma vez que as diferentes posições nas presidências colegiadas denotam competências sociais e profissionais altamente invulgares, da mesma forma que denotam o seu compromisso contínuo e profundo com a profissão de enfermagem a partir da representatividade colegial.

Tesis llevada a cabo para conseguir el grado de Doctor por la Universidad de la RIoja.--2020-04-03.--Sobresaliente Cum Laude ; [ES] Actualmente, las enfermedades fúngicas de la madera de la vid son muy graves y han sido señaladas en muchos foros como una de las principales preocupaciones actuales del sector vitivinícola, si no la mayor. Entre estas enfermedades destaca la enfermedad del pie negro, cuya incidencia es creciente en viveros de vid y en nuevas plantaciones. Esta enfermedad está causada por numerosas especies con formas asexuales del tipo "Cylindrocarpon". El pie negro ha sido extensamente estudiado en España durante los últimos años. Sin embargo, la constante reclasificación y ampliación taxonómica de las especies asociadas a la enfermedad, la restricción en la aplicación de fungicidas y la emergencia en el uso de técnicas de secuenciación de nueva generación ha hecho necesario una revisión y actualización de los conocimientos obtenidos hasta ahora. En esta tesis se ha estudiado en detalle la biología y ecología de la enfermedad, y se han evaluado diversas estrategias de control. En primer lugar, se han caracterizado una amplia colección de aislados asociados al pie negro obtenidos de vides asintomáticas. Estos aislados fueron analizados mediante el estudio de sus caracteres fenotípicos y la secuenciación de los genes his3, tef1 y tub2 y la región ITS. Como resultado, se describieron dos nuevas especies asociadas al pie negro de la vid: Dactylonectria riojana e Ilyonectria vivaria, y por primera vez se han aislado de vid Ilyonectria pseudodestructans y Neonectria quercicola, elevando a 17 el total de especies fúngicas asociadas con la enfermedad en España. Además, se ha desarrollado un medio semi-selectivo, basado en un trabajo ya publicado, para identificar y cuantificar propágulos viables de hongos asociados al pie negro en muestras de suelo. El uso de este medio ha permitido confirmar la presencia de inóculo en campos de vivero en rotación y en viñedos adultos. Además, se ha establecido una relación positiva entre Unidades Formadoras de Colonias (UFC) de los patógenos de la enfermedad del pie negro y la concentración de CaCO3 en el suelo. A continuación, se ha caracterizado el microbioma fúngico y bacteriano de la rizosfera de 5 portainjertos en dos viñedos localizados en La Rioja y Navarra mediante secuenciación de amplicones. Los resultados mostraron que el genotipo es determinante en la selección del microbioma residente en la rizosfera en el viñedo adulto (25 años), mientras que este factor no influía en la selección del microbioma en el viñedo joven (7 años). Sin embargo, diversas especies bacterianas y fúngicas se encontraron en ambos viñedos, lo que demuestra la existencia de un microbioma conservado en el viñedo, independientemente de la región geográfica. Además, se ha observado una correlación positiva entre la abundancia relativa de patógenos de la enfermedad del pie negro obtenida mediante secuenciación masiva de amplicones y la obtenida mediante qPCR. También se ha comprobado que la rizosfera de los portainjertos "140 R" y "161-49 C" contiene menor cantidad de estos patógenos que los portainjertos "1103 P", "110 R" y "41 B". Por último, en cuanto a medidas de control, se ha comparado la eficacia de la biofumigación con mostaza blanca con el empleo de propamocarb + fosetyl-Al, así como el efecto de la aplicación de Tusal®, un producto comercial basado en las especies Trichoderma atroviride T11 y Trichoderma asperellum T25. Se ha confirmado que la biofumigación con Brassica sp. es una alternativa prometedora al uso de fungicidas químicos para el control de la enfermedad del pie negro, mientras que la aplicación de Trichoderma spp. sobre las raíces antes de la plantación resultó ser inefectiva para el manejo de la enfermedad. ; [EN] Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are a growing concern in the wine sector worldwide. Among them, black-foot disease (BFD) has increased its incidence in grapevine nurseries and newly established vineyards. BFD is caused by numerous Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morphs species. This disease has been widely studied in Spain in recent years. However, the constant reclassification and taxonomic expansion of the species associated with BFD, the restriction in the application of fungicides, and the emergence in the use of high-throughput sequencing techniques has made necessary a review and an update of the knowledge obtained so far. In this Ph.D. thesis, the biology and ecology of the disease was studied in detail. The evaluation of different control strategies to improve disease management was also investigated. Firstly, a wide collection of isolates associated to BFD, which were obtained from asymptomatic vines, were characterized. These isolates were studied with morphological and cultural characteristics as well as phylogenetic analyses of combined DNA sequences of the his3, tef1 and tub2 genes, and the ITS region. Two new species associated with the disease were described: Dactylonectria riojana and Ilyonectria vivaria. Ilyonectria pseudodestructans and Neonectria quercicola were isolated for the first time from grapevine in Spain, raising the total number of fungal species associated to BFD in our country to 17. The development of a semi-selective medium based on previous research allowed the identification and quantification of viable propagules of fungi associated with BFD from soil samples. The presence of BFD inoculum in rotating nursery fields and in mature vineyards was confirmed. Moreover, a positive correlation was established between Colony Forming Units (CFU) of BFD pathogens and the CaCO3 concentration in soil. On the other hand, the fungal and bacterial microbiome of the rhizosphere of 5 rootstocks in two vineyards located in La Rioja and Navarra has been characterized by high-throughput amplicon sequencing (HTAS). The results showed that grapevine rootstock genotype was the most important factor in shaping the microbiome in a mature vineyard (25-year-old), but not in a young vineyard (7-year-old). However, several bacterial and fungal species were found in both vineyards, demonstrating the existence of a "core" microbiome conserved in the vineyard, regardless of the geographic region. In addition, a positive correlation has been observed between the relative abundance of BFD pathogens obtained by HTAS and by qPCR. Moreover, the rhizosphere compartment of the "140 R" and "161-49 C" rootstocks harboured lower number of these pathogens than the "1103 P", "110 R" and "41 B" rootstocks. Finally, regarding control measures, the efficacy of white mustard biofumigation was compared with the use of propamocarb + fosetyl-Al, as well as the effect of Tusal® (Trichoderma atroviride T11 + Trichoderma asperellum T25) application. Biofumigation with Brassica sp. is a promising alternative to the use of chemical fungicides for BFD control, while the application of commercial products based on Trichoderma sp. on the roots before planting resulted ineffective for disease management. ; Funding for the present research was provided by the National Institute for Agricultural Research and Experimentation (INIA) project "Desarrollo de nuevas estrategias de manejo integrado de las enfermedades fúngicas de la madera de la vid (RTA2015-00015- C02)" and its related contract "FPI2015-0035". In addition, the work has also been supported by the Regional Projects that annually the Department of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural World, Territory and Population of the Government of La Rioja has funded.

Published online ; Journal Article ; This is the final version of the article. Available from Nature Publishing Group via the DOI in this record. ; Despite decades of research, the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD) is still not well understood. Structural brain differences have been associated with BD, but results from neuroimaging studies have been inconsistent. To address this, we performed the largest study to date of cortical gray matter thickness and surface area measures from brain magnetic resonance imaging scans of 6503 individuals including 1837 unrelated adults with BD and 2582 unrelated healthy controls for group differences while also examining the effects of commonly prescribed medications, age of illness onset, history of psychosis, mood state, age and sex differences on cortical regions. In BD, cortical gray matter was thinner in frontal, temporal and parietal regions of both brain hemispheres. BD had the strongest effects on left pars opercularis (Cohen's d=-0.293; P=1.71 × 10(-21)), left fusiform gyrus (d=-0.288; P=8.25 × 10(-21)) and left rostral middle frontal cortex (d=-0.276; P=2.99 × 10(-19)). Longer duration of illness (after accounting for age at the time of scanning) was associated with reduced cortical thickness in frontal, medial parietal and occipital regions. We found that several commonly prescribed medications, including lithium, antiepileptic and antipsychotic treatment showed significant associations with cortical thickness and surface area, even after accounting for patients who received multiple medications. We found evidence of reduced cortical surface area associated with a history of psychosis but no associations with mood state at the time of scanning. Our analysis revealed previously undetected associations and provides an extensive analysis of potential confounding variables in neuroimaging studies of BD.Molecular Psychiatry advance online publication, 2 May 2017; doi:10.1038/mp.2017.73. ; The ENIGMA Bipolar Disorder working group gratefully acknowledges support from the NIH Big Data to Knowledge (BD2K) award (U54 EB020403 to PMT). We thank the members of the International Group for the Study of Lithium Treated Patients (IGSLi) and Costa Rica/Colombia Consortium for Genetic Investigation of Bipolar Endophenotypes. We also thank research funding sources: The Halifax studies have been supported by grants from Canadian Institutes of Health Research (103703, 106469, 64410 and 142255), the Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation, Dalhousie Clinical Research Scholarship to TH. TOP is supported by the Research Council of Norway (223273, 213837, 249711), the South East Norway Health Authority (2017-112), the Kristian Gerhard Jebsen Stiftelsen (SKGJ‐MED‐008) and the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013), grant agreement no. 602450 (IMAGEMEND). Cardiff is supported by the National Centre for Mental Health (NCMH), Bipolar Disorder Research Network (BDRN) and the 2010 NARSAD Young Investigator Award (ref. 17319) to XC. The Paris sample is supported by the French National Agency for Research (ANR MNP 2008 to the 'VIP' project) and by the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (2014 Bio-informarcis grant). The St. Göran bipolar project (SBP) is supported by grants from the Swedish Medical Research Council, the Swedish foundation for Strategic Research, the Swedish Brain foundation and the Swedish Federal Government under the LUA/ALF agreement. The Malt-Oslo sample is supported by the South East Norway Health Authority and by generous unrestricted grants from Mrs. Throne-Holst. The UT Houston sample is supported by NIH grant, MH085667. The UCLA-BP study is supported by NIH grants R01MH075007, R01MH095454, P30NS062691 (to NBF), K23MH074644-01 (to CEB) and K08MH086786 (to SF). Data collection for the UMCU sample is funded by the NIMH R01 MH090553 (PI Ophoff). The Oxford/Newcastle sample was funded by the Brain Behavior Research Foundation and Stanley Medical Research Institute. The University of Barcelona sample is supported by the CIBERSAM, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (PI 12/00910), and the Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del DIUE de la Generalitat de Catalunya (2014 SGR 398). The KCL group is supported by a MRC Fellowship MR/J008915/1 (PI Kempton). The NUIG sample was supported by the Health Research Board (HRA_POR/2011/100). The Sydney sample was funded by the Australian National Medical and Health Research Council (Program Grant 1037196; project grant 1066177) and the Lansdowne Foundation and supported by philanthropic donations from Janette O'Neil and Paul and Jenny Reid. SF was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health under grant R01MH104284. DD is partially supported by a NARSAD 2014 Young Investigator Award (Leichtung Family Investigator) and a Psychiatric Research Trust grant (2014). The Münster Sample was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG), grant FOR2107, DA1151/5-1 to UD. The Penn sample was funded by NIH grants K23MH098130 (to TDS), K23MH085096 (to DHW), R01MH107703 (to TDS) and R01MH101111 (to DHW), as well as support from the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation. The Tulsa studies were supported by the William K. Warren Foundation. Partial support was also received from the NIMH (K01MH096077). The Pittsburgh sample was funded by 5R01MH076971 (PI Phillips) and the Pittsburgh Foundation (Phillips). The Sao Paulo (Brazil) studies have been supported by grants from FAPESP-Brazil (#2009/14891-9, 2010/18672-7, 2012/23796-2 and 2013/03905-4), CNPq-Brazil (#478466/2009 and 480370/2009), the Wellcome Trust (UK) and the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation (2010 NARSAD Independent Investigator Award granted to GFB). MB and AP received support from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the framework of the BipolLife research network on bipolar disorders. Data from the AMC was supported by the Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), program Mental Health, education of investigators in mental health (OOG; #100-002-034). MMR used the e-Bioinfra Gateway to analyze data from the AMC (see Shahand et al. (2012): A grid-enabled gateway for biomedical data analysis. Journal of Grid Computing 1–18). The CliNG study sample was partially supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via the Clinical Research Group 241 'Genotype-phenotype relationships and neurobiology of the longitudinal course of psychosis', TP2 (PI Gruber; http://www.kfo241.de; grant number GR 1950/5-1). The FIDMAG Germànes Hospitalàries Research Foundation sample is supported by the Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del DIUE de la Generalitat de Catalunya (2014-SGR-1573) and several grants funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Co-funded by European Regional Development Fund/European Social Fund) "Investing in your future"): Miguel Servet Research Contract (CPII16/00018 to E. P.-C.), Sara Borrell Contract grant (CD16/00264 to M.F.-V.) and Research Projects (PI14/01148 to E.P.-C. and PI15/00277 to E.C.-R.).

