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The paper deals with the analysis of the legal nature of international courts' decisions and their impact on the international financial legal order. The author claims that decisions of international courts, creating no new international legal financial norms, act as an additional source of international financial law, having no autonomy, and in combination with other sources of international law, performs the following functions: 1) regulatory-prescriptive (via opinio juris of existing traditions in interstate practice in the financial sphere transforming them into international customary law); 2) regulatory-affirming (confirming the legal nature of the international agreement between the subjects of international financial legal relations which caused a disputable situation). The judicial practice on financial issues and specificity of functioning of such judicial institutions as the Permanent Court of International Justice, the International Court of Justice, the CIS Economic Court, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the Court of Justice of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community, etc. are examined. The features of the provisions of international agreements on financial issues regarding the procedure for resolving disputes between the parties of the agreement about its implementation are analyzed. The paper explores particularities of the origin and development of the idea of the creation of an international financial court. Amid modern processes of the rapid growth of the amount of crossborder financial flows in the context of globalization, which is the consequence of the implementation of numerous international financial agreements, the idea of creation of an international financial court, which was first suggested in 1935, due to the complexity of legal nature of interstate financial disputes, is an objective necessity. The following features intrinsic to decisions of international courts (including decisions on financial issues) have been identified: 1) locality (binding only on the ...

The article analyzes the role of different international organizations and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in the field of international protection of children's rights. The main idea of the article is to determine modern methods and mechanisms of protection and realization of children's rights in international law. Much attention is given to the fact that there are a lot of different international documents that regulate this issue. The author analyzed such documents are Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Declaration of the Rights of the Child and expressed her opinion on their effectiveness. It is described in short the protection of children's rights at the regional level. The article outlines the opinions and views of various scholars who had been working in the field of child rights protection. The article admonishes that everybody has the right to apply to the European Court of Human Rights in case of violation and non-recognition of rights. The article states that numerous ECHR decisions exist on issues related to the protection of the rights of the child based on the provisions of international law. The article defines some problematic aspects of the protection of children's rights. Some attention is drawn to the collisions of the legal regulation of this issue and cases of violation of the rights of the child. Theoretical concepts and practical experience regarding the international protection of the rights of the child in international law are explored in the article. The author mentions that the national legislation of some countries in the sphere of children's rights is not perfect enough. Therefore international standards have to serve as a basis on which it would be possible to construct and develop a domestic law system that will respect children's rights. It is stressed that in the modern world exists a tendency for recognition of almost all rights and interests of the child. It is reported that new mechanisms for the protection of children's rights are developing because ...

The article deals with legitimacy in historical and social aspects, paying attentionto the connection of legitimacy with the law-making activities of the state. The problemsof legality of the country's history are consistently investigated: in the Old Russianstate (IX–XII centuries), the Sobornoye Ulozheniye of 1649, legislative acts of the RussianEmpire until the end of XVII – beginning of XX centuries. ; В статье рассматривается законность в историческом и социальном аспектах.Обращается внимание на связь законности с правотворческой деятельностью государства. Последовательно исследуются вопросы законности в отечественнойистории: в Древнерусском государстве (IX–XII вв.), Соборном Уложении1649 года, законодательных актах Российской Империи вплоть концаXVII – начала XX вв.

После вступления решения международного суда в силу государство-адресат обязано его исполнить. Но государство может быть им не удовлетворено по причинам правового, политического, социального характера, пересмотреть его и в конечном счете отклонить. Автором сделаны выводы, что решение может быть верифицировано на базе международной организации, через его учредительные органы, иные структуры, способные оказать давление, осуществление организационного контроля. Доказано, что, преследуя цель неисполнения решения, государства применяют следующие способы проверки: обжалование решения в вышестоящую инстанцию с одновременным обращением в исполнительный орган международной организации, изменение действующего международного договора (включая ограничение юрисдикции суда), его денонсация, заключение нового договора, изменение существующей практики толкования ; A state is obliged to comply with the decisions of the international court. However, the state may not be satisfied with it for legal, political, or social reasons; it may review or ultimately reject it. The author concludes that the decision can be verified based on an international organization, its constituent bodies, other structures (that can exert pressure), or through the implementation of organizational control. The states apply the following methods of verification for the decision non-execution: an appeal to a higher instance with simultaneous appeal to the executive body of an international organization; a modification of an existing international treaty (including limitation of the jurisdiction of the court); its denunciation; signing a new treaty; or amending an existing practice of interpretation.

