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Intro -- Contents -- Acknowledgments -- Notes on Transliteration and Sigla -- Figures -- Abbreviations -- Part 1 Introduction and Theoretical Underpinnings -- Chapter 1 Introduction and Methodology -- 1 Connected by Sea: The Mediterranean and Its Coasts in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages -- 2 Evidence and Approaches -- 3 Structure -- Chapter 2 Warfare and Conflict on the Coasts and the High Sea -- 1 Setting the Scene and Defining the Concepts -- 2 Economics and Maritime Conflict in the Eastern Mediterranean -- Part 2 The Late Bronze Age -- Chapter 3 Naval Aspects of Egyptian Warfare in the Early and Middle 2nd Millennium -- 1 Introduction: Martial Maritime Pursuits from Predynastic Egypt to the Beginning of the New Kingdom -- 2 A Cretan Connection? Keftiu in Egyptian Harbors and Tombs -- 3 Maritime Components of New Kingdom Conflict: The 18th Dynasty -- 4 Conclusion -- Chapter 4 The Amarna Letters: Maritime Conflict on the Levantine Coast -- 1 Introduction: Coastal Kingdoms and International Communication -- 2 Ḫazanni and Warlords: Byblos, Amurru, and Maritime Conflict on the Levantine Coast -- 3 Sea Raiders in the Amarna Letters? Arwad and the Miši -- 4 Conclusion -- Chapter 5 Ugarit and the Eastern Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age -- 1 Introduction: Beyond Amarna -- 2 Seasonal Pursuits and Consistent Targets -- 3 Ugarit in the Late Bronze Age -- 4 Conclusion -- Chapter 6 Maritime Conflict in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and Western Anatolia -- 1 Maritime Conflict in the Pre-Mycenaean Aegean -- 2 Foreign Contacts and Martial Pursuits -- 3 Tin҆ yw and the 18th Dynasty Pharaohs -- 4 Raiding, Trading, and Assembling a Domestic Labor Force -- 5 Text and Iconography in the Mycenaean Aegean -- 6 Conclusion -- Chapter 7 19th Dynasty Egypt: Reduction in, and Return of, Seaborne Threats -- 1 Introduction: Early Defenses Against Seaborne Raiders.

The objective of this study was to develop, test and evaluate a specifically defined interdisciplinary approach—the human-centred approach—as applied to a case study, Iron Age Öland. Four themes were selected to highlight different aspects of particular interest in Öland: taphonomy, diet, migration, and social organization. The uncremated human skeletal remains from Öland are the basis for this study. Different aspects of the bones, such as spatial distribution and chemical and physical properties, were investigated. The methods used include osteological methods, image-based modelling, isotopic analysis of bone (δ13C and δ15N; 14C) and enamel (87Sr/86Sr, δ18O), statistical modelling, and graph-based network analysis.The great impact of the choice of methodology in the different papers was apparent in evaluating how the human-centred approach could be practiced.The concept developed in Paper I, Virtual Taphonomy, provided deeper insight into the specific case study of Öland but also showed the potential of this methodology for archaeology and osteology in general.The approach to migration in Paper II gave results differing from those in Paper IV. The use of a second isotope (δ18O) in Paper IV showed how some individuals were clearly not from an area close by enough to fit within the proposed areas in Paper II. Paper IV also questioned the definitions of 87Sr/86Sr baseline and the interpretation process for deciding whether an individual is determined as a migrant. While the population level approach to migration in Paper II allowed for a discussion on the mechanisms behind migration, the approach in Paper IV instead gave insight into the nature and expression of migration within Öland's society.In Paper III, it was demonstrated that a shift in diet (isotope variation) did not coincide with the relative typological chronology but instead should be studied by more independent chronology (such as 14C). The isotope results for Öland could also be interpreted completely differently today due to new standards for understanding how isotope values relate to human diet.Paper V showed how a transparent analysis of isotope results, osteological analysis, and archaeological parameters could be used to discuss societal development using graph-based network analysis.Using the human-centred approach to Iron Age Öland resulted in some new insights and a rethinking of society, particularly regarding diet and migration. The interpretation of the diet isotopes means that the pastoralist subsistence likely transformed the Ölandic landscape much earlier than previously thought. The dietary shift places the start of this in the final two centuries BC, not AD 200. In the Late Iron Age, the migration levels doubled, especially as women were immigrating. The people settling Öland were coming from diverse geographical areas in both periods, with the addition of more distant migrants in the Late period. I argue this is part of a creolization process in Öland in the Late Iron Age, detectable in burial practice and diet. The starting point of this great immigration is difficult to define as uncremated human remains are largely lacking in the period AD 200–700. Around AD 200, there is also a change in social organization indicated through the perceptible use of violence. I interpret this as a society where elders had diminished social power compared to earlier times, and when the increasing military focus throughout Scandinavia was also established in Öland.In conclusion, the exploration of a human-centred archaeology gave new insights of relevance to archaeology at large, not just Iron Age Öland. In particular, the strong interpretational aspects of isotopes could be demonstrated, as well as the great advantages of applying digital archaeological theory and method to human skeletal remains.