Son numerosos los edificios en los cuales la madera es un material protagonista. Ha sido utilizada a lo largo del tiempo como elemento estructural, conformando los pilares y las vigas de muchas construcciones gracias a sus propiedades mecánicas. La necesidad de mantener y rehabilitar este patrimonio construido ha sido siempre una de las grandes tareas en el mundo de la arquitectura. Tradicionalmente, cuando las necesidades estructurales de un edificio cambiaban, o simplemente la estructura estaba deteriorada, la intervención mediante sistemas metálicos, o la adición o sustitución de unos elementos de madera por otros en mejor estado, eran las técnicas más comunes de intervención. Con la aparición en el mercado de nuevos materiales, la cantidad de posibilidades de acometer una intervención estructural se han ampliado. Los materiales compuestos han sido parte importante de este cambio de prácticas. Su utilización ha sido más habitual sobre elementos de hormigón, sobre los cuales hay una mayor bibliografía y legislación escritas. Sus propiedades mecánicas con una excelente relación resistencia-peso, su gran capacidad de adaptación, y su comportamiento elástico lineal a tracción, hacen de ellos una alternativa muy efectiva para su uso en estructuras de madera. En líneas generales, el fallo producido en vigas de madera se localiza en la cara traccionada, la cual se comporta de un modo elástico y lineal hasta que se produce el fallo final. En el caso de que la madera contenga defectos significativos, como pueden ser nudos en dicha cara, la resistencia de la viga puede bajar sustancialmente ya que supone un corte en las fibras que confieren la resistencia a tracción. El refuerzo mediante materiales compuestos en dicha cara de las vigas tiene gran interés ya que minimiza la posibilidad de una rotura prematura de la madera y puede suponer un aumento de la capacidad portante de la viga. Los materiales compuestos de polímeros reforzados con fibra (FRP) han sido ampliamente estudiados a través de programas experimentales en los cuales se han reforzado las vigas en su cara traccionada a través de diferentes configuraciones de tejidos, platabandas y barras. Es en el ámbito de las reparaciones y la comparación de los diferentes materiales que pueden ser utilizados a día de hoy, donde la bibliografía es más escasa. Este trabajo por lo tanto, trata de aumentar el estado del conocimiento en ese sentido a través de un estudio en el cual se reparan vigas de madera con FRP de fibra de carbono (CFRP) y se realiza una comparativa en la cual se estudian diferentes fibras y se analiza el efecto de su uso como refuerzo para vigas de madera a partir de sus propiedades mecánicas. Para realizar esta investigación, se ha dividido la fase experimental en dos programas diferenciados, adaptando los ensayos y los materiales a las condiciones de partida para la obtención de los resultados. Para el estudio de las reparaciones y los refuerzos con CFRP, se ensayaron vigas a flexión sin refuerzo para la caracterización mecánica del lote, posteriormente se repararon y se volvieron a ensayar. Para la comparación de los resultados, se realizaron los mismos ensayos en vigas reforzadas sin haber sido colapsadas previamente. La comparación de los diferentes sistemas de refuerzo de FRP se llevó a cabo realizando ensayos de flexión a vigas de madera con diferentes configuraciones de refuerzo utilizando todas las fibras disponibles: basalto, vidrio, carbono, carbono de alto módulo elástico y metálica. Los resultados del estudio demuestran el buen comportamiento de las fibras que disponen un módulo de elasticidad más bajo (basalto y vidrio) respecto de las que tienen un módulo más alto, y que con la suficiente cantidad de fibra, se puede devolver la resistencia a una viga colapsada previamente mediante una reparación. ; There are numerous buildings where wood is a leading material. It has been used for a long time like a structural element, composing the columns and beams of many constructions due to its mechanical properties. The requierement to keep and rehabilitate this built heritage has always been one of the great tasks in the world of architecture. Traditionally, when the structural requirements of a building changes, or the structure was deteriorated, the intervention by metal systems, or the addition or substitution of wood elements by others in better condition, were the most common intervention techniques. With the appearance of new materials on the market, the number of possibilities for structural intervention has increased. Composite materials have been an important part of this intervention change. Its use has been more usual on concrete elements, where a greater bibliography and legislation can be found. Their mechanical properties with an excellent resistance to weight ratio, their great adaptability, and their elastic-linear tensile behavior, make them a very effective alternative for use in wooden structures. In general terms, the failure in wooden beams is produced in the tensile side, which behaves elastically and linearly until the final failure occurs. If the wood has many significant defects, such as knots in the face of the beam, the strength of the beam can be lowered substantially as it implies a cut in the fibers, which gives to the beam its bearing capacity. Reinforcement by composite materials on the face of the beams is very interesting, because it minimizes the possibility of premature breaking of the wood and may lead to an increase of the bearing capacity of the beam. The composite materials of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) have been extensively studied through experimental programs where the beams have been reinforced through different configurations of fabrics, sheets and bars. It is on the area of repairs and the comparison of different materials that can be used, where the bibliography is limited. This work tries to increase the state of knowledge with a study where wood beams are repaired with FRP of carbon fiber (CFRP) and to make a comparison with different kinds of fibers, focused on the effect of its use as reinforcement material for wood beams. To carry out this research, the experimental phase has been divided into two different programs, adapting the tests and materials to obtain the results. For the research of repairs and reinforcements with CFRP, unreinforced beams were tested to bending up to fracture to the mechanical characterization of the wood used, and later repaired with CFRP and tested again. For the comparison of results, the same tests were performed on reinforced beams wich had not previously failed. The comparison of the different FRP reinforcement systems was carried out by bending tests to wood beams with different reinforcement configurations using all the available fibers: basalt, glass, carbon, carbon with high elastic modulus and metallic fiber. The results of the study demonstrate the good performance of the lower elastic modulus fibers (basalt and glass) in contrast to those with a higher elasticity modulus, and that with the enought amount of fiber, a repaired beam with FRP can recover its resistance.

