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At the peak of the summer heat last week Americans turned on their flat TVs to watch the Sotomayor hearings before the House Judiciary Committee. But their anticipation mixed in some cases with a certain sense of foreboding, soon evaporated, and they turned their sets off again with a big yawn. Although the Republican senators who interrogated Judge Sotomayor put in full display the traits that make them a species close to extinction, their questions were tame if compared with those addressed to Anita Hill in 1991, and Sotomayor answered with caution and self-restraint.Although in that sad historic episode Hill was not the nominee but a witness against the confirmation of Judge Clarence Thomas, the echoes of that summer 18 years ago were still unmistakable: a panel of powerful middle aged white men sitting in the most powerful political institution in the country, aggressively questioning the veracity of each word uttered by a highly educated minority woman. She was questioned on a wide range of valid issues, from her views on the Constitution to her judicial philosophy to her position on several politically charged Supreme Court decisions, but the Southern Republican senators kept coming back to her views on the Second Amendment (right to bear arms), affirmative action and the insinuations of reverse racism and judicial activism. Aware that Judge Sonia Sotomayor will soon become the first Hispanic in the highest court of the United States regardless, rather than go after the votes of the fastest growing majority in the country, they chose to score points with their own right-wing base. In so doing, some of them appeared outright Jurassic in their tone: Senator Coburn from Oklahoma, in a pathetic imitation of Desi Arnaz's Cuban accent in the classic series I Love Lucy, started his interrogation of Judge Sotomayor by telling her she would have "some 'splaining to do". The implications were that Sotomayor is a reverse racist, an overemotional Latina who cannot control her temper and who lets her cultural identity influence her rulings. The ranking member of the Judiciary Committee, Senator Jefferson Beauregard Sessions III, Republican from Alabama, grilled Sotomayor on part of a speech she gave at Berkeley 17 years ago, where she said that, when making a judging, she would "hope that wise Latina woman, with the richness of her experience would more often than not reach abetter conclusion than a white male who has not lived that life", a concept that, Sessions insists, implies "reverse racism". There was quite little inquiry into Sotomayor's three thousand decisions on a wider variety of issues as a federal judge. Sotomayor stoically sat before the panel, answering their questions narrowly and sticking to three main answers: the role of a judge is to apply the laws established by the legislature, not to create new law, in absolute accordance with the Constitution, and precedent. In other words, the wise Latina, a Princeton lawyer, former prosecutor and currently a judge with 17 years of experience in the federal bench, ignored their worst innuendos and played along. It paid off: she will be confirmed as the first Hispanic Supreme Court judge on the floor of the Senate August 7th.The country as a whole could then move on to the intense debate taking place in Congress over health care reform. There is consensus that it is imperative to get it done soon: its expenses represent 1/6th of the national US economy, its out- of- control costs affect all Americans and threaten to bankrupt the national economy in the long term. Because of Bill Clinton's failure to get health care reform passed, Obama has from the beginning stressed the importance of speed in passing this bill, and gave Congress a lot of leeway in the details of the plan, and a deadline of early August, which apparently will not be met. Not only is the Democratic proposal unacceptable for most Republicans, who have attacked it with force, but now the Congressional Democrats are divide among themselves into three groups. The Blue Dog Democrats, mostly from the South, are fiscally conservative and do not believe the President can fund the plan without further increasing the deficit to breaking point levels. The progressives or liberals cannot accept anything less than universal coverage with a public plan to compete with the private insurance companies. In the middle, the moderates are willing to sacrifice those principles in order to get some kind of reform passed, because they fear failure more than anything else.The latter may also be the stance of the President since it is consistent with his style of leadership. His tendency to emphasize consensus and try to reconcile all groups many times results on watered down legislation, which is then claimed as a triumph for the White House. His emphasis on speeding the process and his willingness to accept the lower common denominator has made it impossible for him to get what he needs out of the primary players. With a 70% majority in the House and with 60 seats out of 100 in the Senate, the President will be hard put to explain failure in passing health care reform, since he won't be able to blame the Republicans. Speaker Pelosi, who is a strong leader and has managed to get party discipline in most cases so far, insists that she has the votes and promises to pass substantial reform, but as the deadline approaches, it appears increasingly likely that Congress will leave for its August break without a vote. In the meantime, public anxiety is on the rise: it is a complex topic, the options are sometimes hard to understand and the public is being misled by those opposed to reform.President Obama had an important opportunity to retool his message and clearly articulate why the country really needs health care reform now rather than later, last Wednesday, during his prime time press conference. He started in cue, but his message became completely obliterated when one of the journalists asked him an unrelated question about a bizarre incident involving a black Harvard professor and a white Massachusetts police sergeant. Seeing this opportunity as one of his famous "teachable moments", the President, who knows the professor personally, got ensnared in an unlikely local issue involving race and police profiling. It seem that returning from a trip to China, a Harvard professor and his driver were trying to unlock the door to his house in an affluent Cambridge neighborhood when a neighbor called the police and reported what looked to her to be an attempted break-in. When the policeman got there and questioned Professor Gates, a middle aged African American who walks with a cane, he angrily responded that this was his house, that he was a Harvard professor and that the policeman was racist and was using racial profiling in trying to stop him from entering his own house. The exchange continued for a while and ended up with Sergeant Crowley handcuffing and arresting Professor Gates, and taking him to the police station. He was released a few hours later. Obama's answer was that he did not know all the facts and that it appeared it was a misunderstanding but that the police had acted "stupidly". This was enough to ignite a major national debate that overshadowed more important issues at hand, for example, the health care discussions.While a highly paid tenured professor in the richest university in the world is an unlikely victim, and does not need the President of the United States to defend him, particularly in the city of Cambridge, which boasts a Black mayor, in the state of Massachusetts, which has a Black governor, the episode nevertheless was seized by Obama as an opportunity to have another conversation on race, of those that make Americans so uncomfortable. But the opposition did not lose a moment to portray the President as "against law enforcement", and Fox News misquoted him as saying the policeman was stupid (instead of "acted stupidly"). Obama then had to intervene again to stop the silliness, apologizing from his comment, explaining how there had been overreaction from both sides involved in the incident and inviting them both for a beer at the White House, which both the Sergeant and the Professor gladly accepted. So all ended well…just like the Sotomayor hearings. But the fact still remains that if you are Black or Hispanic in the United States, your chances of getting arrested or subdued by force by the police are much higher than if you are white Caucasian. And your chances of getting harassed by the Senate Judiciary Committee when nominated for the Supreme Court are apparently as high.Both the Supreme Court hearings and the arrest of the Harvard professor can be seen through multiple prisms: the race prism, the