This paper explores Iron Age depositions in wetlands and on dry ground in Kormt. The types of objects deposited and their contexts are discussed from a longterm perspective, and the emerging patterns are interpreted in cultural-historical terms. The early Iron Age depositions cluster on northeastern and southwestern Kormt, especially in the Avaldsnes and Ferkingstad areas. They indicate the presence of men of military rank and are placed at strategic maritime sites: Ferkingstad and northern Kormt. The depositional traditions of the early Iron Age resemble those of nearby Jæren and southernmost Hordaland, and indeed those of northern Jylland, Denmark. No depositions are known from the period AD 550–700. In the Viking Period, the depositional tradition in Kormt society seems to have played a more limited and less aristocratic role than previously. The depositional traditions differ from neighbouring as well as distant regions with which there formerly were similarities. ; The Avaldsnes Royal Manor Project

International audience ; Recent excavations near Ādam (Oman) yielded new data about the margins of the desert in central Oman during the early and late Iron Age periods. After nine campaigns of excavations and surveys in the area around Ādam, only a few graves had been identified during the surveys and the excavations of two graveyards (Ādam north and south) but settlement sites were scarce and it seemed that the area was not highly occupied during this period, unlike the situation observed at the major site of Salūt, only 45 km northwest of Ādam. The discovery of an enigmatic Iron Age site near Ādam, however, leads us to reconsider this first impression. The site consists of a group of structures located on the eastern tip of Jabal Midmār (Mudmār, Mudhmar, Madmār), near Wādī Halfayn. The main stone building contains unique copper weapons (actual size, reduced models, and miniatures) including arrows, bows, quivers, and daggers that could have been used for a ritual purpose. One other building was excavated, and the micro-regional topography and survey provided further data on the function of the site. From its geographic location and its unusual content, the site could have several functions: a meeting place linked to social, political, or religious use, and a staging post on the ancient road between Ādam and Sinaw.

International audience ; Recent excavations near Ādam (Oman) yielded new data about the margins of the desert in central Oman during the early and late Iron Age periods. After nine campaigns of excavations and surveys in the area around Ādam, only a few graves had been identified during the surveys and the excavations of two graveyards (Ādam north and south) but settlement sites were scarce and it seemed that the area was not highly occupied during this period, unlike the situation observed at the major site of Salūt, only 45 km northwest of Ādam. The discovery of an enigmatic Iron Age site near Ādam, however, leads us to reconsider this first impression. The site consists of a group of structures located on the eastern tip of Jabal Midmār (Mudmār, Mudhmar, Madmār), near Wādī Halfayn. The main stone building contains unique copper weapons (actual size, reduced models, and miniatures) including arrows, bows, quivers, and daggers that could have been used for a ritual purpose. One other building was excavated, and the micro-regional topography and survey provided further data on the function of the site. From its geographic location and its unusual content, the site could have several functions: a meeting place linked to social, political, or religious use, and a staging post on the ancient road between Ādam and Sinaw.

International audience ; Recent excavations near Ādam (Oman) yielded new data about the margins of the desert in central Oman during the early and late Iron Age periods. After nine campaigns of excavations and surveys in the area around Ādam, only a few graves had been identified during the surveys and the excavations of two graveyards (Ādam north and south) but settlement sites were scarce and it seemed that the area was not highly occupied during this period, unlike the situation observed at the major site of Salūt, only 45 km northwest of Ādam. The discovery of an enigmatic Iron Age site near Ādam, however, leads us to reconsider this first impression. The site consists of a group of structures located on the eastern tip of Jabal Midmār (Mudmār, Mudhmar, Madmār), near Wādī Halfayn. The main stone building contains unique copper weapons (actual size, reduced models, and miniatures) including arrows, bows, quivers, and daggers that could have been used for a ritual purpose. One other building was excavated, and the micro-regional topography and survey provided further data on the function of the site. From its geographic location and its unusual content, the site could have several functions: a meeting place linked to social, political, or religious use, and a staging post on the ancient road between Ādam and Sinaw.