Miks peaks üks muuseum avaldama kokaraamatu? Ja miks on see muuseum otsustanud koostada kokaraamatu just lamba- ja talleliha retseptidest? Miks peaks üks muuseum avaldama kokaraamatu? Ja miks on see muuseum otsustanud koostada kokaraamatu just lamba- ja talleliha retseptidest? Kallis lugeja, me ei ole kokad, seega palun ära oota staarkokkade imeretsepte. Szentendre Skanzen on pööranud suurt tähelepanu traditsioonilisele maapiirkondade kultuurile ja oskusteabele, mida saab kodudes kasutada veel aastaid. Meie elumajades on mitmeid kööke, kus valmistatakse traditsioonilist toitu, kasutades kohalikke köögivilju ja ürte. Muuseumi külastajatel on võimalus neid roogasid proovida. Meie arvates on toidu valmistamine midagi enamat kui igapäevane toiming – see on loominguline tegevus ja tõeline koos veedetud kvaliteetaeg, perekonnale või sõpradele süüa tehes saab majapidamistööst meelelahutus. Loodame, et meie kogutud retseptid on piisavalt põnevad ja huvitavad, et motiveerida inimesi valmistama lambaliharoogasid isegi siis, kui nad varem pole seda julgenud teha. See raamat on ka neile, kes veedavad meelsasti aega süüa tehes, kellele meeldib mitmekesisus ja kes on toiduvalmistamise kunstist huvitatud. Euroopa maapiirkondades on endiselt au sees mitmed eripäraseid toidud. Maakohtade kokakunsti mitmekesisus peitub karjaste toitudes ning eri köökide argipäeva- ning pühaderoogades. Mitmekülgne köök sõltub kohalikult kliimast, tooraine kvaliteedist ning kohalikest traditsioonidest. Talleliha on Euroopa köökides sajandeid olnud kõige olulisemal kohal. Mõndades piirkondades on talleliha endiselt valitseval kohal ning sellest valmistatakse erinevaid populaarseid roogasid aga üldiselt on see käesoleval sajandil oma populaarsust kaotamas. Kas on kedagi, kes poleks kuulnud lambaliha kebab'ist, Inglise röstitud lambalihast või Ungari lambalihahautisest? Meie kokaraamatusse on kogutud retseptid Euroopa riikidest, milles kasutatakse lihtsaid, kuid samas väga erinevaid tooraineid ja maitsetaimi. Mitmetes Euroopa piirkondades valmistatakse talle- või lambalihast traditsioonilisi toitusid nii argi- kui ka pidupäevadel. Tänapäeval teatakse kõige paremini ülestõusmispühade lambapraadi – paljudes riikides ei osata ülestõusmispühade lauda ilma lambapraeta ette kujutadagi. "CANEPAL: Kultuur ja Loodus: lambakasvatuse ja pastoraalse elu pärand Euroopas" on rahvusvaheline projekt, mis sai teoks Euroopa Liidu Kultuur 2007-2013 raamprogrammi kaasrahastuse toel. Ungari Vabaõhumuuseumi juhtimisel osalesid projektis erinevad asutused seitsmest Euroopa riigist (Prantsusmaa, Kreeka, Poola, Eesti, Bulgaaria, Hispaania ja Ungari). Projekti eesmärgiks oli juhtida tähelepanu lambakasvatuse ja karjatamise pärandile ning tänapäeva võimalustele. Projekti teema võimalikult mitmekülgseks esitamiseks koostati mitmeid teadustöödele tuginevaid näitusi, multimeedia materjale, DVD karjasemuusikaga ja hariv arvutimäng. Kokaraamatusse valisime retseptid projektis osalenud riikidest. Me ei keskendunud üksnes koostisosadele ja valmistamisele, vaid ka toiduga seotud ajaloo ja traditsioonide edasiandmisele. Suur tänu programmis osalenud asutustele ja retsepte valinud kolleegidele! Eriline tänu Attila Hadnagy'le, Jászárokszállás võõrastemaja juhatajale, kes tegutseb Ungari Vabaõhumuuseumis ja andis roogade valmistamiseks vajalikud ruumid. Soovime samuti tänu avaldada peakokk István Csete'le, kes kõik toidud fotosessiooni tarvis ka valmis tegi. Eriline tänu ka Tamara Faár'ile ja Zsófia Szigethy'le, kes uurisid kõiki retsepte põhjalikult ja aitasid neid sõnadesse panna. Valdava osa resteptide juures on orginaalfotod, mis on tehtud roogade valmistamise ajal. ; Projekti CANEPAL: Kultuur ja Loodus: lambakasvatuse ja pastoraalse elu pärand Euroopas üheks partneriks oli ka Eesti Maaülikooli põllumajandus- ja keskonnainstituut. ; Why does a museum publish a cookbook? And if it does, why does it select sheep and lamb dishes? We are not chefs, so dear reader, please do not expect great creations of star chefs. The Skanzen in Szentendre has been paying great attention to the representation of traditional rural culture and to the mediation of practical knowledge which can be used at home for years. We maintain several kitchens in our dwelling houses where traditional, local food, vegetables and herbs from the gardens are used and visitors can taste dishes prepared from these ingredients. In our opinion, cooking is more than an everyday routine, it is a creative art, a real quality time spent together, since if we cook either for the family or friends; cooking becomes a real entertainment instead of a household chore, due to the time spent together. We hope that we present dishes that are more exciting, more interesting and we motivate people to cook lamb dishes even if they did not dare to prepare such meals before. Thus the book is for those who gladly cook, who like variety, namely for everyone who is interested in cuisine. Europe's rural regions have preserved several peculiar dishes. The variegation of gastronomy is hidden in the meals of shepherds or in the everyday and festive dishes of the kitchens in the countryside. Diverse cuisine, determined by the climate of the environment, superb raw materials and local traditions possess several ingredients. Lamb was one of the most significant meat types in European kitchens for centuries. However, in the 20th century it has lost much of its popularity even if it is still general in some of the regions and popular dishes are born from sheep and lamb. Is there anyone who has not heard about lamb kebab, English roasted lamb or the Hungarian mutton stew? In our cookbook we collected the recipes of European countries, utilising the simplest but also the most diverse raw materials and herbs. In several regions of Europe traditional, characteristic meals are prepared from lamb or sheep either on weekdays or at festivals. Nowadays, the Easter lamb is the best-known; in several countries Easter table is unimaginable without roasted lamb. The "CANEPAL: Culture and Nature: the European Heritage of Sheep-Farming and Pastoral Life" is an international project, which was realised by the co-financing of the European Union Culture 2007-2013 frame programme. The programme was brought into being by the partnership of institutions from seven European countries (France, Greece, Poland, Bulgaria, Eesti, Spain and Hungary) with the leadership of the Hungarian Open Air Museum with the aim of drawing attention to the heritage and present-day possibilities of European sheep-farming and shepherding. Based on scientific research exhibitions, multimedia materials, music DVD and computer game have been created in the programme presenting the topic in its variety. Into our cookbook we selected recipes collected in the countries participating in the programme. We have not only focused on formulating the ingredients and the process of preparation as precisely as possible, we also tell the history and the traditions of the meals. Thanks to the institutions participating in the programme, to the colleagues who selected the recipes! Special thanks to Attila Hadnagy, manager of the Inn from Jászárokszállás, operating in the Hungarian Open Air Museum, because he provided place for the preparation of the dishes. We would also like to say thanks to Chef István Csete, who cooked the dishes for the photo shoot. Special thanks to Tamara Faár and Zsófia Szigethy who examined all recipes and formulated the texts. Most of the recipes are accompanied by real and original photos made during the preparation of the meals. ; One of the partners in the project CANEPAL: Culture and Nature: European Heritage of Sheep and Cattle Breeding was the Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences of the Estonian University of Life Sciences. ; Toetajad: Euroopa Komisjon, Kultuur 2007-2013 Raamprogramm, Ungari Riiklik Kultuurifond. Projekti on rahastatud Euroopa Komisjon toetusel.

La progresiva toma de conciencia ambiental de los últimos años ha marcado no sólo la modificación de las normativas reguladoras del agua, sino la propia evolución del Derecho de aguas, gradualmente transformado de acuerdo con los intereses sociales. Mientras que un enfoque tradicional situaba la preocupación principal sobre el agua en la necesidad de asegurar su disponibilidad, en el momento actual y una vez constatado el daño ambiental existente, la calidad de las aguas y su preservación, que antaño carecieron de importancia, pasan a ocupar un primer plano en las agendas gubernamentales. La presente Tesis tiene por objeto el análisis de los efectos que la incorporación de la variable ambiental ha tenido en los conflictos competenciales entre el Estado y las Comunidades Autónomas en España, y entre las provincias y la Nación en Argentina. Se parte de la siguiente premisa: las posibles invasiones competenciales derivadas de la vis expansiva del medio ambiente. Ésta, llevada al extremo, puede absorber el resto de competencias que inciden sobre el territorio, el entorno y los recursos naturales y, concretamente en este caso, puede vaciar de contenido las competencias bien estatales/nacionales bien autonómicas/provinciales en materia de aguas. Ahora bien, del mismo modo, el ejercicio de la competencia exclusiva sobre aguas continentales no puede originar un vacío de las competencias en materia de medio ambiente que dificulte la protección del recurso natural agua. La comparación de ordenamientos jurídicos facilita identificar diferencias y similitudes entre sistemas, aproximando la necesaria armonización y unificación del Derecho en un ámbito tan fundamental como es el agua. Superar los horizontes de un ordenamiento jurídico individual permite percibir la globalidad que subyace en las dificultades jurídicas asociadas a las aguas y al medio ambiente. Se busca la transferencia de experiencia y conocimiento en sistemas jurídicos lo que justifica la comparación que se lleva a cabo. Entre los objetivos de esta Tesis se encuentra: i) el análisis de la transformación de los ordenamientos jurídicos español y argentino desde la época de la sistematización del Derecho de aguas hasta su conformación actual a través de la "medioambientalización" del tratamiento jurídico del recurso; ii) el análisis y comparación del sistema de distribución competencial en materia de aguas y medio ambiente en dos modelos Estado como el de Autonomías y el federal argentino, que parten de criterios de distribución dispares. Se logra con ello una visión panorámica de las principales diferencias y similitudes en las decisiones adoptadas y en los problemas competenciales derivados de éstas; iii) análisis práctico de los conflictos competenciales e identificación de los criterios seguidos para su resolución. Para alcanzar los objetivos, la tesis se estructura en cinco capítulos: Capítulo I sintetiza las etapas en la evolución del derecho de aguas en España y en Argentina; el Capítulo II se destina al análisis de la distribución competencial en materia de aguas en ambos ordenamientos jurídicos; el Capítulo III, se centra en la distribución competencial en materia de medio ambiente en España y Argentina; el Capítulo IV, analiza los conflictos competenciales agua–medio ambiente en el derecho español y los criterios para su resolución; el Capítulo V, se centra en los conflictos competenciales agua-medio ambiente en el ordenamiento jurídico argentino. De acuerdo con los objetivos y la estructura expuesta, el trabajo de investigación desarrollado no queda incardinado única y exclusivamente en el Derecho ambiental de aguas, sino que aborda cuestiones esenciales de Derecho administrativo y del Derecho constitucional, en especial el modelo de Estado y el sistema de distribución de competencias constitucionales. Entre las conclusiones destaca la constatación de problemas similares ante la descentralización competencial de poderes aun partiendo de criterios de distribución dispares. Abstract Growing environmental awareness over recent years has had an impact not only on water related regulations, but also on how the actual Spanish water law has evolved over the years, gradually contemplating social interests. Traditionally the prime concern with regards to water was the need to assure its availability, but at present, having seen the existing environmental damage, the actual quality of the water and its preservation, issues that previously lacked importance, have now become of prime importance to governments. The purpose of this doctoral thesis is to analyse the effects that the incorporation of the environmental variable has had on conflicts related to jurisdiction between the State and the Autonomous Communities in Spain, and between the Provinces and the Nation in Argentina. This paper is based on the following premise: possible conflicts related to jurisdiction owing to increased environmental awareness. This growing awareness, if pursued in an extreme, could affect other jurisdictions such as territorial, environmental and those regarding natural resources and, in this case in particular, could invalidate autonomous/provincial or even state/national jurisdictions with regards to water. However, in the same way, the exercise of exclusive jurisdiction on continental waters cannot create a vacuum in the jurisdiction regarding the environment, as this would then impede the protection of this natural resource - water. By comparing various legal systems this highlights differences and similarities in the systems and the necessity to unify the Law, in an area as fundamental as water. By surpassing the frontiers of individual legal systems, the problem which underlies the legal difficulties associated with water and the environment as a whole becomes visible. The comparison is carried out in the search for the transfer of experience and knowledge regarding the different legal systems. The aims of this thesis are: (i) analysis of the changes to the legal systems in Spain and Argentina from when the Water Law became systematised, the environmental shaping of the legislation, up to its present-day form; (ii) analysis and comparison of jurisdictional distribution in the areas of water and environment of two models: The Spanish Autonomous Community model and the Argentinian Federal State model, both with different criteria with regards to distribution of power. These analyses offer a global perspective of the main variations in the decisions made and the jurisdictional problems arising from these decisions; (iii) practical analysis of the conflict of power and identification of the criteria established to resolve these conflicts. For this purpose, the paper is divided into five chapters: Chapter I summarizes the various phases regarding changes to the Water Law in Spain and Argentina; Chapter II includes the analysis of the distribution of power in the area of water in both legal systems; Chapter III focuses on the distribution of power in the field of environment in Spain and Argentina; Chapter IV analyses the jurisdictional conflicts related to water-environment in the Spanish legal system and the criteria for their resolution; Chapter V focuses on jurisdictional conflicts related to water-environment in the Argentinian legal system. With these objectives and this structure in mind, the research not only encompasses Environmental Water Law, but addresses key issues of Administrative and Constitutional Law, in particular with regards to the State model and the system of distribution of constitutional powers. The conclusions highlight the existence of similar problems due to the decentralization of powers even when the criteria for the distribution of power were totally dissimilar.