gender prism and the class prism. All involve unequal relations of power and their effects on the dispensing of justice and on the national psyche.Judge Sonia Sotomayor's rise from the Bronx projects to Princeton, Yale and the federal bench show that the American system works, in spite of the "ancien régime" Republican Senators from the formerly racist South. She had to overcome being poor, female and Hispanic, but was able to navigate the system and succeed, thanks to the civil rights movement of the 60s and the laws thereby derived. Similarly, Professor Henry Louis Gates, one of the best known Black literary scholars in the country, overcame poverty and a leg injury to attend Yale and the University of Cambridge's Clare College in England. He was the first African American to receive the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Fellowship and today he is a Harvard Professor and Director of W.E.B Du Bois Institute for African and African- American Research. Both are considered members of affluent intellectual elite, and have thus overcome race and class biases, but occasionally still become the victims of racism. This is deplorable enough when it comes from the less educated and working-class whites who resent their success and upper class status, but utterly shameful when exploited by the privileged Old Boys in the Senate Judiciary Committee, whose hegemony is threatened by the same laws and the same Constitution they purport to defend. Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

The 2008 campaign for the presidency has provided American citizens with surprises as well as opportunities in terms of choosing a new president. The long primary season that ran from January to June resulted in nominees - - John McCain (R) and Barack Obama (D) - - who were not the likely winners of their respective parties. As far as Democrats were concerned, Hillary Clinton was the front-runner and heir apparent to the Democratic nomination. On the Republican side, John McCain's faltering campaign in the early months of the primary season suggested that Republicans would end up selecting another nominee. All in all, the primary season provided Americans with a host of candidates one of whom might serve as a "first" - - the first African-American (Barack Obama) the first woman (Hillary Clinton), the first Hispanic (Bill Richardson), the first Morman (Mitt Romney) or the oldest nominee (John McCain).Both parties had a variety of candidates vying for the nomination of their party but it was the Democratic party that provided the most interest among citizens and media pundits alike. The primary contest between Obama and Clinton would test the mettle of both candidates as they crisscrossed the country in their respective attempt to capture delegates for the summer convention. In the end, Obama squeaked out a victory in one of the closest contests in party history. Two questions became inevitable at this point - - namely, would Hillary Clinton campaign for Obama and would supporters of Clinton, especially female voters, support Obama. On the Republican side, Rudy Giuliani, Fred Thompson, Mitt Romney, Mike Huckabee, Ron Paul were pushed aside, one by one, by a resurgent McCain campaign.Both Obama and McCain have supporters and opponents. While targeting traditional Democratic constituencies, Obama has also focused on the youthful cohort, young people 18-29 years old who have traditionally been ignored or neglected by major party candidates. Obama, however, pursued a campaign similar to that of Bill Clinton in 1992 when he too sought the support of young people. As noted in a recent article in Time Magazine (January 31, 2008), Obama is looking forward to a "youthquake" to help him win the White House. What the Clinton campaign of 1992 and the Obama campaign of 2008 have in common is the likelihood of a very close election and therefore the need to attract and recruit all segments of the American electorate. Of course, as has happened in other campaigns, young people have failed to register to vote and/or have failed to turn up on election day. Critics have argued that Obama lacks executive experience in general and in foreign policy in particular. McCain has a following among those who like his "maverick" approach to politics and willingness to buck even his own party when necessary. He was also a POW during the Vietnam War that has given him sympathy among citizens and members of the armed forces. On the other hand, McCain has been in a similar situation as George Bush (the father) - - namely conservatives who idolized Ronald Reagan were not so eager to give their support to Bush (the father) and two decades later, they have had second thoughts about the conservative credentials of McCain.Obama's and McCain's choice of running mate added excitement to the presidential contest. The junior senator from Illinois selected the longtime senator from Delaware, Joe Biden, as his running mate. By choosing Biden, Obama added a senator who had valuable experience in two very important aspects of American Politics - - namely, a legislator who had a clear understanding about the operation of the U.S. Senate and one who had foreign policy experience. In contrast, John McCain, who some thought would choose Romney to shore up his lack of expertise on economic matters, chose instead Sarah Palin, a relatively unknown governor of Alaska as his partner in the presidential contest. By choosing Palin, McCain shook up the race by attempting to bolster his support among conservatives with a very conservative running mate and to appeal to female voters by adding a woman to the Republican ticket for the first time in history. While Biden was well known among politicos and media pundits, Palin was a novelty - - unknown and therefore the likely target of media attention. Where Democrats questioned and criticized McCain's choice of Palin, Republicans, especially conservative Republicans, were very enthusiastic about her which helped to bolster the McCain-Palin ticket in the short term. Inevitably, however, both vice-presidential candidates were scrutinized since both carried "baggage" into the presidential contest. Biden has a history of verbal errors and has been criticized for "plagiarizing" comments used by other public officials. Palin has been accused of heavy-handed politics even by fellow Republicans in Alaska and with less than 50 days left in the run up to the election, she is involved in a troubling scandal involving allegations that she used her power as governor to fire the "top cop" in Alaska because he refused to fire an Alaska state trooper who divorced Palin's sister.One of the fascinating aspects of the 2008 presidential campaign is the involvement of a large number of young people - - the so-called Millenium generation - - who have been mobilized in a way not seen since young people worked to lower the voting age from 21 to 18 in the early 1970s. Although about 55% of young people voted in the 1972 presidential election, voter turnout among members of the youthful cohort has declined over the years (except for a slight upward bump in 1992) dropping to 32% during the 2000 presidential election. However, young people once again began to show interest in the electoral process and their participation increased in the 2004 and 2006 elections to about 42%. What makes this demographic important is that young people 18-29 make up approximately 44 million potential voters - - about 20% of the American electorate. Both issues and technology have played a role in energizing young people. The economy and jobs, along with terrorism and the war in Iraq, constitute the major issues identified by them in recent polls, the same issues of concern to older voters. Where younger and older voters diverge is found in the types of technology used by young voters and employed by the Obama campaign, in particular, to reach out to them. This form of communication includes Facebook and YouTube among others. It is interesting to note that young people are not a solid block with about a third identifying as Democrats, a third identifying as Republicans and a third identifying as Independents. If the youthful cohort is paying more attention to this election and has demonstrated an upward turn in participation as shown by increased turnout in the 2008 primary season, young people have the potential to play an important role in the 2008 presidential election. In fact, three out of four young people, 18-29, feel that the country is headed in the wrong direction, an indicator not good for the legacy of the Bush administration or the prospects of the McCain campaign, at least among this youthful constituency.Eight years ago, the Bush Administration inherited a balanced budget, a budget surplus and a country at