International audience ; Recent excavations near Ādam (Oman) yielded new data about the margins of the desert in central Oman during the early and late Iron Age periods. After nine campaigns of excavations and surveys in the area around Ādam, only a few graves had been identified during the surveys and the excavations of two graveyards (Ādam north and south) but settlement sites were scarce and it seemed that the area was not highly occupied during this period, unlike the situation observed at the major site of Salūt, only 45 km northwest of Ādam. The discovery of an enigmatic Iron Age site near Ādam, however, leads us to reconsider this first impression. The site consists of a group of structures located on the eastern tip of Jabal Midmār (Mudmār, Mudhmar, Madmār), near Wādī Halfayn. The main stone building contains unique copper weapons (actual size, reduced models, and miniatures) including arrows, bows, quivers, and daggers that could have been used for a ritual purpose. One other building was excavated, and the micro-regional topography and survey provided further data on the function of the site. From its geographic location and its unusual content, the site could have several functions: a meeting place linked to social, political, or religious use, and a staging post on the ancient road between Ādam and Sinaw.

International audience ; Recent excavations near Ādam (Oman) yielded new data about the margins of the desert in central Oman during the early and late Iron Age periods. After nine campaigns of excavations and surveys in the area around Ādam, only a few graves had been identified during the surveys and the excavations of two graveyards (Ādam north and south) but settlement sites were scarce and it seemed that the area was not highly occupied during this period, unlike the situation observed at the major site of Salūt, only 45 km northwest of Ādam. The discovery of an enigmatic Iron Age site near Ādam, however, leads us to reconsider this first impression. The site consists of a group of structures located on the eastern tip of Jabal Midmār (Mudmār, Mudhmar, Madmār), near Wādī Halfayn. The main stone building contains unique copper weapons (actual size, reduced models, and miniatures) including arrows, bows, quivers, and daggers that could have been used for a ritual purpose. One other building was excavated, and the micro-regional topography and survey provided further data on the function of the site. From its geographic location and its unusual content, the site could have several functions: a meeting place linked to social, political, or religious use, and a staging post on the ancient road between Ādam and Sinaw.

International audience ; Recent excavations near Ādam (Oman) yielded new data about the margins of the desert in central Oman during the early and late Iron Age periods. After nine campaigns of excavations and surveys in the area around Ādam, only a few graves had been identified during the surveys and the excavations of two graveyards (Ādam north and south) but settlement sites were scarce and it seemed that the area was not highly occupied during this period, unlike the situation observed at the major site of Salūt, only 45 km northwest of Ādam. The discovery of an enigmatic Iron Age site near Ādam, however, leads us to reconsider this first impression. The site consists of a group of structures located on the eastern tip of Jabal Midmār (Mudmār, Mudhmar, Madmār), near Wādī Halfayn. The main stone building contains unique copper weapons (actual size, reduced models, and miniatures) including arrows, bows, quivers, and daggers that could have been used for a ritual purpose. One other building was excavated, and the micro-regional topography and survey provided further data on the function of the site. From its geographic location and its unusual content, the site could have several functions: a meeting place linked to social, political, or religious use, and a staging post on the ancient road between Ādam and Sinaw.

In the necropolis of Olival do Senhor dos Mártires (Alcácer do Sal, Portugal) the transition to the Late Iron Age was marked by an important transformation both in burial rites and in material culture which seems to point to significant ideological, social and political changes. These changes can be compared to those documented around the same dates in other areas of the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean basin. It is in fact possible to track the emergence of warrior elites in the funerary record, a trend that could be part of an overall transition towards aristocratic political forms. The development of this new political statu quo seems to be accompanied by a reorientation of the supra-regional relations of the community of Alcácer do Sal. This is particularly reflected in a number of convergences with the social representation formulae of the Iberian elites of the Southeast and the Levant. ; La transición hacia la Segunda Edad del Hierro en la necrópolis del Olival do Senhor dos Mártires (Alcácer do Sal, Portugal) estuvo marcada por importantes transformaciones a nivel de los ritos y de los ajuares funerarios. Estos parecen señalar cambios ideológicos, sociales y políticos igualmente importantes, comparables con los que se documentan por las mismas fechas en otros ámbitos peninsulares y circunmediterráneos. Se aprecia, de hecho, la aparente afirmación de élites guerreras, quizás en el marco de una transición hacia fórmulas políticas de tipo aristocrático. El desarrollo de esta nueva realidad política parece ir acompañado por una reordenación de las relaciones suprarregionales de la comunidad de Alcácer do Sal, como atestiguan múltiples convergencias con las fórmulas de representación social propias de las élites íberas del Sureste y Levante peninsulares. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