DOI 10.15826/tetm.2020.1-2.008This article aims to discuss the reasons and consequences of the recent historical monuments' destruction in the United States. The author uses the concept of Foundation myths as well as opinion polls' results and cases from modern history to provide argumentation for the idea of ongoing polarization in American society. The results show that, although the political elites are relatively united on the issue of historical memory, there is a certain division among ordinary citizens. The causes for the recent attacks on the monuments and the historical figures they represent lies in the crisis, caused by the COVID-pandemic, economic downturn and protests over racism. However, the fundamental reason lies in the chronic socio-economic, cultural, and political difficulties, particularly income inequality, political polarization of elites and mass publics of American society. In the conclusion of the article, the author discusses how the discourse over historical figures and foundation myths shaped 2020 Presidential elections in the US and how specific agenda related to Founding Fathers was used by the US President Donald Trump during his campaign.For citation: Sherlock, T. (2020). Evaluating the Legitimacy of the American Foundation Myth. Tempus et Memoria, 1, 1–2, 76–81.Submitted: 30.10.2020Accepted: 02.12.2020 ; This article aims to discuss the reasons and consequences of the recent historical monuments' destruction in the United States. The author uses the concept of Foundation myths as well as opinion polls' results and cases from modern history to provide argumentation for the idea of ongoing polarization in American society. The results show that, although the political elites are relatively united on the issue of historical memory, there is a certain division among ordinary citizens. The causes for the recent attacks on the monuments and the historical figures they represent lies in the crisis, caused by the COVID-pandemic, economic downturn and protests over racism. However, the fundamental reason lies in the chronic socio-economic, cultural, and political difficulties, particularly income inequality, political polarization of elites and mass publics of American society. In the conclusion of the article, the author discusses how the discourse over historical figures and foundation myths shaped 2020 Presidential elections in the US and how specific agenda related to Founding Fathers was used by the US President Donald Trump during his campaign.For citation: Sherlock, T. (2020). Evaluating the Legitimacy of the American Foundation Myth. Tempus et Memoria, 1, 1–2, 76–81.Submitted: 30.10.2020Accepted: 02.12.2020

The appeal of the international commercial arbitration awards is a major issue in the dispute settlement mechanism for arbitration governed by multilateral conventions, bilateral treaties and national laws, as well as by the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 1958. Notwithstanding the importance of the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 1958, it restricts to a certain extent the scope of legal protection of arbitral awards, as it leaves national courts to challenge them by the way of possible annulment, and national courts when considering petitions for annulment decisions are vested in the power to revoke such decisions. In this respect, the resolution of these issues may raise the issue of the correlation between the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 1958 and domestic legislation of the countries in which the relevant decision may be challenged. The specific of the international commercial arbitration decision is that it cannot be appealed to any higher court. However, the absence of any form of control over the arbitral award could lead to the enforcement of such decisions, which, if rendered within the judicial system, would be overturned or modified by a higher court. Therefore, there is an institution for challenging arbitral awards in national courts. Due to the fact that the arbitration award is a form of control by national courts, the regulation of this institution is defined in the legislation of each individual country, and at the international legal level only certain aspects are regulated. These are the European Convention of 1961 and the New York Convention of 1958.

Характеристика влияния решений международных судов на правоприменение исследуется в основном в западной доктрине. Понимание роли данного источника международного права является важной предпосылкой эффективного исполнения Российской Федерацией принятых на себя международных обязательств, участия в отправления правосудия. Все возрастающая роль международных актов в российской правовой системе требует их изучения в целях правильной реализации. Целью исследования является определение роли практики международных судов в выявлении норм международного права, места судебных решений в ряду иных источников международного права. Базовым тезисом является отсутствие у судей правотворческих полномочий, что не исключает возможность интерпретации норм в новых ситуациях с учетом возникающих потребностей. Однако изменения судебной практики должны находиться в пределах допустимого толкования. В ряде случаев источниками международного права следует рассматривать консультативные заключения. Сами решения не могут порождать нормы международного права. Судебные решения следует рассматривать сквозь призму межгосударственного консенсуса, они выступают основным элементом международного обычая. Однако международная юстиция существует как независимый от государств институт, задачей которого является правоприменение и отправление международного правосудия. ; Apart from the western doctrine, not many studies have touched the topic of the influence of international courts' decisions on the enforcement. Understanding of the role of this source of the international law is an important prerequisite for the Russian Federation effective execution of the adopted international obligations and administration of justice. The increasing role of the international acts in the Russian legal system requires their studying for their correct implementation. Thus, the aim of this paper is the definition of a) the role that the international courts take in identifying the rules of the international law, as well as b) the place, which the judicial decisions occupy among other sources of the international law. The main thesis is that the judges lack legislative authorities, which does not exclude the possibility of interpreting the rules in new situations according to arising needs. Yet, the changes in jurisprudence should lie within the existing interpretation. In a number of cases, advisory opinions may serve as the sources of international law. The decisions themselves cannot lead to rules of international law. Judicial decisions should be viewed through the interstate consensus; they shoud act as the key element of the international traditions. Nevertheless, the international justice exists as an independent from states institute, the aim of which is the law enforcement and international justice administration.