peace. However, life in the U.S. changed on 9/11 but more importantly in March 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by the U.S. Moreover, the economy has deteriorated with huge budget and trade deficits, home foreclosures, infrastructure needs and the collapse of financial institutions. Against a backdrop of a very unpopular Republican president, a country at war and economic deterioration, the McCain-Obama presidential contest has taken on added importance making the 2008 presidential election very consequential for the American electorate.As the McCain and Obama campaigns are engaged in the race for the presidency, each candidate will have the opportunity to speak directly to the American people in three debates. It is very likely that the first debate on September 26 in Oxford, Mississippi will draw a large audience tuning in to watch and compare the candidates. Moreover, the one and only debate taking place in St. Louis, Missouri on October 2 between vice presidential candidates, Biden and Palin, will also draw a large audience in an effort to better understand and evaluate the candidates who might be only a heart beat away from becoming president.By September 2008 the race between Obama and McCain is considered very close as reflected by national polls and the electoral college map of states. While national polls are interesting they are not helpful since the U.S. does not select its president by the popular vote. Instead, we need to look at each state and where it falls in terms of its electoral vote allotment. In short, the country is still divided in terms of red and blue states although each campaign is trying to flip some states to their side.By mid-September, according to Cable News Network (CNN), Obama has 223 electoral votes from states that are strongly on his side or leaning toward him while McCain has 200 electoral votes from states that are strongly on his side or leaning toward him. With 538 electoral votes in play, Obama or McCain will need to secure 270 of these votes to win the election.Although there are some states where there is the possibility of reversal from one party to the other, the real focus of attention is on the handful of competitive or "battleground" states that include mid-Atlantic Virginia that hasn't voted Democratic since supporting Lyndon Johnson in 1964 but now finds itself with the McCain and Obama camps currently locked in a tight race. Large electoral states in play include Florida, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Western states that are important to both Obama and McCain are Colorado and Nevada. Small but not to be ignored is New Hampshire in the New England region of the U.S. The important point is that, taken together, these states have 115 electoral votes that are important to winning the White House.As the 2008 presidential campaign unfolds, the results will be important not only for American citizens but also for the international community. Professor of Political Science Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia USA

[ES]La memoria presente describe las actividades desarrolladas por el Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas a lo largo del año 2005. Con esta edición se ha culminado un proceso de modernización del formato y los contenidos que comenzó con la del año 2003. La Memoria anual de este año es ya una publicación totalmente bilingüe español-inglés, no sólo tiene versiones en papel y en disco, sino también una versión digital en la web institucional y, finalmente, predominan los datos, gráficos y figuras a expensas del texto corrido. Todo ello no son sino adaptaciones obligadas a los tiempos que vivimos. El año que registra esta Memoria ha estado bajo la doble conmemoración de las figuras de Einstein y de Ochoa. Del primero hemos recordado su Annus Mirabilis de 1905, cuando publicó los artículos capitales de su producción científica; se trató en este caso de una conmemoración internacional, que contaba con el apoyo insólito de Naciones Unidas y que aquí en España llevó, incluso, a celebrar actos en el Congreso de los Diputados y en el Senado, además de las necesarias exposiciones, conferencias, congresos y actividades didácticas varias. El CSIC desempeñó un papel muy activo en los actos conmemorativos de este año de Einstein, como lo tendría también en la celebración del centenario de Ochoa. Homenajes, jornadas didácticas, exposiciones, ciclos de conferencias, concesión de la medalla de oro al premio Nobel de física Cohen-Tannoudji, publicaciones y otras actividades honraron la memoria de estos dos científicos eminentes del siglo pasado, ya que no en vano, uno de ellos, Einstein, había sido residente y conferenciante en la Residencia de Estudiantes y el otro, Ochoa, había iniciado su formación científica experimental en el laboratorio del Dr. Negrín que ocupaba el edificio "Trasatlántico". En cualquier caso, las conmemoraciones de figuras ejemplares de la historia científica y la modernización de la Memoria, no son más que ; epifenómenos de una actividad institucional muy compleja que, en otro lugar he comparado con esas imágenes generadas a partir de fórmulas fractales en bifurcación infinita: tal es la impresión que producen los 126 institutos del CSIC en su día a día. A ellos y a la actividad científica dedica la atención preferente esta Memoria, que registra datos novedosos de la actividad de las áreas y de la producción científica. También es mayor el énfasis que se pone este año en la transferencia de conocimiento y resultados de investigación, por su carácter absolutamente prioritario para el futuro de la institución, y sus más de 170 patentes nacionales e internacionales solicitadas. Nuestras más de 6.700 publicaciones en revistas respetadas internacionalmente (SCI y SSCI) garantizan la calidad de nuestra producción científica. Algunas de nuestras patentes han sido licenciadas para desarrollo comercial, y nuestro enfoque orientado al trabajo en equipo refuerza nuestras capacidades para desarrollar investigación básica y aplicada altamente competitiva, con énfasis en el desarrollo de herramientas orientadas a la solución de problemas. De hecho, algunas de estas herramientas, que están siendo desarrolladas en el CSIC podrían tener ser implementadas en el futuro, contribuyendo así a la sociedad del conocimiento, y convirtiendo así la orientación translacional a la investigación del CSIC en una realidad. Este nivel de actividad científica no podría ser mantenido sin el eficiente, y a menudo invisible, apoyo de nuestra plantilla, técnicos, servicios informáticos y editoriales, y nuestro personal administrativo. Nuestro mayor agradecimiento debe ir también para ellos: además de nuestra apreciación por la estructura que nos acoge, y la infraestructura económica que nos sustenta, valoramos especialmente su coraje para explorar esta oportunidad de promover la excelencia científica y su convicción de que seremos capaces de superar este reto. De nuestra actividad científica y de otras políticas clave para el CSIC, me he ocupado de que se hiciesen publicaciones específicas y folletos que, por una parte sirviesen para informar a la sociedad de lo que hacemos y, por otra, expusiesen el punto de vista del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas sobre políticas sectoriales y temas de actualidad. Son los conocidos como "position papers" que se van publicando y que constituyen algo así como complementos a la presente Memoria. ; Otras iniciativas de la presidencia en 2005 que quiero destacar, son la puesta en marcha de una nueva Área de Cultura Científica, que está realizando una impagable labor en la comunicación social de la ciencia, de lo que es muestra la nueva web institucional. También el fomento de las políticas de equidad de género, en las que el CSIC ha venido actuando como adelantado, o el aumento mismo de la visibilidad social, que probablemente es un indicio del buen momento que atraviesa el Organismo. A ese "buen momento" deben de haber contribuido la consecución de las tan esperadas mejoras retributivas, tanto para los investigadores, como para el personal técnico y de gestión, que aprobó el Gobierno de la nación. En su haber hay que anotar también la inclusión del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas en la lista de organismos que figuran en la Ley de Agencias, cuyo anteproyecto se aprobó en el mes de julio del año de referencia. Su aprobación ha tenido lugar ya en 2006 y su puesta en marcha será, pues, objeto de la Memoria del año que viene. Pero esa es otra historia que merecerá ser contada en otra ocasión, como podemos decir parafraseando a Michael Ende. ; [EN] This annual report describes the activities undertaken by the Spanish National Research Council (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científi