Ringkasan Eksekutif Kecamatan Petang terletak di bagian utara Kabupaten Badung, sebagian besar wilayahnya berupa perbukitan, dengan tebing-tebing curam dan menjadi hulu dari beberapa sungai yang mengalir di Kabupaten Badung. Penggunaan lahannya hampir 85,4 % (9.827 ha) dari luas keseluruhan 11.500 ha berupa lahan pertanian dan 15 % (1.093 ha) diantaranya adalah lahan persawahan dengan teras-teras disepanjang lereng bukit, sisanya berupa hutan seluas 1.525 ha, dan permukiman 148 ha. Mata pencaharian penduduk sebagian besar yaitu sebanyak 19.303 orang (70 %) dari keseluruhannya yaitu 27.576 orang sebagai petani yang terorganisir dalam lembaga pertanian tradisional yang disebut subak. Keterpaduan antara keindahan panorama alam dengan pola kehidupan masyarakat agraris membuat Petang layak dikembangkan menjadi sebuah objek agro wisata Permasalahan yang ada di lapangan adalah masih rendahnya mutu sumberdaya manusia masyarakat lokal menyebabkan sumberdaya alam dan budaya ini tidak dapat dikelola secara mandiri. Pada hal bila dikelola sesuai setandar disertai promosi yang memadai dapat menjadi paket wisata yang sangat menarik dan laku bagi wisatawan. Produk-produk hasil usaha masyarakat seperti hasil pertanian, perikanan, peternakan dan kerajinan, karena kualitas yang tidak memadai dan atau keterbatasan akses menjadi tidak terserap di pasar pariwisata (hotel dan restoran). Produk-produk di atas nilai jualnya menjadi sangat rendah, jauh di bawah harga yang berlaku di pasar pariwisata. Akibatnya, manfaat ekonomi yang dihasilkan dari pariwisata tidak dinikmati masyarakat lokal tetapi lebih banyak dinikmati oleh pengusaha hotel dan pengusaha jasa pariwisata lainnya. Oleh karena itu perlu dilakukan pengembangan teknologi pertanian, manajemen serta pemasaran produk pariwisata. Salah satu Misi Kabupaten Badung yang tercantum dalam Renstra 2010-2015 adalah pengembangan wilayah Petang sebagai wilayah agro wisata. Agar program ini berjalan efektif sangat diperlukan adanya regulasi dan pemberdayaan masyarakat melalui pendampingan perguruan tinggi. Fungsi dari pendamping adalah sebagai: inisiator, motivator, fasilitator, inovator dan komunikator dalam pembangunan secara luas. Tujuan dari kegiatan ini adalah memberikan pengetahuan kepada masyarakat untuk nantinya mampu memanfaatkan potensi yang dimiliki untuk pengembangan objek pariwisata dan didukung oleh IT sebagai penunjang kegiatan ini. Untuk mencapai target luaran kegiatan dilakukan dengan metode seperti berikut : penyuluhan, pelatihan, studi banding, pembuatan petak percobaan, dan pendampingan yaitu pertemuan secara berkala antara pendamping dengan kelompok sasaran. Model pendekatan yang dilakukan pada program aksi meliputi: (1) model partisipatory rural appraisal (PRA), (2) model entrepreneurship capacity building (ECB), dan (3) model teknologi transfer (TT). Kegiatan yang dilakukan, secara garis besar dapat dikelompokan menjadi 5, yaitu: 1) Pengembangan kemitraan usaha objek agrowisata stroberi organic, (2) Pemberdayaan Industri Rumah Tangga pengolahan makan khas masyarakat setempat, (4) Pengembangan Unit Pengolahan Kopi fermentasi bagi Subak Abian, (5) Penataan Objek wisata air terjun Nungnung dan pura Pucak Mangu dengan tanaman cultural Bali (tanaman upakara), (6) Kemitraan pengelolaan dan pemasaran objek agrowisata dan jalur tracking agrowisata di perkebunan jeruk dan kopi. Hasil evaluasi pelaksanaan kegiatan menunjukkan bahwa program IbW mendapatkan respon yang sangat positif dari pihak terkait seperti masyarakat sasaran, kepala desa, camat dan Satuan Kerja Pemerintah Daerah (SKPD) yang terkait dengan kegiatan IbW. Ada beberapa alasan yang mendorong kondisi tersebut diantaranya: (1) program IbW membawa manfaat yang berarti bagi masyarakat terutama transfer terapan Ipteks kepada masyarakat karena sesuai dengan kebutuhan masyarakat dan tepat guna; (2) Metode dan strategi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang dilaksanakan pada kegiatan ini terutama pendampingan dirasakan sangat efektif oleh masyarakat, berbeda dengan upaya pemberdayaan masyarakat yang telah dilakukan sebelumnya; dan (3) Keterlibatan berbagai unsure dalam tim terutama PPL dan kepala desa mampu menciptakan sinergisme antara komponen yang bersangkutan sehingga pemberdayaan berjalan intensif dan produktif yang berimplikasi kepada keberlanjutan dari program yang dilakukan. Kata-kata kunci: potensi, masyarakat, pariwisata, pertanian Executive Summary Petang sub-regency lies in the north part of Badung Regency. Most of its area is hilly mountain and become the upstream of some rivers flow through it. 85.4% (9827ha) of the area was used as agriculture from the total of 11,500 ha area and the rest is a combination of terracing agriculture, forest and another 148 ha for housing. Total population of 27.576 consists of 70% (19.303) farmers within subak organization. The combination of great scenery and way of life of farming make Petang a potential area to develop as Agro-Tourism object. Inadequate quality and dependence human resources resulting inadequate quality of crop that lead to inadequate price. This benefit only goes to the hotelier and other tourism service not to the local. Therefore, an empowerment is needed in the field of technology, management and even marketing of tourism product. The strategy taken by Government of Badung as mention on RPJM 2005-2010 is to trigger the development of Petang area as an agro-tourism area. In order to make this program to be effective, it is necessary to have a regulation and community empowerment through academic or university assistance. This will be function as initiator, motivator, facilitator, innovator and communicator within the development of the tourism itself. The aim of this activity to empower the community in digging up the potential of its area as well as the welfare for its community through potential exploitation on tourism and other related sustainable IT based sectors. The method used on this program namely: (1) counseling, (2) training and (3) assistances. While the approach used are (1)Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) model, (2)entrepreneurship capacity building (ECB) model, (3) Technology transfer (TT) model and (4) Information technology (IT) model. In general, the activities will be: (1) Developing partnership between fermented dung producer and strawberry farming, (2) Empowering domestic industry ( local food), (3) Developing Subak controlling Unit Abian Jempana as an agro-tourism object (fermented coffee processing), (4) develop the tourism object of Nungnung waterfall and Pucak Mangu temple with Balinese cultural trees (plantation for Hinduism ceremony), (5) building partnership in managing and marketing the agro-tourism object as well as developing the jogging track of orange and coffee plantation. The evaluation result of this activities shows that this program gain a positive respond from related party such as the community, Chief of village, Head of Petang Sub-regency and the government (SKPD). The reason behind the success are: (1) IbW Program bring some significant benefit to community especially the knowledge transfer of effective IT; (2) from the community point of view the method and strategy of assistance by the academic or university was so far the best solution and it has a different approach from the previous program; (3) the involvement of many parties especially counseling officer and chief of the village are able to create synergism between related component that make the empowerment run intensively and productively that implies to the sustainable of the program itself. Keys words: potency, society, tourism, agriculture.