La transición hacia la Segunda Edad del Hierro en la necrópolis del Olival do Senhor dos Mártires (Alcácer do Sal, Portugal) estuvo marcada por importantes transformaciones a nivel de los ritos y de los ajuares funerarios. Estos parecen señalar cambios ideológicos, sociales y políticos igualmente importantes, comparables con los que se documentan por las mismas fechas en otros ámbitos peninsulares y circunmediterráneos. Se aprecia, de hecho, la aparente afirmación de élites guerreras, quizás en el marco de una transición hacia fórmulas políticas de tipo aristocrático. El desarrollo de esta nueva realidad política parece ir acompañado por una reordenación de las relaciones suprarregionales de la comunidad de Alcácer do Sal, como atestiguan múltiples convergencias con las fórmulas de representación social propias de las élites íberas del Sureste y Levante peninsulares. ; In the necropolis of Olival do Senhor dos Mártires (Alcácer do Sal, Portugal) the transition to the Late Iron Age was marked by an important transformation both in burial rites and in material culture which seems to point to significant ideological, social and political changes. These changes can be compared to those documented around the same dates in other areas of the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean basin. It is in fact possible to track the emergence of warrior elites in the funerary record, a trend that could be part of an overall transition towards aristocratic political forms. The development of this new political statu quo seems to be accompanied by a reorientation of the supra-regional relations of the community of Alcácer do Sal. This is particularly reflected in a number of convergences with the social representation formulae of the Iberian elites of the Southeast and the Levant.

The Helmand Sistan Project, conducted by the Smithsonian Institution and Afghan Directorate of Archaeology and Historic Preservation in the 1970s but hitherto unpublished, uncovered through survey and excavation an extensive settlement system along the lower Helmand River dating to the late second and early first millennia BCE. Of note were a series of platform-based settlements in the Sar-o-Tar region east of the Helmand River along of a series of large canals first constructed at this time, which allowed for extensive cultivation in the otherwise deserted region. Excavations at one of these sites, Qala 169, gave us a rich understanding of the settlement pattern and material culture of the early Iron Age, including a style of hitherto-unknown fine ware wheel-made painted ceramics. Finds from Qala 169 are compared to at least 21 other related sites surveyed by the project in the lower Helmand Valley and in Sar-o-Tar. Comparisons are also made between this corpus and early Iron Age sites elsewhere in Afghanistan, Iran, South Asia, and Central Asia, showing that this material represented a unique regional style.

There is a cluster of Early Iron Age (800-500 BC) elite burials in the Low Countries in which bronze vessels, weaponry, horse-gear and wagons were interred as grave goods. Mostly imports from Central Europe, these objects are found brought together in varying configurations in cremation burials generally known as chieftains' graves or princely burials. In terms of grave goods they resemble the _Fürstengräber_ of the Hallstatt Culture of Central Europe, with famous Dutch and Belgian examples being the Chieftain's grave of Oss, the wagon-grave of Wijchen and the elite cemetery of Court-St-Etienne.Fragmenting the Chieftain presents the results of an in-depth and practice-based archaeological analysis of the Dutch and Belgian elite graves and the burial practice through which they were created. It was established that the elite burials are embedded in the local burial practices - as reflected by the use of the cremation rite, the bending and breaking of grave goods, and the pars pro toto deposition of human remains and objects, all in accordance with the dominant local urnfield burial practice. It appears that those individuals interred with wagons and related items warranted a more elaborate funerary rite, most likely because these ceremonial and cosmologically charged vehicles marked their owners out as exceptional individuals. Furthermore, in a few graves the configuration of the grave good set, the use of textiles to wrap grave goods and the dead and the reuse of burial mounds show the influence of individuals familiar with Hallstatt Culture burial customs