cas or CSIC) over the course of 2005. This edition represents the culmination of a process of modernising its format and content which began in 2003. Much of the traditional continuous text has given way to data, graphs and fi gures. Moreover, this year's report is an entirely bilingual (Spanish-English) publication, and is available not only in hard copy and on disc, but also on-line at the institute's website. These changes refl ect our efforts to keep up with the demands of today's readers. The year covered by this report was marked by the double commemoration of Einstein and Ochoa. In the case of Einstein, 2005 was the centenary of his Annus Mirabilis of 1905, when he published the four articles that formed the basis of his contribution to modern physics. This international commemoration was backed by the United Nations, and in Spain it involved a celebration at the national Congress of Deputies and Senate, as well as the usual exhibitions, conferences, lectures and teaching activities. The CSIC played a very active role in the events commemorating Einstein year, as it also did in the case of Ochoa's centenary. The memory of these eminent twentieth-century scientists was honoured with tributes to their life and work, one-day educational events, exhibitions, lecture series, awarding of a gold medal to physics Nobel laureate Cohen-Tannoudji, publications, and other activities. In both cases there were links with the scientists: Einstein was a resident and lecturer at the Residencia de Estudiantes and Ochoa began his experimental scientifi c training at the laboratory of Dr. Negrín, who occupied the "Trasatlántico" building. However, the commemoration of even such outstanding fi gures from scientifi c history as these, and the revamping of the annual re ; port, were no more than marginal phenomena in the CSIC's highly complex institutional activity, which elsewhere I have compared to those infi nitely bifurcating images generated from fractal formulae. Such is the impression that the dayto- day work of the CSIC's 126 institutes produces. This annual report focuses on these institutes and their scientifi c activity, giving an overview of the scientifi c output of the CSIC's scientifi c areas and the new directions being taken by their activity. Greater emphasis was also placed in 2005 on knowledge transfer and disseminating research results, given the absolutely priority of these activities for the institution's future, and on its 170 national and international patent applications. The quality of the CSIC's scientifi c publications is underscored by the more than 6700 papers and articles published in prestigious international journals (included in the SCI and SSCI). Some of our patents have been licensed for commercial development, and our team-work focus reinforces our ability to undertake highly competitive basic and applied research, with the emphasis on developing problem-solving tools. Indeed, some of these tools being developed by the CSIC could fi nd practical applications in the near future, thereby contributing to the knowledge society and fulfi lling the CSIC's knowledge transfer emphasis. This level of scientifi c activity could not be sustained without the effi cient, and often invisible, support of our staff, technicians, IT services, publications department, and administrative personnel. We must also extend our utmost thanks to them. As well as our appreciation of the structure which enables us to carry out our work, and the economic infrastructure that makes it possible, we also value greatly the courage to explore this opportunity to promote scientifi c excellence and the conviction that we will be able to overcome the challenges involved. I have seen to it that special-purpose publications and ad hoc brochures are produced on our scientifi c activity and other key policies concerning the CSIC so as to inform society about our work, and to state the CSIC's point of view on sectorial policies and current topics. These "position papers", as they are known, are published as a complement to this annual report. ; Other initiatives emanating from the presidency in 2005 that I would like to highlight include the setting up of a new Scientifi c Culture Area, which is doing invaluable work to communicate science to society, for instance through our new institutional website. The promotion of gender equity policies, in which the CSIC has been taking the lead, or the increased public profi le of the institution are probably the best indicators of the good moment the organisation is enjoying. To this "good moment" the obtaining of the long awaited improvement in the salaries of researchers, technical and administrative personnel, fi nally approved by national government, must also have contributed. Also on the plus side, we should note the inclusion of the CSIC on the list of bodies in the Agencies Law, the bill for which went through parliament in July 2005. The law was passed in 2006 and its implementation will be the subject of next year's annual report. But to paraphrase Michael Ende, that is another story and shall be told another time. ; Peer reviewed

Autor pokazuje kako se stil Božidarevićeva slikarstva može analizirati kao reprezentativna građa za povijest dubrovačkog društva1500-tih godina, premda se Nikola ustezao od prodornijeg promatranja svog unutarnjeg svijeta i onog vanjskog koji ga je okruživao, dočim se moglo očekivati (obzirom na njegov temperament i budući da je radio po narudžbi kapetana i trgovaca globe-trottera) da mu slike budu proviđene s više detalja onodobne vidljive stvarnosti. ; He signed himself in brush strokes only twice as: Nicolaus Rhagusinus, Nicolo Raguseo- Nikola of Dubrovnik - once in a marble medallion under the arm of Gabriel in the middle of the Annunciation, which he painted in 1513 forthe Đorđić family, the second time at the foot of the Virgin's throne on the main altar retable in the Church of Our Lady of Dance, his last work (1517). This name, until the archival discovery of his Croatian family name, fired the imagination of those researching Dubrovnik Renaissance art and even became a kind of myth. To call himself Rhagusinus in the middle of Dubrovnik undoubtedly meant a self-confident declaration vis a vis his artistic contemporaries- especially Mihajlo Hamzić and Vicko, the son of Lovro Dobričević,and even perhaps in relation to his own father whose workshop he had just left. When we stand today in front of polyptychs of this kind (which, when preserved in full, amaze us by the perfect balance of their general composition) we rarely think that they were created as bricolage. Immediately after Nikola's return from Italy he, and his father Božidar Vlatković received several very large orders. In 1495 they were given a contract for the retable of the main altar of the Franciscan church in Cavtat. The church authorities required that the central composition and figures on the left side should be composed according to the pattern of a polyptych executed almost half a century earlier by Matko Junčić in the church of the Minorite Friars in Dubrovnik, while figures on the right side were to be done according to the pattern of another altar in the same church. The saints in the upper part of the polyptych, shown down to the waist, were to be done after Junčić also, and only the central Pieta according to an earlier painting by Božidarević. The same is true of their style. Experts have very easily "reduced" Božidarević's work into the style and themes found in the Crivelli brothers and Vittore Carpaccio. But Božidarević obviously also knew the fresco paintings of Perugino and Pinturichio in the Vatican palace (Appartamento Borgia)and elsewhere in Rome where his brush may, according to Vladimir Marković, have indeed been involved. The form of a polyptych (like the form of a sonnet) helps in the construction of a figural composition, in a rationally and symmetrically balanced composition. It equalizes lighting, concentrates sight and attention: even when its constructional elements are removed, which make the composition of a polyptych, it continues to make an invisible effect for a long time. By 1500 the form of the polyptych which the "Dubrovnik School of Painting" retained until the end had become a Procrustean bed. It did not allow figures to be shown in a natural context, to be enlivened by being shown with real appurtenances, nor for any relaxation of stiff postures, or any easier breathing. Thus in Božidarević's paintings the representation of real life and the movement of the real world is only found in miniatures, on the borders of polypthychs, in "footnotes" on individual articles or when we study details "microscopically". In fact it is drapery which is the most convincing and arresting and almost tactile element of