Au centre des comportements et de l'attitude religieuse des anciens Grecs était une conception particulière du monde, auquel hommes et dieux prenaient part. Le cosmos était ordonné par les dieux et l'homme devait constamment assurer son intégration à cet ordre. Cette idée est perceptible dès Homère et Hésiode. Les concepts qui la définissaient, en particulier 'timè', 'moira', 'kosmos', 'thémis' et 'dikè' évoquent tous « un ordre », mais n'ont jamais fait l'objet d'une étude exhaustive commune. En cela réside l'originalité de cette thèse, qui vise à comprendre les relations entre ces notions pour éclairer la manière dont la pensée archaïque grecque, telle que perceptible chez Homère et Hésiode, a situé chacune d'elles dans une conception épique du monde. L'étude de ces termes chez Homère révèle d'abord l'étroite complémentarité de 'timè' et 'moira', qui structurent et ordonnent à la fois les mondes humain, divin et l'ensemble formé par ces deux portions du cosmos. La 'moira', « lot » ou « portion d'existence » qu'occupe un individu, est caractérisée par une 'timè', « honneur » ou « estime » qui revient à tout homme ou dieu et qui détermine une place relative dans un groupe, une « part sociale ». De ces notions découle une série de comportements qu'Homère qualifie tantôt de 'kata moiran', tantôt de 'kata kosmon'. Ces formules expriment, respectivement, la reconnaissance de la juste place de chacun dans l'ordre social ou du monde et la nécessité de conformer ses gestes de manière à établir des relations efficaces, propres à fonder ou à maintenir la cohésion d'un groupe. L'étude de 'thémis', en particulier dans l'usage formulaire 'thémis esti', révèle par ailleurs que cette notion est une force, de nature divine, qui incite à instaurer et à perpétuer l'ordre constitué par l'agencement des parts sociales ('timai') et existentielles ('moirai'), à l'échelle humaine et cosmique. Malgré quelques nuances à expliquer, la même articulation de ces termes, le même système conceptuel de l'ordre du monde, se retrouve chez Hésiode, comme le montre l'analyse du rôle du 'basileus'. Idéalement guidé par la 'thémis' dans ses décisions politiques et judiciaires, le roi ' souvent imparfait et faillible ' doit assurer et transmettre dans sa communauté l'ordre voulu par Zeus. La 'dikè', qui se place au c'ur des préoccupations hésiodiques, mais dont le sens ne diffère pas fondamentalement dans la poésie homérique, est à la fois un « lot » convenable qui s'attache à un individu en fonction de ses gestes et une force extérieure à l'homme, divine, qui assure et produit l'adéquation, positive ou négative, entre ce « lot » et le geste qui le commande. Il est donc possible, pour ceux qui connaissent bien les fondements de cette justice ' qui repose aussi sur l'ordre des 'timai' ' d'orienter ses actions de manière à éviter une 'dikè' néfaste et à s'assurer une 'moira' de mortel moins pénible, puisque conforme à l'ordre du monde. Dans le monde des hommes, les rois sont responsables de « distribuer » la 'dikè', mais demeurent eux-mêmes soumis à la justice de Zeus et à la force rétributive de Dikè elle-même, fille du Cronide et de Thémis. L'étude dans leur complémentarité des notions de 'timè', 'moira', 'thémis' et 'dikè' (le cas de 'kosmos' est toutefois sujet à nuances) permet de rendre compte d'un système conceptuel de l'ordre similaire chez Homère et Hésiode. Cependant, avec le poète d'Ascra, ce système n'est plus appliqué au monde héroïque, mais bien actualisé dans le monde de ses contemporains : la prééminence de 'dikè' chez cet auteur est symptomatique d'un ajustement de la tradition aux réalités contemporaines des communautés archaïques et annonce, déjà, les réflexions des poètes lyriques sur l'ordre de la cité grecque et sa corrélation nécessaire avec l'ordre cosmique et divin du monde. / At the heart of ancient Greek religious behavior was a particular conception of the world in which both gods and men had a part. The cosmos was ordered by the gods and men constantly had to secure their integration within that order, an idea already discernable in Homer and Hesiod. Its defining concepts of 'order', particularly 'time', 'moira', 'kosmos', 'themis' and 'dike', have never been a unified focus of study. How archaic Greek thought related these notions and their place within the epic conception of the world, perceived by Homer and Hesiod, is the aim of this thesis. The study shows that 'time' and 'moira' in Homer are complementary, structuring and ordering the divine and human worlds as well as the whole formed by those two parts of the cosmos. 'Moira', one's 'lot' or 'share of existence', was characterized by 'time', i.e. the 'honor' or 'esteem' that every man or god deserved and defined a relative place in a group, or a 'social part'. In Homer the two formulas 'kata moiran' or 'kata kosmon', express respectively the acknowledgment of one's position in the social or cosmic order and the necessity of actions that bring an effective relationship in the foundation or maintenance of group cohesion. The formula 'themis esti' moreover shows that 'themis' is a force of divine nature, that prompts the establishment or perpetuation of the orderly arrangement between social and existential parts ('timai' and 'moirai'), at both human and cosmic levels. With some necessary qualifications, the same conceptual system of world order is found in Hesiod in the role of the 'basileus'. Guided by 'themis' in his political or judicial decisions, the king ' often imperfect and fallible ' must assume and transmit to his community the order desired by Zeus. Even though Hesiod places more emphasis on 'dike' than Homer, his use of the term is not fundamentally different. 'Dike' was altogether an appropriate 'lot' that followed one's actions and a divine force that produced a positive or negative relationship between this 'lot' and the action that brought it. Those who possessed the knowledge of the mechanisms of that justice ' in the end based on an order of 'timai' ' could avoid an ill-fated 'dike'. Therefore, this avoidance made a less difficult 'moira' possible because it conformed to the world order. In the realm of men, kings were responsible for the distribution of 'dike', though subject themselves to the justice of Zeus and the retributive force of Dikè, his daughter from Themis. That 'time', 'moira', 'themis' and 'dike' are complementary (although the case of 'kosmos' needs to be qualified) allows for the explanation of a conceptual system of order that is similar in both Homer and Hesiod. However, the poet from Ascra did not apply this system to the heroic world but actualized it within his contemporary world. The central place that he gave to 'dike' was symptomatic of an adjustment of tradition to the contemporary realities of archaic communities. It already announced the reflections of lyric poets about polis' order and its necessary connection with cosmic and divine world order. ; Doctorat en philosophie et lettres (histoire) (HIST 3)--UCL, 2009

Au centre des comportements et de l'attitude religieuse des anciens Grecs était une conception particulière du monde, auquel hommes et dieux prenaient part. Le cosmos était ordonné par les dieux et l'homme devait constamment assurer son intégration à cet ordre. Cette idée est perceptible dès Homère et Hésiode. Les concepts qui la définissaient, en particulier 'timè', 'moira', 'kosmos', 'thémis' et 'dikè' évoquent tous « un ordre », mais n'ont jamais fait l'objet d'une étude exhaustive commune. En cela réside l'originalité de cette thèse, qui vise à comprendre les relations entre ces notions pour éclairer la manière dont la pensée archaïque grecque, telle que perceptible chez Homère et Hésiode, a situé chacune d'elles dans une conception épique du monde. L'étude de ces termes chez Homère révèle d'abord l'étroite complémentarité de 'timè' et 'moira', qui structurent et ordonnent à la fois les mondes humain, divin et l'ensemble formé par ces deux portions du cosmos. La 'moira', « lot » ou « portion d'existence » qu'occupe un individu, est caractérisée par une 'timè', « honneur » ou « estime » qui revient à tout homme ou dieu et qui détermine une place relative dans un groupe, une « part sociale ». De ces notions découle une série de comportements qu'Homère qualifie tantôt de 'kata moiran', tantôt de 'kata kosmon'. Ces formules expriment, respectivement, la reconnaissance de la juste place de chacun dans l'ordre social ou du monde et la nécessité de conformer ses gestes de manière à établir des relations efficaces, propres à fonder ou à maintenir la cohésion d'un groupe. L'étude de 'thémis', en particulier dans l'usage formulaire 'thémis esti', révèle par ailleurs que cette notion est une force, de nature divine, qui incite à instaurer et à perpétuer l'ordre constitué par l'agencement des parts sociales ('timai') et existentielles ('moirai'), à l'échelle humaine et cosmique. Malgré quelques nuances à expliquer, la même articulation de ces termes, le même système conceptuel de l'ordre du monde, se retrouve chez Hésiode, comme le montre l'analyse du rôle du 'basileus'. Idéalement guidé par la 'thémis' dans ses décisions politiques et judiciaires, le roi ' souvent imparfait et faillible ' doit assurer et transmettre dans sa communauté l'ordre voulu par Zeus. La 'dikè', qui se place au c'ur des préoccupations hésiodiques, mais dont le sens ne diffère pas fondamentalement dans la poésie homérique, est à la fois un « lot » convenable qui s'attache à un individu en fonction de ses gestes et une force extérieure à l'homme, divine, qui assure et produit l'adéquation, positive ou négative, entre ce « lot » et le geste qui le commande. Il est donc possible, pour ceux qui connaissent bien les fondements de cette justice ' qui repose aussi sur l'ordre des 'timai' ' d'orienter ses actions de manière à éviter une 'dikè' néfaste et à s'assurer une 'moira' de mortel moins pénible, puisque conforme à l'ordre du monde. Dans le monde des hommes, les rois sont responsables de « distribuer » la 'dikè', mais demeurent eux-mêmes soumis à la justice de Zeus et à la force rétributive de Dikè elle-même, fille du Cronide et de Thémis. L'étude dans leur complémentarité des notions de 'timè', 'moira', 'thémis' et 'dikè' (le cas de 'kosmos' est toutefois sujet à nuances) permet de rendre compte d'un système conceptuel de l'ordre similaire chez Homère et Hésiode. Cependant, avec le poète d'Ascra, ce système n'est plus appliqué au monde héroïque, mais bien actualisé dans le monde de ses contemporains : la prééminence de 'dikè' chez cet auteur est symptomatique d'un ajustement de la tradition aux réalités contemporaines des communautés archaïques et annonce, déjà, les réflexions des poètes lyriques sur l'ordre de la cité grecque et sa corrélation nécessaire avec l'ordre cosmique et divin du monde. / At the heart of ancient Greek religious behavior was a particular conception of the world in which both gods and men had a part. The cosmos was ordered by the gods and men constantly had to secure their integration within that order, an idea already discernable in Homer and Hesiod. Its defining concepts of 'order', particularly 'time', 'moira', 'kosmos', 'themis' and 'dike', have never been a unified focus of study. How archaic Greek thought related these notions and their place within the epic conception of the world, perceived by Homer and Hesiod, is the aim of this thesis. The study shows that 'time' and 'moira' in Homer are complementary, structuring and ordering the divine and human worlds as well as the whole formed by those two parts of the cosmos. 