Arbitration proceedings have been studied as one of the alternative forms of protection of subjective rights, freedoms and interests of individuals and legal entities, in terms of the implementation of arbitration decisions. Consideration of these issues is related to the analysis of the role of arbitration in public relations, the comparison of judicial functions inherent in courts as public authorities, and the limits of jurisdiction of arbitration courts. The division between judicial functions and the jurisdiction of arbitration courts is important. The legal nature of arbitration decisions differs from the legal nature of decisions of official judicial institutions. At the same time, under the conditions provided by law, they have executive force and can be enforced. Enforcement proceedings are considered as a system of procedural mechanisms for the execution of decisions of courts, other bodies and officials. Decisions of arbitration courts in accordance with the Law of Ukraine «On Arbitration Courts», the Law of Ukraine «On Enforcement Proceedings», the Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine and the Commercial Procedural Code of Ukraine may be enforced subject to review and admission by competent courts. At the same time, a number of issues of their implementation do not have sufficient scientific development. These questions are connected with fundamental understanding of essence of arbitration proceedings, its place in system of mechanisms of protection of the right, features of executive procedures. These issues need comprehensive research and systematization. The urgency of the topic is due to the fact that modern legislation is in dynamic development. Arbitration, as well as other out-of-court procedures for the protection of subjective rights, freedoms and interests, has become widespread in public relations. Legislation needs to be improved, it must respond in a timely, appropriate and harmonious way to the challenges that arise in society. The key to this is the creation of a relevant doctrinal approach ...

The article researches the connection between estate and judicial systems of the Russian Empire from the birth of estates in times of Peter the Great to their liquidation in 1917 by the decree of the Soviet regime. As a part of fundamental basis of the Empire estate system determined social relations and legal status of the subjects, influenced the form of rule and system of governmental bodies. In the same way estate system with its privileges and restrictions affected the Imperial judicial system. Principle of equality of subjects before law and court proclaimed by Alexander II in Court Statutes of 1864 meant establishment of all-estates court in Russia. But during the judicial reform of 1864 peasant volost' courts were preserved, and in 1889 after the abolition of justice of the peace in the most part of territory of the Empire offices of district captains with administrative and judicial functions for peasants were established. Volost' courts kept working even after the reform of local justice of 1912. The authors emphasize existence of elements of the estate system inside organisation and work of the Russian courts even in the beginning of the XXth c. that disturbed the judicial system. Local courts in Russia were finally not integrated into all-estates court system because of traditional relations existed in the Russian villages for ages. Copyright © 2017 by Academic Publishing House Researcher s.r.o. Copyright © 2017 by Sochi State University.

The paper considers the problem of interrelations between democratic political regime and legitimacy of government within a liberal and republican models of democracy. The author analyses various approaches and establishes interconnection between evolution of democracy and conceptions of legitimacy. ; В статтi розглядається проблема спiввiдношення мiж демократичним полiтичним режимом та легiтимнiстю влади в рамках лiберальної та республiканської моделей демократiї. Аналiзуючи рiзнi пiдходи, автор встановлює зв'язок мiж еволюцiєю демократiї та уявленнями про легiтимнiсть.

В настоящее время при рассмотрении демократических начал российской государственности на первый план выходят проблемы легитимности осуществления публичной власти. Провозглашая народный суверенитет и принципы народовластия, возникают определенного рода трудности в реализации конституционных положений при осуществлении органами публичной власти принадлежащих им полномочий. В статье сопоставляются между собой взаимосвязанные категории «легитимность», «суверенитет» и «народовластие». Анализируется понятие «народ», дается конституционно-правовой анализ его содержательной характеристики. Автор приходит к выводу, что понятие «народ» многоплановое и может рассматриваться не только с социологических и политологических позиций, но и с юридической. При этом следует различать участие народа в осуществлении публичной власти на различных уровнях: на федеральном, региональном и местном. Это, в свою очередь, позволяет говорить о различном конституционно-правовом статусе носителей власти – граждан. Эффективное функционирование органов власти возможно не только в случае их легального образования, но и, самое главное, образования их на основе воли большинства граждан, что придает им свойство легитимности. В статье исследуются конституционные основы легитимности органов государственной власти, делается вывод о соответствии осуществляемой ими деятельности политическим интересам российских граждан. Автор использовал метод анализа и синтеза, формально-юридический метод и исторический метод исследования. В статье анализируются особенности порядка формирования органов публичной власти в Российской Федерации. Автором рассматриваются возможности избирателей выражать свою политическую волю посредством институтов прямой (непосредственной) демократии. На основе чего делается вывод о соответствии российского законодательства представлениям демократического устройства общества. ; Nowadays, when considering the democratic principles of Russian statehood, the problems of the legitimacy of the exercise of public authority come to the fore. Declaring people's sovereignty and the principles of democracy, some difficulties arise in the implementation of constitutional provisions when public authorities exercise their powers. This article compares interrelated categories of «legitimacy», «sovereignty» and «demo-cracy». The author analyzes the notion «people» and provides the constitutional legal analysis of its content characteristic. He concludes that the concept «people» is multifaceted and can be viewed not only from sociological and political positions, but also from the legal one. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the participation of the people in the implementation of public power at various levels: at the federal, regional and local. This, in its turn, allows to talk about the different constitutional and legal status of the holders of power – the citizens. Effective functioning of government bodies is possible not only in the case of their legal formation, but also, most importantly, in the case of their formation based on the will of the majority of citizens, which grants them the legitimacy. This article explores the constitutional foundations of the legitimacy of public authorities and concludes that their activities are in line with the political interests of the Russian citizens. The author has used a method of analysis and synthesis, formal-legal method and historical method of research. This article has analyzed peculiarities in forming bodies of public power in Russian Federation. The author considers the problem of electorate's possibility to express its political will by institutes of straight (immediate) democracy. According to these matters, the author makes a conclusion of conformity of the Russian legislation to the conception of democratic society system.