Božidarević's painting. Just as we perceive the bustle of the harbour on the model of Dubrovnik held by St Blasius so too he was fully aware of the richness of the materials which were produced at this time in Dubrovnik. Cloth was as important as salt for the trade of Dubrovnik and was a very tangible asset in the consciousness of the city. It may be paradoxical but it is accurate to say that Božidarević did not paint portraits (using patterns of characters) but portrayed materials in which his saints were clothed. It is of significance in this context that the most outstanding assistant in his workshop for which in 1507 he rented a whole floor in one of the mansions on Placa, suitable because of its good light - was Marin Kriješić who is recorded in one of the archives as "pictor sive coltrarius", painter of pictures, curtains, covers and cloth. When we consider Božidarević's landscapes we also notice a paradox. The endless journeys of the Dubrovnikians, constantly involving the sea, did not give rise to the desire to extend the picture to include real landscape even in those ordered by ship's captains, merchants, or globe-trotters. But it would have been unrealistic to expect Nikola Božidarević to show the Annunciation in Kolendić's Lopud landscape. Instead he presents the stereotyped picture of the humanists' idea of Arcadia but omitting Bellini's ploughmen and donkeys. This is no bucolic Virgilian landscape as created in the circle surrounding Giorgione - no mundane Utopia in which we might like to live. Behind Gabriel the landscape is wild and rough, behind Our Lady it is cultivated, these are more symbolic, antithetical rather than any true mise-en scene. When we first come to Božidarević's paintings we may be surprised by the fact that in spite of the very real situation within which they developed, there is a lack of any penetrating observation of either inner or outer worlds. Where details appear they largely represent a sanctified aspect of reality: spiritualiasub metaphoris corporalium, as Thomas Aquinus would say. The political, diplomatic, commercial realism of the people of Dubrovnik was, surprisingly enough, very late reflected in an art which served symbolic ends. Considered from this angle the architectural presentation of the city has something in common with butterflies which have great black eyes on their wings in order to make an impression on their surroundings and themselves. Thus in Božidarević and his predecessors we shall find no dark allegory, as measured by today's art critics, but a clear and balanced representation of the Bible message. These polyptychs provide a view of many kinds of fear (of heaven, of the sea, of plague, of Turks of all kinds, of oneself), and also of much hope. The four paintings by Božidarević which have come down to us are typologically different. This only shows us how impoverished we are not to have his entire opus. All four of Božidarević' surviving paintings were private votive offerings. Their subject must therefore be read according to the wishes of the person who ordered them. It is often considered, taking into account their formal superioriy that the Sacra conversazione of the Đođic painting and the Annunciation done for Captain Marko Kolendić are the "measure" of Božidarević's painting. If the former is his first example of a particularly popular Renaissance composition in Croatian art history, the second is his first independent central altar painting. Private orders in Dubrovnik of the time continued to demand the traditional religious, especially votive themes. But in the wider sphere new, more secular, opportunities presented themselves. A study by Vladimir Marković shows this programme to have arisen out of a combination between political intentions and the moral principles of the patrician oligarchy which coincided and were identified with the Renaissance view of Christian and especially with the classical Roman exempla. Božidarević was the contemporary of poets Džore Držić and ŠiškoMenčetić, of Mavro Vetranović. Marin Držić, the most successful writer of Dubrovnik's "Golden Age" was born when Nikola was in prison for the ribald songs. But we cannot but feel that the painter's temper remains hidden behind the porcelain surface and perfect outer symmetry of his compositions. The Dubrovnik context did not provide opportunities for the expression of strong passions. The demands for caution and order were unremitting. There might be considerable personal pride but there must never be bragging. It was not a setting for great philosophy or poetry, nor for tragedy, but for the natural sciences, economics and- along with them- comedies. Unfortunately Dubrovnik painting was fated to disappear almost unnoticed, with no fanfares or real apogee, to be drowned in the import of baroque art from the other side of the Adriatic. When we talk about Dubrovnik, the Renaissance is our first association, but the Renaissance in Croatian painting never managed fully to develop. Indeed Gothic was never fully relinquished but, rather, gradually disintegrated. Its place was taken by the counter Reformation, together with a whole packet of ready-made solutions, before the Renaissance had managed to achieve full definition. We cannot experience Nikola's paintings as Renaissance building blocks cut out from the reality of their own day. We may rather consider them as tables bearing rich fabric. His saints, enveloped in brocade, standing before an azure sky, are sunk in timeless melancholy. They are depicted in an indeterminate context as they appeared to the eye of the painter - without any later addition of colour. They did not attain the position of an academic standard for the Dubrovnik painting of the period that followed. Božidarević went ad patraim paradisi the same time as Mihajlo Hamzić, son of the German immigrant Hans, a "bombardiere" from Cologne, and Vicko Lovrin, son of Dobričević. The sudden and complete change of generations coincided with a fundamental change in the taste of the rich commercial class when it began to turn to the artists of the Bellini and Titian circle. The colours of Božidarević's painting are the most harmonious chords of Dubrovnik's "Golden Age". Of the one hundred and fifty polyptychs registered at the time of Sormano's apostolic visitation in 1573 less than one tenth remain. The Dubrovnik archives record seventeen works by Božidarević but only four have come down to us. In old cities such as Dubrovnik - colour, like everything else except stone, is recessive. What we have today is an idealized impression of what was once reality.

The infant mortality rate in Ukraine has been progressively decreasing over the past decade, but remains very high compared with the countries of the European Union. The mortality rate of infants in the first year of life in Ukraine is 2.5–3 times higher than in the EU countries, while the mortality rate of newborns during the first month of life exceeds the average European level by 6.6 times. This indicates a significant backlog of our country in the implementation of modern standards of medical care for both pregnant women and newborns using modern diagnostic and treatment methodologies.One of the most effective way that allowed to reduce significantly infant mortality and disability rates in the developed countries of the world proved to be introduction of expanded newborn screening as a tool of early detection of wide spectrum of inherited metabolic disorders (IMD) – orphan diseases caused by genetic defects of particular enzymes leading to alterations in specific metabolic pathways. As a rule, IMDs occurrence cannot be established during medical examination of newborns due to the absence of clinical symptoms. Therefore, IMDs are diagnosed in two ways: (i) with clinical manifestation in the form of "neonatal catastrophes" and/or sudden infant death syndrome, (ii) according to the results of a biochemical examination of the blood of all (asymptomatic) newborns (i.e. screening). Delays or errors in the diagnosis of these diseases often lead to irreversible damage of many organs, first of all, the brain (neurological deficits, mental retardation, oligophrenia). Newborn screening – measurement in dried blood spots, sampled in asymptomatic newborns, concentrations of a specific set of substances which characterize key processes of protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as a tool of early IMDs identification and prompt treatment initiation of affected children to prevent metabolic decompensation episodes and disability development was started in the 1960s in the United States with just one disease – phenylketonuria.By now, newborn screening programs have been implemented in more than 50 countries of the world and provide diagnostics of more than 45 