'Moira', one's 'lot' or 'share of existence', was characterized by 'time', i.e. the 'honor' or 'esteem' that every man or god deserved and defined a relative place in a group, or a 'social part'. In Homer the two formulas 'kata moiran' or 'kata kosmon', express respectively the acknowledgment of one's position in the social or cosmic order and the necessity of actions that bring an effective relationship in the foundation or maintenance of group cohesion. The formula 'themis esti' moreover shows that 'themis' is a force of divine nature, that prompts the establishment or perpetuation of the orderly arrangement between social and existential parts ('timai' and 'moirai'), at both human and cosmic levels. With some necessary qualifications, the same conceptual system of world order is found in Hesiod in the role of the 'basileus'. Guided by 'themis' in his political or judicial decisions, the king ' often imperfect and fallible ' must assume and transmit to his community the order desired by Zeus. Even though Hesiod places more emphasis on 'dike' than Homer, his use of the term is not fundamentally different. 'Dike' was altogether an appropriate 'lot' that followed one's actions and a divine force that produced a positive or negative relationship between this 'lot' and the action that brought it. Those who possessed the knowledge of the mechanisms of that justice ' in the end based on an order of 'timai' ' could avoid an ill-fated 'dike'. Therefore, this avoidance made a less difficult 'moira' possible because it conformed to the world order. In the realm of men, kings were responsible for the distribution of 'dike', though subject themselves to the justice of Zeus and the retributive force of Dikè, his daughter from Themis. That 'time', 'moira', 'themis' and 'dike' are complementary (although the case of 'kosmos' needs to be qualified) allows for the explanation of a conceptual system of order that is similar in both Homer and Hesiod. However, the poet from Ascra did not apply this system to the heroic world but actualized it within his contemporary world. The central place that he gave to 'dike' was symptomatic of an adjustment of tradition to the contemporary realities of archaic communities. It already announced the reflections of lyric poets about polis' order and its necessary connection with cosmic and divine world order. ; Doctorat en philosophie et lettres (histoire) (HIST 3)--UCL, 2009

This paper analyzes the transfer and spread of laparoscopy in Korea in the 1970–80s and its impact on Korean society from a historical perspective. It raises three questions: first, what was the reason that laparoscopy was introduced and spread in Korea, even though other contraceptive technologies were already in use? Second, what was the impact of laparoscopy on the Family Planning Program in Korea? Third, what subsequent effect did laparoscopy have on obstetricians in Korea? To clarify these points, this study examines government documents, NGO reports, and medical research papers produced in Korea and the United States of America (USA). There were three main reasons due to which laparoscopy was introduced and spread in Korea. Firstly, it was the necessity and the possibility of new contraceptive technology. The limitations of existing contraceptive technology led to the need for tubal sterilization. Intrauterine devices and oral contraceptives caused many side effects due to defects in the technology itself and baseless target amount; additionally, they were a substantial economic burden due to their long-term costs. Vasectomy and artificial abortion were suggested as alternatives, but the limitations were obvious; vasectomy could not overcome the psychological resistance among males, while artificial abortion was vulnerable to the ethical condemnation of sacrificing life. As intrauterine devices, oral contraceptives, vasectomy, and artificial abortion exposed several limitations, tubal sterilization, which had not been discussed as an alternative, began to emerge as a viable method. The Hospital Family Planning Program and the introduction of laparoscopy realized and expanded the possibilities of tubal sterilization, which until the early 1970s had been a difficult surgery, only available at hospital-level institutions. This constraint was resolved with the implementation of the Hospital Family Planning Program in response to the rise of the urban population problem. As hospitals, concentrated in cities, emerged as new centers of family planning, the technological limitations blocking the spread of tubal sterilization were naturally solved; further, laparoscopic surgery, introduced in the mid-1970s, expanded possibilities of tubal sterilization. With the introduction of laparoscopy, tubal sterilization changed from a complicated surgery requiring hospital-level institutions to a simple surgery available at clinic-level institutions. With both necessity and possibility in place, tubal sterilization became a key means of the Family Planning Program. The second reason is that laparoscopy met the interests of the governments and medical professionals of both the USA and Korea. In the late 1960s, the governments of both countries sought new means to replace the existing contraceptive technologies. As mentioned above, intrauterine devices and oral contraceptives caused frequent side effects and were quite expensive. Under these circumstances, laparoscopy emerged as a groundbreaking technology for popularizing tubal sterilization, decreasing the difficulty of the operation and increasing its safety. Although the problem of its high initial cost remained, a single surgery could have a permanent contraceptive effect, thus, it seemed to be an economical option. For both governments, laparoscopy was an excellent technical solution to overcome the technological and economic limitations of existing contraceptive technologies. Laparoscopy also met the interests of medical practitioners in both countries. Obstetricians in developed countries, leading the development and diffusion of contraceptive technology, were able to secure huge amounts of clinical cases through worldwide population control projects. Proving the effectiveness of new medical technologies required a sufficient number of cases; however, this was not an easy task in developed countries, where population problems were not prominent. The solution was the 'extension of the operating room.' If the surgical procedure could be standardized and the results could be reported in a systemized format, cases could be collected easily from various countries. Medical professionals in Korea also saw their benefits. Based on the network between Korea and the USA through the standardization of laparoscopic surgery, obstetricians in the former country received technology transfer and exerted authority as experienced surgeons. Behind the Johns Hopkins Program for International Education in Gynecology and Obstetrics lay the overlapping interests of the governments and medical professionals of both countries. Lastly, laparoscopy was technically improved to suit the situation of developing countries. When first used for tubal sterilization, laparoscopy was not an appropriate technique to be used in developing countries as it was neither safe nor cheap. Laparoscopic surgeries sometimes caused complications, such as perforation of the small intestine; furthermore, in developing countries, where medical personnel and facilities were scarce, such complications could threaten the lives of the patients. The lack of safety was a major flaw preventing the spread of laparoscopic sterilization, as it could not be implemented at the expense of people's lives. The complexity and low economic efficiency of laparoscopy were also problematic. Although it was simple and inexpensive compared to open surgery, it was still complex and too expensive to be widely used in developing countries. To solve these problems, public and private organizations such as the United States Agency for International Development and the Ford Foundation, and several medical professionals dove into the improvement of laparoscopy; consequently, laparoscopy became affordable and safe enough for developing countries. With three conditions in place, the necessity and the possibility for tubal sterilization, overlapping of the interests in technology transfer, and technological improvement to suit the environment of the developing countries, laparoscopy could be transferred and spread rapidly. After laparoscopy was introduced in Korea, laparoscopic tubal sterilization quickly matched other contraceptive techniques and finally outpaced them in the early 1980s. The second and third questions correspond to the influence of laparoscopy on Korean society. Regarding the impact on the Family Planning Program, laparoscopy solidified and deepened the male-dominant gender order. The Family Planning Program had always targeted women. It was the result of the consensus of the two major powers, namely, government officials and doctors; most government officials viewed family planning as the job of a 'housewife,' and doctors also focused mostly on female contraception. It is no exaggeration to state that the Family Planning Program was a project to spread female contraceptive technologies. The budget was focused on the dissemination of intrauterine devices and oral contraceptives rather than vasectomy; in turn, it became evidence proving the effectiveness of targeting women, fixing them the subject of the program. Laparoscopy consolidated this flow. The side effects of intrauterine devices and oral contraceptives, ironically, could resolve gender inequality in family planning strategies. As the sustainability of the program became uncertain, a group of bureaucrats and doctors who had shifted all responsibility to women began to reorient the plan toward vasectomy. With the introduction of laparoscopy, however, the plan focused on women again. As laparoscopy popularized tubal sterilization, political will toward vasectomy decreased accordingly. In the circular logic by which the availability of technology determined the direction of the policy, and such policy proved the value of technology, women became the set target of the Family Planning Program, and laparoscopy became a driving force to maintain this vicious circle. The same was true for the initiative of the Family Planning Program. The program was designed and implemented by male doctors and policy-makers from the beginning. The women's birth control movement, which existed until the end of the 1950s, came to an end with the military coup. The military regime excluded female organizations from the program, and