An analysis of the international legal bases of implementation of decisions of the European Court of Human Rights to the national legislations of the member states of the Council of Europe is carried out. Such implementation takes various forms, and in general there is no single implementation mechanism. At the same time, the importance of implementing decisions of the European Court of Human Rights lies in the state's fulfillment of its obligations both to the world community of states and to its own citizens. Forms and methods that ensure the progressive development of national law, taking into account the practice of international courts, are considered. The synthetic research method determines the impact of ECtHR decisions on the structure of national law, which stimulates the transformation of its entire branches. It is demonstrated, how the ECtHR promotes the formation of progressive legal institutions in legal systems, exerting organizational and civilizational influence on the legal systems of states. It is emphasized, that the principle of legal certainty, by which the international court assesses vague and insufficiently clear provisions of national law, is fundamental for the implementation of the case law of the ECtHR into national laws. With this influence, the ECtHR determines the nature of lawmaking and law enforcement in a country. As a result, it is concluded, that the most effective mechanism for implementing the principle of legal certainty in a state is the adoption of general measures, contained in the pilot decisions of the ECtHR. The second important mechanism is the application of the rules of law by national courts, taking into account the case law of the ECtHR, which ensures the interpretation of human rights rules in a way that is most acceptable to the national legal system

The article analyses connection between effectiveness of bureaucracy as a component of power and legitimacy of power. The data collected from the sociological monitoring of the Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine "Ukrainian society1992-2013" and Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) were used in this investigation. WGI for Ukraine have been compared with WGI for Poland. We have pointed out that number of bureaucrats has been increased during last eight years and they have become more influent. By the way, it was happen when Party of Region had come to the ruling position under conditions of decline of confidence in political and state institutions and deepening of crisis of legitimacy. These sequences are appropriate because society evaluates legitimacy of political regime not according its attributes but according quality of governance and Worldwide Governance Indicators for Ukraine demonstrated regressive tendency in comparison with WGI for Poland. Results of both countries which have been reflected in world rates emphasize that Ukrainian bureaucracy has become the factor of delegitimation of power. In Ukrainian situation level of trust in government and its policy and support from ordinary people and businessmen fell dawn but in Poland level of trust in political and state institutions grew even at the crises time as result of considered and responsible economic policy and clearness prediction actions. Ukrainian government bureaucracy viewed the way of change as reducing the number of public servants but not set of functions that were redistributed and remained the same with old laws and rules. Therefore bureaucrats considering themselves as ruling class restricted opportunities for people and business activity. During the past twenty years as result of this situation data from the sociological monitoring of the Institute of Sociology showed that society demonstrated the lowest indicator of trust in government, prosecutors, courts and local government in 2013. Obviously that only legitimate power with bureaucracy as its important component might achieve growing of trust and support from people. In contemporary conditions legitimacy of power could be analyse not as a defined state but as a process of current creation and achievement through openness and quality of state governance and public services with affective institutions that supported by citizens. ; У статті досліджується взаємозв'язок між ефективністю бюрократії та легітимністю влади, компонентом якої вона є. Задля цього використовуються дані соціологічного моніторингу Інституту соціології НАН України «Українське суспільство 1992-2013 рр.» та індикатори ефективності вітчизняних державних владних інституцій (WGI: Worldwide Governance Indicators), показники яких співставлені з аналогами в Польщі.