IMDs. A significant (8–10 times) expanding the spectrum of IMDs that can be detected upon examination of dried blood spots on filter paper has been achieved by application of a high-throughput quantitative bioanalysis method – tandem mass spectrometry (TMS) in the late 1990s. Unlike routinely applied immunofluorimetric method allowing to measure just one biochemical agent in one blood sample, TMS allowed to analyze concentrations of several dozen substances in one dried blood spot.Currently, in Ukraine newborn screening is carried out for 4 diseases: phenylketonuria, congenital hypothyroidism, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and cystic fibrosis using the low-throughput immunofluorimetric method. In some cases, expanded newborn screening using TMS method is performed on a commercial basis in foreign laboratories. At the same time, according to the Law of Ukraine No. 2461 "On ensuring the prevention and treatment of rare diseases" dated April 15, 2014, and the Orders of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine No. 778 dated 10.27.2014, No. 919 dated December 30, 2015, and No. 731 dated June 29, 2017, "The list of rare (orphan) diseases, that lead to a reduction of patient's lifespan or their disability, and for these diseases there are well-established methods of treatment" comprises more than 60 inherited metabolic disorders.This indicates a significant backlog of our country in the issue of not only ethical and medical significance, but great social and economic importance.The key issue of the expanded newborn screening implementation using high-throughput and accurate TMS method in Ukraine is the absence of modern analytical instruments and supplementary equipment in the state medico-genetic laboratories, as well as analysts with sufficient level of training. TMS is a technically complex method based on application of expensive vacuum and chromatographic equipment, special software, isotopic labeling reagents, high-purity gases, instruments maintenance with the aid of foreign experts, as well as qualified lab staff.Such private clinical diagnostic laboratory, where TMS-measurements are performed routinely at site and biomaterials are not transferred abroad exists in Ukraine. This laboratory is capable to perform the full range of measurements at the initial stage of newborn screening (TMS-analysis) and the secondary confirmatory testing using gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry (GC/MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods, as well as enzymes activity assessment and molecular-genetic studies. On the basis of reached agreement in September 2017 it was started the development of the Program of improving the diagnostics of inherited metabolic diseases in newborns and older children in Ukraine. This Program has been initiated by the National Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine with the participation of "Association of Pediatricians of Ukraine" and "Association of Neonatologists of Ukraine", as well as membership of the "Institute of Pediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynecology named after academician O.M. Lukyanova of NAMS of Ukraine", medical universities and regional health-care providers.The purpose of the Program is to expand up to 29 the list of inherited metabolic disorders to be diagnosed in newborns and older children that allows early start of treatment and follow-up of affected patients. Wide implementation of the Program allows reducing the levels of neonatal, infant and child mortality and disability.The Program is based on the following principles: (i) a clear distribution of the responsibilities between participants considering newborn screening procedures and processes; (ii) implementation of electronic document management system to register transferring of biomaterial from the moment of sampling to presentation of laboratory measurement results, it's expert evaluation and medical recommendations for further actions; (iii) documented customer feedback to report the results and it's expert evaluation; (iv) creation of the database for calculating the threshold concentrations of biochemical markers and its' ratios (cut-off) for the Ukrainian population in order to reduce the number of false-negative and false-positive results.Financing of the Program have relied on funding of regional budgets, extra-budgetary funds and own funds of parents.The implementation of the preparatory phase of the Program was launched in Spring, 2018. The launch of the pilot part of the Program in 5 regions: Kiev, Kiev Region, Lugansk and Donetsk Regions, and the city Chernivtsi is scheduled for April 2019. The program is planned to be expanded throughout Ukraine at the end of 2020. ; Уровень детской смертности в Украине прогрессивно снижается в течение последнего десятилетия, но остается очень высоким по сравнению со странами Европейского Союза. Показатель смертности младенцев первого года жизни в Украине в 2,5-3 раза выше, чем в странах ЕС, при этом уровень смертности новорожденных в течение первого месяца жизни превышает среднеевропейский в 6,6 раз. Это свидетельствует о существенном отставании нашей страны во внедрении современных стандартов оказания медицинской помощи, как беременным женщинам, так и новорожденным с использованием современных методологий диагностики и лечения.Одним из наиболее эффективных направлений деятельности, которая обеспечила существенное снижение уровня детской смертности и инвалидности в развитых странах мира, стало внедрение расширенного массового скрининга новорожденных с целью выявления наследственных болезней обмена веществ (НБО) – орфанных заболеваний, которые возникают вследствие генетических дефектов ферментов. Наличие НБО, как правило, не удается установить при врачебном осмотре новорожденных из-за отсутствия клинических симптомов. Диагностируют НБО двумя способами: (i) по клиническим проявлениям в форме «катастроф неонатального периода» и синдрома внезапной смерти младенцев, (ii) по результатам биохимического обследования крови новорожденных (скрининга). Задержка или ошибки в диагностике этих заболеваний часто приводят к необратимым повреждениям многих органов и, в первую очередь, головного мозга (неврологические нарушения, психическое регресс, слабоумие).Неонатальный скрининг – измерение в крови новорожденных концентраций определенного набора веществ, характеризующих ключевые процессы белкового, углеводного и липидного обмена с целью раннего выявления и начала лечения детей с НБО и предотвращения их инвалидизации было начато в 60-х годах прошлого века в США с одной болезни – фенилкетонурии. Сегодня программы неонатального скрининга внедрены более, чем в 50 странах мира и обеспечивают диагностику более 45 НБО. Значительное (в 8-10 раз) расширение количества НБО, которые могут быть обнаружены при исследовании высушенных на фильтровальной бумаге пятен крови, стало возможным благодаря внедрению высокопроизводительного метода тандемной масс-спектрометрии (ТМС) в конце 90-х годов прошлого века. В отличие от иммунофлуориметрического метода, который позволяет определять один показатель в одной пробе крови, ТМС позволяет измерять концентрации нескольких десятков веществ в одной пробе крови.В настоящее время в Украине скрининг новорожденных ведется по 4-м заболеваниям: фенилкетонурии, врожденному гипотиреозу, адреногенитальному синдрому и муковисцидозу с использованием низкопродуктивного иммунофлуориметрического метода. В отдельных случаях расширенный скрининг новорожденных с использованием метода ТМС выполняется на коммерческой основе в зарубежных лабораториях. При этом, согласно Закону Украины № 2461 «Об обеспечении профилактики и лечения редких заболеваний» от 15.04.2014, и Приказов МОЗ Украины № 778 от 27.10.2014, № 919 от 30.12.2015 и № 731 от 29.06.2017, «Перечень редких (орфанных) заболеваний, приводящих к сокращению продолжительности жизни больных или их инвалидизации и для которых существуют признанные методы лечения» включает более 60 наследственных болезней обмена веществ. Это свидетельствует о значительном отставании нашей страны в вопросе, который, кроме этического и медицинского, имеет важное социальное и экономическое значение.Ключевым вопросом внедрения расширенного скрининга новорожденных с использованием высокопроизводительного и точного метода ТМС в Украине является отсутствие в государственных медико-генетических лабораториях современного аналитического оборудования и вспомогательной инфраструктуры, а также специалистов-аналитиков с достаточным уровнем подготовки. ТМС – технически сложный метод, требующий использования дорогостоящего вакуумного и хроматографического оборудования, специального программного обеспечения, реагентов с изотопными метками, высокочистых газов, сервисного обслуживания с привлечением иностранных специалистов, а также квалифицированного персонала.