the international organizations represented by the International Planned Parenthood Federation focused on population control projects under the order of Cold War rather than women's right to control childbirth according to their will. Given the change of circumstances, the initiative of the plan was transferred to a group of male doctors who had acquired knowledge of preventive medicine, population theory, and had become proficient in English by studying abroad; they emerged as a point of contact between the international order and Korea. Furthermore, they took over key posts in the public and private sectors. The introduction of laparoscopy strengthened the male dominance of the program. In the 1960s, although a group of male doctors led the plan's design and supervision, it was the women who were tasked with its implementation in the field. Family planning agents were in charge of inserting the intrauterine devices and providing guidance on the usage of oral contraceptives as well as promoting and enlightening the program. The situation changed with the popularization of laparoscopic tubal sterilization. As the program was reorganized to focus on laparoscopic surgery, the role of female agents was reduced to promoting the new technology, while obstetricians—predominantly male—emerged as the main actors intervening in women's bodies. Thus, laparoscopy was a technology that reproduced and reinforced gender inequality in terms of the plan's targets and initiatives. Laparoscopy also had an impact on the Korean obstetrician community. In short, it was the basis of technological catch-up. Elite obstetricians in Korea who joined the international trends of obstetrics continued to face new technologies, such as surgical microscopes used for microsurgery (e.g., tubal reanastomosis) and in vitro fertilization (IVF). Encouraged by the introduction of laparoscopy, obstetricians in Korea once again tried to keep up with the trends in global obstetrics and attained some success. This was because laparoscopy created the necessity and the possibility of technological catch-up. The popularization of laparoscopic tubal sterilization meant an increase in the demand to restore fertility. Although the proportion of those who wanted reversal surgery was not significantly high, the absolute number was not small because sterilization was performed on hundreds of thousands of people every year. This resulted in the demand for tubal reanastomosis and IVF. Laparoscopy created the possibility of introducing new reproductive technologies also. Microscopic tubal reversal was transferred to Korea through the same network by which laparoscopic tubal sterilization had been introduced. The main agents of technical education and financial support, and the operation of the training programs, were identical. The case of IVF was slightly different. In the case of IVF, universities and laboratories were competing to achieve success first. In this competitive structure, nobody wanted to disclose their technology; therefore, it was not easy for medical professionals of developing countries to go abroad to learn new skills. However, the human network established during the introduction of laparoscopy enabled many Korean obstetricians to seek training overseas, thereby introducing IVF technology to Korea. In conclusion, laparoscopy was developed and spread through the unique social structures of the time, whilst reproducing and strengthening them at the same time. First, in the political order of the Cold War, laparoscopy was rediscovered and improved as a means of intervening in the population of developing countries and then became the basis for the continuation of population control projects. Second, in the patriarchal setup of Korea, laparoscopy was introduced through the Family Planning Program assuming women as the main target of the program; further, the spread of laparoscopic sterilization circularly strengthened this assumption and the dominance of male doctors. Finally, in the context of the aspirations to high technologies of medical professionals in Korea, laparoscopy could defeat competing technologies and spread quickly; moreover, it functioned as a basis for technological catch-up. In short, laparoscopy was a technology that mediated and reinforced the multilayered structures of the Cold War, gender politics, and technological aspirations. 이 논문은 1970년대와 1980년대 한국에서 복강경 기술이 도입되고 확산하는 과정과 그것이 한국 사회에 미친 영향을 역사적으로 분석하였다. 문제의식은 다음의 세 가지였다. 첫 번째, 이미 다른 피임 기술이 보급되어 있던 상황에서, 복강경 기술이 한국으로 도입되고 확산할 수 있었던 까닭은 무엇인가. 두 번째, 이렇게 도입되고 확산한 복강경 기술은 한국 가족계획 사업에 어떤 영향을 주었는가. 세 번째, 복강경 기술은 이후 한국의 산부인과학계에 어떠한 영향을 주었는가. 이를 밝히기 위해 1970년대와 1980년대 당시 한국과 미국에서 생산된 여러 정부 문건과 비정부기구 보고서, 의학 연구 논문 등을 살펴보았으며, 그러한 탐구의 결과 다음과 같은 결론을 내릴 수 있었다. 먼저 복강경 기술이 한국으로 도입되고 확산할 수 있었던 이유는 크게 세 가지였다. 첫 번째는 난관 불임 수술이라는 새로운 피임 기술의 필요성과 가능성이 갖추어졌기 때문이다. 1970년대에 들어서면서 기존에 사용되던 자궁내장치와 경구피임약, 정관 불임 수술 등의 방법은 기술 자체의 결함과 근거 없는 목표량 설정에 따른 잦은 부작용, 심리적 저항 등의 한계를 노출했다. 이에 따라 많은 의학자와 인구학자는 난관 불임 수술이라는 대안 기술에 주목했다. 물론 난관 불임 수술은 수술실과 입원실이라는 물적 조건을 갖춘 병원에서만 시행 가능한 까다로운 기술이었다. 하지만 한국의 경우 도시 가족계획 사업의 시행으로 병원이 사업의 새로운 중심으로 부상하고, 여기에 1970년대 중반에 도입된 복강경이 수술의 물적 조건을 완화하면서, 이러한 한계는 상당 부분 극복될 수 있었다. 두 번째는 복강경 기술이 미국과 한국 양국 정부와 의학자의 이해관계에 고루 부합하였기 때문이다. 기존의 피임 기술이 한계를 노출하는 상황 속에서, 미국 정부와 한국 정부는 복강경 난관 불임 수술을 시행함으로써 인구 조절 사업을 통한 자유 진영의 수호와 경제 개발 계획을 지속할 수 있었다. 복강경 기술은 양국 의학자의 이해에도 합치하였다. 피임 기술의 개발과 확산을 주도하던 선진국의 여러 의학자는 수술법을 표준화하여 보급하고 규격화된 양식으로 결과를 보고받는 '수술실의 확장'을 통해 막대한 양의 임상례를 확보할 수 있었다. 한국의 의학자 역시 복강경 수술의 표준화로 이어진 양국의 연결망을 바탕으로 선진국의 기술을 이전받는 동시에, 다량의 임상례를 생산하는 자로서의 권위를 누릴 수 있었다. 마지막은 복강경이 개발도상국의 상황에 맞게 개량되었기 때문이다. 난관 불임 수술에 사용되기 시작한 초기만 해도, 복강경은 개발도상국의 환경에 적합한 기술이 아니었다. 복강경은 기대만큼 안전하지도, 기대만큼 저렴하지도 못했다. 이를 해결하기 위하여, 국제개발처와 포드 재단 등의 관민 기관과 여러 의학자가 복강경의 개량에 뛰어들었다. 복잡한 부품은 간단한 부품으로 교체되었고, 위험한 방식은 안전한 방식으로 대체되었다. 이렇게 난관 불임 수술의 필요성과 가능성이 갖추어지고, 기술 이전을 향한 이해관계가 중첩되는 동시에, 이전 대상국의 환경에 따라 복강경이 개량됨에 따라, 복강경은 급속도로 이전되고 확산할 수 있었다. 한국에 복강경 기술이 이전된 이후 복강경을 이용한 난관 불임 수술은 다른 피임 기술을 빠르게 추격하였고, 마침내 1980년대 초반에 이르러 수위(首位)를 차지했다. 두 번째와 세 번째 문제의식은 복강경 기술이 한국 사회에 미친 영향에 해당한다. 먼저 가족계획 사업에 끼친 영향이다. 요컨대 복강경은 남성으로 치우친 사업의 젠더 질서를 고착화하고 심화하였다. 복강경은 사업의 대상을 여성으로 고정하는 결과를 가져왔다. 사업을 주도하던 양대 세력인 정부 관료와 의사 집단은 사업의 초기부터 줄곧 여성을 대상으로 삼았다. 자궁내장치와 경구피임약의 확산이 정체하면서 정관 불임 수술이 대안으로 떠올랐지만, 복강경의 도입과 함께 사업은 다시 여성으로 집중되었다. 사업의 주도권 역시 마찬가지였다. 남성 의사 집단이 사업의 설계와 감독을 주도하였지만, 복강경이 도입되기 전까지만 해도 현장에서의 실행만큼은 여성의 몫이었다. 그러나 사업이 복강경을 중심으로 재편되며 여성 요원의 역할은 새로운 기술을 홍보하고 안내하는 수준으로 축소되었고, 남성이 다수이던 산부인과 의사가 여성의 신체에 개입하는 주요 행위자가 되었다. 이렇게 복강경은 사업의 대상과 주도권의 측면에서, 젠더 불평등을 재생산하고 확대하였다. 다음은 복강경 기술이 한국 산부인과학계에 미친 영향이다. 복강경을 계기로 산부인과학의 국제적 조류에 합류한 한국의 엘리트 산부인과 의사는 계속해서 수술 현미경이나 체외수정과 같은 새로운 기술을 도입하였다. 이는 복강경이 기술 추격의 필요성과 가능성을 만들어낸 결과였다. 먼저 복강경은 신기술이 도입되어야 할 필요성을 창출했다. 복강경의 확산에 따른 난관 불임 수술의 보급은 다시 생식능력을 복원하려는 수요의 성장으로 이어졌다. 복강경은 새로운 기술이 도입되는 가능성이기도 했다. 현미경을 이용한 난관 복원 수술은 복강경 난관 불임 수술을 도입하던 연결망을 통해 한국으로 이전되었고, 체외 수정 역시 복강경 기술의 이전 과정에서 생성된 인적 연결망을 바탕으로 도입될 수 있었다. 이처럼 복강경은 당대의 고유한 사회 구조를 매개로 만들어지고 퍼져 나갔고, 동시에 이러한 구조를 재생산하고 강화하였다. 먼저 오래된 기술인 복강경은 냉전의 정치 상황 속에서 개발도상국의 인구에 개입하는 수단으로 재조명되며 비로소 개량될 수 있었고, 이렇게 개량되어 보급됨으로써 다시 인구 조절 사업을 이어나가는 바탕이 되었다. 또한 남성으로 치우친 한국의 젠더 질서 속에서 복강경은 여성을 사업의 주요 대상으로 상정하는 사업 기조를 매개로 한국에 도입되어, 다시금 여성을 사업의 대상으로 고정하는 동시에, 남성 의사의 주도권을 강화하기도 했다. 마지막으로 복강경은 선진국을 향한 여러 엘리트 의학자의 열망에 힘입어 빠르게 이전되고 확산하였으며, 이는 이후 수술 현미경과 체외수정 기술을 추격하는 기반으로 작동하였다. 요컨대 복강경은 냉전과 젠더 불평등, 그리고 선진 기술을 향한 선망이라는 당대의 구조를 매개하고 강화하는 기술이었다. ; open ; 박사

In this thesis, we consider how underground or alternative cultural activities, which we call off, could work for urban development much as mainstream cultures, or in, do. We propose that underground cultural activities are an important part of the cultural landscape of a city and, in this way, could be considered an important actor of urban development. As many authors have shown, culture is nowadays a key element of urban development. First, in the major urban redevelopment projects of the last two decades, there was often a cultural facility flagship, a museum or convention center for example. It is especially true in the case of waterfront or industrial wasteland redevelopments. Second, the artists are often pioneers in the gentrification process. The presence of artists has become meaningful for a neighborhood and has increased the real estate value of a place. Third, cultural and artistic activities are very important factors in building a positive image of a city. It markets the city as an innovative and creative place, two fundamental qualities essential to success in the global inter-city competition. Indeed, it is argued that a strong and dynamic cultural framework provides many leisure opportunities for inhabitants and tourists. Cultural activities are therefore increasingly becoming a marketing strategy to attract firms and people to visit or to settle down in a particular city; and cultural tourism is an engine for urban tourism. And finally, many predict that cultural activities are going to be one of the most important economical activities in the city, both by creating direct value and employment and by developing the tourist industry. But, most of these authors considered mainstream cultures. Our purpose is to demonstrate how underground cultures could also work with these topics. By underground or alternative culture, we mean all kinds of cultural activities that are not subsidized and that have no commercial value. But, because they are a part of the 'art world' and should not be considered as separate from the mainstream cultural world, we prefer to use another semantic scheme in our thesis. We are using the concept of 'in culture / off culture'(which is used to explain what is happening in the major art festivals). The in is organized and planned, while the off is spontaneous and opportunist; the off is free of commercial, academic or trend constraints, so it is a creative and innovative space; the in draws from the off new ideas and new talents; the off needs the in to build its legitimacy; and, little by little, the off becomes the real festival: the place to show and to be, the real engine of the festival which attracts more people and more artists until a new off of the off appears. In much the same way, in our study we consider underground cultures as "off culture", and mainstream culture as "in culture". Our research is focused on the artistic squats as an example and a syncretism of off culture. Indeed, they can be considered both as the space of the off culture and as the off spaces of culture. This is one of the original features of this research: using artistic squats as a comprehensive key to analyze and understand urban changes. For this reason, we needed to develop an original methodology. We propose to implement three different kinds of methodological research, each focusing on one of the topics already detailed and all based on artistic squats issues. These works will focus on the Parisian case, but also on other European and global metropolis, such as San Francisco, New York, Toronto, Berlin, London,. by our personal experiences or by bibliographic review. Concerning economical issues, we will most likely not implement empirical research, but it undoubtedly would be of