Учитывая наличие частной клинико-диагностической лаборатории, выполняющей ТМС-анализы в Украине, а не транспортирующей биоматериал в зарубежные лаборатории, способной выполнять весь комплекс исследований первого (массового) этапа скрининга, а также уточняющую диагностику НБО с использованием методов газовой хроматографии/масс-спектрометрии, высокоэффективной жидкостной хроматографии, определение активности ферментов и молекулярно-генетические исследования, в сентябре 2017 была начата разработка Программы усовершенствования диагностики наследственных болезней обмена веществ у новорожденных и детей старшего возраста в Украине. Инициаторами этой Программы являются Национальная академия медицинских наук Украины, ВОО «Ассоциация педиатров Украины», ВОО «Ассоциация неонатологов Украины», ГУ «ИПАГ имени академика О.М. Лукьяновой НАМН Украины», медицинские университеты и региональные лечебно-профилактические учреждения.Цель Программы – расширение до 29 нозологий перечня наследственных болезней обмена веществ, диагностируемых у новорожденных и детей старшего возраста, обеспечение своевременного медицинского сопровождения и лечения выявленных больных, что позволит снизить уровень неонатальной, младенческой и детской смертности и инвалидности. Программа базируется на следующих принципах: (i) четкое распределение сфер ответственности исполнителей, регламентированных рабочими процессами и процедурами скрининга; (ii) электронный документооборот с фиксацией движения биоматериала от момента отбора до выдачи результатов лабораторных измерений, документирование результатов их экспертной оценки и принятого решения относительно дальнейших действий; (iii) документированная обратная связь с заказчиком исследований с целью сообщения результатов и их экспертной оценки; (iv) создание информационной базы данных для расчета предельных уровней концентраций маркерных соединений (cut-off) для украинской популяции с целью снижения количества ложноотрицательных и ложноположительных результатов.Финансирование Программы планируется осуществлять за счет средств региональных бюджетов, внебюджетных фондов, собственных средств родителей.Выполнение подготовительного этапа Программы было начато весной 2018 года. Запуск пилотной части Программы в 5 регионах: Киев, Киевская область, Луганская и Донецкая области и г. Черновцы, - запланирован в апреле 2019. Расширение Программы по всей территории Украины планируется завершить в конце 2020 года. ; Рівень дитячої смертності в Україні прогресивно знижується протягом останнього десятиріччя, але лишається дуже високим у порівнянні з країнами Європейського Союзу. Показник смертності немовлят першого року життя в Україні у 2,5-3 рази вищий, ніж у країнах ЄС, при цьому рівень смертності новонароджених протягом першого місяця життя перевищує середньоєвропейський у 6,6 разів. Це свідчить про суттєве відставання нашої країни у впровадженні сучасних стандартів надання медичної допомоги як вагітним жінкам, так і новонародженим з використанням сучасних методологій діагностики та лікування.Одним з найбільш ефективних напрямків діяльності, яка забезпечила суттєве зниження рівня дитячої смертності та інвалідності у розвинутих країнах світу стало впровадження розширеного масового скринінгу новонароджених з метою виявлення спадкових хвороб обміну речовин (СХОР) – орфанних захворювань, які виникають внаслідок генетичних дефектів ферментів. Наявність СХОР, зазвичай, не вдається встановити при лікарському огляді новонароджених через відсутність клінічних симптомів. Діагностують СХОР двома способами: (і) по клінічним проявам у формі «катастроф неонатального періоду» та синдрому раптової смерті немовлят, (іі) по результатам біохімічного обстеження крові новонароджених (скринінгу). Затримка або помилки в діагностиці цих захворювань часто призводять до незворотних пошкоджень багатьох органів і, в першу чергу, головного мозку (неврологічні порушення, психічний регрес, слабоумство).Неонатальний скринінг – вимірювання у крові новонароджених концентрацій певного набору речовин, які характеризують ключові процеси білкового, вуглеводного та ліпідного обміну з метою раннього виявлення і початку лікування дітей зі СХОР та запобігання їх інвалідизації було розпочато у 60-х роках минулого століття у США з однієї хвороби – фенілкетонурії. Сьогодні програми неонатального скринінгу впроваджені більш, ніж в 50 країнах світу та забезпечують діагностику понад 45 СХОР. Значне (у 8-10 разів) розширення кількості СХОР, що можуть бути виявлені при дослідженні висушених на фільтрувальному папері плям крові, стало можливим завдяки впровадженню високопродуктивного методу тандемної мас-спектрометрії (ТМС) наприкінці 90-х років минулого століття. На відміну від імунофлюорометричного методу, який дозволяє визначати один показник в одній пробі крові, ТМС дозволяє вимірювати концентрації декількох десятків речовин в одній пробі крові.На теперішній час в Україні скринінг новонароджених впроваджено лише для 4 захворювань: фенілкетонурії, вродженого гіпотиреозу, адреногенітального синдрому та муковісцидозу, який проводиться з використанням низькопродуктивного імунофлюорометричного методу. В окремих випадках розширений скринінг новонароджених з використанням методу ТМС виконується на комерційній основі в зарубіжних лабораторіях. При цьому, згідно з Законом України № 2461 «Про забезпечення профілактики та лікування рідкісних захворювань» від 15.04.2014 та Наказами МОЗУ № 778 від 27.10.2014, № 919 від 30.12.2015 та № 731 від 29.06.2017, «Перелік рідкісних (орфанних) захворювань, що призводять до скорочення тривалості життя хворих або їх інвалідизації та для яких існують визнані методи лікування» включає більше, ніж 60 спадкових хвороб обміну речовин. Це свідчить про значне відставання нашої країни в питанні, яке, крім етичного та медичного, має важливе соціальне та економічне значення.Ключовим питанням впровадження розширеного скринінгу новонароджених з використанням високопродуктивного і точного методу ТМС в Україні є відсутність у державних медико-генетичних лабораторіях сучасного аналітичного обладнання та допоміжної інфраструктури, а також фахівців-аналітиків з певним рівнем підготовки. ТМС – технічно складний метод, який вимагає використання коштовного вакуумного та хроматографічного обладнання, спеціального програмного забезпечення, реагентів з ізотопними мітками, високочистих газів, сервісного обслуговування з залученням закордонних фахівців, а також кваліфікованого персоналу.З огляду на наявність приватної клініко-діагностичної лабораторії, яка виконує ТМС-аналізи в Україні, а не транспортує біоматеріал в закордонні лабораторії та здатна виконувати весь комплекс досліджень першого (масового) етапу скринінгу, а також уточнюючу діагностику СХОР з використанням методів газової хроматографії/мас-спектрометрії, високоефективної рідинної хроматографії, визначення активності ферментів та молекулярно-генетичні дослідження, у вересні 2017 р. було розпочато розробку Програми удосконалення діагностики спадкових хвороб обміну речовин у новонароджених і дітей старшого віку в Україні. Ініціаторами цієї Програми є Національна академія медичних наук України, ВГО «Асоціація педіатрів України», ВГО «Асоціація неонатологів України», ДУ «ІПАГ імені академіка О.М. Лук'янової НАМН України», медичні університети та регіональні лікувально-профілактичні заклади.Мета Програми – розширення до 29 нозологій переліку спадкових хвороб обміну речовин, які виявляються у новонароджених та дітей старшого віку, забезпечення своєчасного медичного супроводу та лікування виявлених хворих, що дозволить знизити рівень неонатальної, малюкової й дитячої смертності та інвалідності. Програма базується на наступних принципах: (і) чіткий розподіл відповідальності виконавців, регламентований робочими процесами та процедурами скринінгу; (іі) електронний документообіг з фіксацією руху біоматеріалу від моменту відбору до видачі результатів лабораторних визначень, документування результатів їх експертної оцінки та прийнятого рішення стосовно подальших дій; (ііі) документований зворотній зв'язок з замовником досліджень з повідомленням результатів та їх експертної оцінки; (iv) створення інформаційної бази даних для розрахунку граничних рівнів концентрацій маркерних сполук (cut-off) для української популяції з метою зниження кількості хибно-негативних та хибно-позитивних визначень.Фінансування Програми планується здійснювати за рахунок коштів регіональних бюджетів, позабюджетних фондів, власних коштів батьків.Виконання підготовчого етапу Програми було розпочато на весні 2018 року. Запуск пілотної частини Програми у 5 регіонах: м. Київ, Київська область, Луганська та Донецька області та м. Чернівці, – запланований у квітні 2019 р. Розширення Програми по всій території України планується завершити наприкінці 2020 року.