some interest to do a bibliographically based comparison with the theory of innovation and creativity. On the other hand, a literature review has been done on the changes in cultural practices and taste and on sociology of art and artists. We will also consider, as a background theoretical framework, 'reflexive modernity', 'aesthetic reflexivity' and 'hypertext society' theories as well as 'networks society' and 'global cities' theories and 'creative city' and 'innovative society' theories in our study. Our three research focuses are the following: - Could off cultures be flagships for urban development? According to many authors, one of the key elements for a successful urban redevelopment project is a cultural flagship. We suggest that this flagship could be an off cultural flagship. Off culture spaces are as meaningful as in culture spaces. We argue that urban planners use off places as a flagship in urban redevelopment strategies. So, how could planners integrate these off spaces in urban projects? We study three urban projects, based on interviews and officials materials analyzes. We are considering a case where planners finally decided to integrate a off space in the urban redevelopment project (Les Frigos in the ZAC Paris-Rive Gauche). The second case (La Chapelle-Stalingrad regeneration project) shows how off culture are used as a tool for planning, by cleaning and securing a decaying area. Off artists become planners' pathfinder. They are symbolic shifter from decay to glamour. Then, the real planning project could start. Moreover, this example puts into relief the role of inhabitants organizations in the cultural-led regeneration planning. Indeed, it seems that culture is the unique acceptable feature for urban projects. What does this culture-oriented claim mean? For whose sake are cultural amenities created? The third project is the Newtown cultural precinct that has been created in Johannesburg (South Africa). In this quite unique urban, social, economic and political context, can culture play a similar role? What are the objectives of such an undertaking? Does this project correspond to the lifestyles and behaviours of the inhabitants? As it is shown with the Parisian example, this kind of urban planning practices are more related to a settlement policy than to a cultural one. - Are off spaces places of gentrification? Following many authors, we are interested in the aesthetic and consumerist explanations of gentrification processes. We propose that off cultures play a role in the gentrification process, and expect that they work by giving a trendy image to a neighborhood, as a creative and bohemian place. So, off cultures could be a meaningful pathfinder of gentrification. To prove our purpose, we implement a methodology based on real estate agents interview. We consider real estate agents as good informers about the evolution of real estate markets and neighborhood social changes. They could help us to understand neighborhood and market changes, to explore the potential for gentrification, and to clarify the role of artists and then of off artists and places in gentrification. To do so, we interview several agents in different neighborhoods, all of them located near artistic squats. At the same time, we realize a statistic analysis of real estate market trends. Nevertheless, the results of the researches are mixed. Local real estate agents use artists as a communication tool. They argue that artists and even off artists create a pleasant atmosphere in the neighbourhood, that could attract other populations. But, real estate statistics do not provide convincing results. The only certainty we can propose is that in general, property prices are not influenced by artistic squats. - Is the off an element of the 'tourist gaze'? We argue that off cultural spaces could be tourist places by corresponding to the 'tourist gaze' expectations. Therefore, we do not analyze the tourist (and then economic) impact of off places, but show that off places are important tourist attractions. To do so, we analyze how tourist guidebooks present a city. Indeed, guidebooks writers give meaning to a place by choosing specific places or things to see, and then by interpreting them for the tourists and sometimes by judging them. In this way, tourist guidebooks could be considered as meaningful pathfinder. Based on a comparison between Paris and Berlin, the analysis of several guidebooks shows main differences between the two cities' tourist image. In the Paris case, artistic squats and other off scenes are almost never described in guidebooks. Off is not a part of the city's experience. On the other hand, according to guidebooks, a tourist in Berlin should not avoid visiting one of the many off places. Off is definitely a local attraction. Moreover, off is the Berlin's taste. As we have showed, our PhD is quite ambitious. But it must be considered not as an exhaustive exercise but as an understanding of contemporary urban society proposal. This study help us to understand how off cultures are a part of the city imaginary, and so, how they give meaning to the city. But we also expect that our concept could be used by other scholars or planners for example to understand how urbanity occurs, how a place becomes trendy, or to put into relief relationships between in and off in other sphere. We expect to deliver some comprehensive keys for urban planners such as contemporary gazers. ; Dans cette thèse, nous montrons dans quelle mesure les pratiques culturelles alternatives, que nous appelons off, participent au développement des grandes métropoles, tout comme cela a été démontré avec la culture institutionnelle, que nous appelons in. Il est couramment admis que la culture est un élément qualifiant dans la concurrence inter-urbaine et est essentielle à la construction de l'image d'une métropole. En effet, la diversité et la qualité de l'offre culturelle et artistique sont des atouts pour attirer des entreprises de pointes dont les cadres sont friands et grands consommateurs de services culturels. D'autre part, l'événementiel culturel est un moteur du tourisme urbain, principalement axé autour du tourisme culturel. Enfin, la culture et l'industrie culturelle représentent aujourd'hui un secteur économique en pleine expansion, et jouent un rôle important dans le développement des grandes métropoles comme Paris, New York, Los Angeles et San Francisco. En terme de développement urbain, ces phénomènes peuvent se manifester de plusieurs manières : • Les lieux culturels sont programmés dans les projets urbains : dans de nombreux programmes de requalification de friches urbaines, de nouveaux équipements culturels et de loisirs ont été aménagés, devenant les portes-drapeaux de la regénération urbaine ; • les artistes sont souvent des pionniers de la gentrification. A la recherche de locaux spacieux, peu onéreux et centraux, ils s'installent dans des quartiers dévalorisés, industriels ou populaires ; et peu à peu, par leur présence, revalorisent symboliquement le quartier, où de nouvelles populations, attirées par la proximité des artistes, viennent s'installer, entraînant une hausse des prix de l'immobilier. Cela a souvent pour conséquence de chasser les populations les plus pauvres dont les artistes eux-mêmes, incapables de payer les nouveaux loyers ; • les espaces d'expression de la culture (musées, galeries, théâtres, patrimoine bâti.) sont les lieux visités par les touristes, devenant les symboles de la ville, reconnus internationalement. Ces observations portent sur ce que l'on peut considérer comme étant la culture institutionnelle, que nous appelons in. Pour notre part, nous proposons que les pratiques culturelles alternatives ou off participent elles-aussi et de manière similaire au développement urbain. Leur présence est révélatrice de la créativité et du dynamisme d'une métropole. Elle est porteuse d'une image positive pour la ville car c'est par la pluralité et la diversité des scènes et des pratiques artistiques que la culture devient un élément de la métropolisation. Nous parlons de culture in et de culture off par analogie aux grands festivals où se côtoient le in et le off. Le in y est programmé et le off opportuniste et spontané ; le in s'enrichit par l'existence du off où, par une plus grande liberté, peuvent se produire les innovations ; le off a besoin du in pour justifier son existence, trouver une légitimité. Et peu à peu, le off prend le dessus sur le in, attire plus de spectateurs, devient le moteur populaire du festival. Ainsi, dans cette thèse, nous postulons que la culture off joue un rôle dans le développement urbain par complémentarité avec la culture in. Pour cela, nous concentrons nos analyses autour des lieux culturels off (comme par exemple les squats d'artistes) pour montrer en quoi ils contribuent à l'attractivité d'un espace métropolitain. En effet, les lieux off sont l'inscription physique dans l'espace urbain de pratiques artistiques off. Ici, ils ne sont pas l'objet de l'étude, mais le fil conducteur, l'analyseur permettant une compréhension nouvelle des évolutions urbaines contemporaines. Dans cette optique, il s'agit de construire une méthodologie adaptée et novatrice en reprenant les trois grands marqueurs du développement urbain que nous avons présentés précédemment. Ainsi, trois axes et méthodes de recherche sont mis en œuvre : • La régénération urbaine. Comment les lieux culturels off sont-ils intégrés à des projets urbains ? Comment deviennent-ils des constituants d'un nouveau quartier ? Comment les aménageurs conçoivent-ils cette intégration ? Nous nous intéressons particulièrement aux discours produits par les différents acteurs impliqués pour justifier, expliquer et valoriser la présence de lieux off dans des projets d'aménagements (par exemple, l'intégration des Frigos dans la ZAC Paris-Rive gauche). • La gentrification. Dans quelle mesure des lieux off (comme les squats d'artistes) participent-ils à la revalorisation symbolique d'un quartier ? Pour cela, avons réalisé une analyse de données statistiques sur le marché immobilier parisien et des enquêtes auprès d'agents immobiliers afin de comprendre la perception, par des acteurs centraux du marché immobilier, de la présence d'artistes dans un quartier. • Le tourisme urbain. Les squats d'artistes et d'autres éléments de la culture off sont-ils des lieux touristiques ? Participent-ils à l'image touristique des villes ? Pour mettre en évidence cela, nous étudions la construction de l'image touristique des villes à travers une analyse sémiotique de différents guides touristiques. En effet, le guide touristique constitue en soi un corpus intéressant, quoique négligé, pour analyser l'image construite d'un lieu. Il ne reflète pas la réalité du lieu, mais construit et est construit par l'imaginaire porté par ce lieu. Au travers ces trois volets, cette recherche montre comment et dans quelle mesure un lieu off, peut participer au développement urbain. La coexistence des cultures in et off est essentielle à l'effervescence créative d'une métropole, à la fois révélatrice et symbole du dynamisme métropolitain.