The infant mortality rate in Ukraine has been progressively decreasing over the past decade, but remains very high compared with the countries of the European Union. The mortality rate of infants in the first year of life in Ukraine is 2.5–3 times higher than in the EU countries, while the mortality rate of newborns during the first month of life exceeds the average European level by 6.6 times. This indicates a significant backlog of our country in the implementation of modern standards of medical care for both pregnant women and newborns using modern diagnostic and treatment methodologies.One of the most effective way that allowed to reduce significantly infant mortality and disability rates in the developed countries of the world proved to be introduction of expanded newborn screening as a tool of early detection of wide spectrum of inherited metabolic disorders (IMD) – orphan diseases caused by genetic defects of particular enzymes leading to alterations in specific metabolic pathways. As a rule, IMDs occurrence cannot be established during medical examination of newborns due to the absence of clinical symptoms. Therefore, IMDs are diagnosed in two ways: (i) with clinical manifestation in the form of "neonatal catastrophes" and/or sudden infant death syndrome, (ii) according to the results of a biochemical examination of the blood of all (asymptomatic) newborns (i.e. screening). Delays or errors in the diagnosis of these diseases often lead to irreversible damage of many organs, first of all, the brain (neurological deficits, mental retardation, oligophrenia). Newborn screening – measurement in dried blood spots, sampled in asymptomatic newborns, concentrations of a specific set of substances which characterize key processes of protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as a tool of early IMDs identification and prompt treatment initiation of affected children to prevent metabolic decompensation episodes and disability development was started in the 1960s in the United States with just one disease – phenylketonuria.By now, newborn screening programs have been implemented in more than 50 countries of the world and provide diagnostics of more than 45 IMDs. A significant (8–10 times) expanding the spectrum of IMDs that can be detected upon examination of dried blood spots on filter paper has been achieved by application of a high-throughput quantitative bioanalysis method – tandem mass spectrometry (TMS) in the late 1990s. Unlike routinely applied immunofluorimetric method allowing to measure just one biochemical agent in one blood sample, TMS allowed to analyze concentrations of several dozen substances in one dried blood spot.Currently, in Ukraine newborn screening is carried out for 4 diseases: phenylketonuria, congenital hypothyroidism, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and cystic fibrosis using the low-throughput immunofluorimetric method. In some cases, expanded newborn screening using TMS method is performed on a commercial basis in foreign laboratories. At the same time, according to the Law of Ukraine No. 2461 "On ensuring the prevention and treatment of rare diseases" dated April 15, 2014, and the Orders of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine No. 778 dated 10.27.2014, No. 919 dated December 30, 2015, and No. 731 dated June 29, 2017, "The list of rare (orphan) diseases, that lead to a reduction of patient's lifespan or their disability, and for these diseases there are well-established methods of treatment" comprises more than 60 inherited metabolic disorders.This indicates a significant backlog of our country in the issue of not only ethical and medical significance, but great social and economic importance.The key issue of the expanded newborn screening implementation using high-throughput and accurate TMS method in Ukraine is the absence of modern analytical instruments and supplementary equipment in the state medico-genetic laboratories, as well as analysts with sufficient level of training. TMS is a technically complex method based on application of expensive vacuum and chromatographic equipment, special software, isotopic labeling reagents, high-purity gases, instruments maintenance with the aid of foreign experts, as well as qualified lab staff.Such private clinical diagnostic laboratory, where TMS-measurements are performed routinely at site and biomaterials are not transferred abroad exists in Ukraine. This laboratory is capable to perform the full range of measurements at the initial stage of newborn screening (TMS-analysis) and the secondary confirmatory testing using gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry (GC/MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods, as well as enzymes activity assessment and molecular-genetic studies. On the basis of reached agreement in September 2017 it was started the development of the Program of improving the diagnostics of inherited metabolic diseases in newborns and older children in Ukraine. This Program has been initiated by the National Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine with the participation of "Association of Pediatricians of Ukraine" and "Association of Neonatologists of Ukraine", as well as membership of the "Institute of Pediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynecology named after academician O.M. Lukyanova of NAMS of Ukraine", medical universities and regional health-care providers.The purpose of the Program is to expand up to 29 the list of inherited metabolic disorders to be diagnosed in newborns and older children that allows early start of treatment and follow-up of affected patients. Wide implementation of the Program allows reducing the levels of neonatal, infant and child mortality and disability.The Program is based on the following principles: (i) a clear distribution of the responsibilities between participants considering newborn screening procedures and processes; (ii) implementation of electronic document management system to register transferring of biomaterial from the moment of sampling to presentation of laboratory measurement results, it's expert evaluation and medical recommendations for further actions; (iii) documented customer feedback to report the results and it's expert evaluation; (iv) creation of the database for calculating the threshold concentrations of biochemical markers and its' ratios (cut-off) for the Ukrainian population in order to reduce the number of false-negative and false-positive results.Financing of the Program have relied on funding of regional budgets, extra-budgetary funds and own funds of parents.The implementation of the preparatory phase of the Program was launched in Spring, 2018. The launch of the pilot part of the Program in 5 regions: Kiev, Kiev Region, Lugansk and Donetsk Regions, and the city Chernivtsi is scheduled for April 2019. The program is planned to be expanded throughout Ukraine at the end of 2020. ; Уровень детской смертности в Украине прогрессивно снижается в течение последнего десятилетия, но остается очень высоким по сравнению со странами Европейского Союза. Показатель смертности младенцев первого года жизни в Украине в 2,5-3 раза выше, чем в странах ЕС, при этом уровень смертности новорожденных в течение первого месяца жизни превышает среднеевропейский в 6,6 раз. Это свидетельствует о существенном отставании нашей страны во внедрении современных стандартов оказания медицинской помощи, как беременным женщинам, так и новорожденным с использованием современных методологий диагностики и лечения.Одним из наиболее эффективных направлений деятельности, которая обеспечила существенное снижение уровня детской смертности и инвалидности в развитых странах мира, стало внедрение расширенного массового скрининга новорожденных с целью выявления наследственных болезней обмена веществ (НБО) – орфанных заболеваний, которые возникают вследствие генетических дефектов ферментов. Наличие НБО, как правило, не удается установить при врачебном осмотре новорожденных из-за отсутствия клинических симптомов. Диагностируют НБО двумя способами: (i) по клиническим проявлениям в форме «катастроф неонатального периода» и синдрома внезапной смерти младенцев, (ii) по результатам биохимического обследования крови новорожденных (скрининга). Задержка или ошибки в диагностике этих заболеваний часто приводят к необратимым повреждениям многих органов и, в первую очередь, головного мозга (неврологические нарушения, психическое регресс, слабоумие).Неонатальный скрининг – измерение в крови новорожденных концентраций определенного набора веществ, характеризующих ключевые процессы белкового, углеводного и липидного обмена с целью раннего выявления и начала лечения детей с НБО и предотвращения их инвалидизации было начато в 60-х годах прошлого века в США с одной болезни – фенилкетонурии. Сегодня программы неонатального скрининга внедрены более, чем в 50 странах мира и обеспечивают диагностику более 45 НБО. Значительное (в 8-10 раз) расширение количества НБО, которые могут быть обнаружены при исследовании высушенных на фильтровальной бумаге пятен крови, стало возможным благодаря внедрению высокопроизводительного метода тандемной масс-спектрометрии (ТМС) в конце 90-х годов прошлого века. В отличие от иммунофлуориметрического метода, который позволяет определять один показатель в одной пробе крови, ТМС позволяет измерять концентрации нескольких десятков веществ в одной пробе крови.В настоящее время в Украине скрининг новорожденных ведется по 4-м заболеваниям: фенилкетонурии, врожденному гипотиреозу, адреногенитальному синдрому и муковисцидозу с использованием низкопродуктивного иммунофлуориметрического метода. В отдельных случаях расширенный скрининг новорожденных с использованием метода ТМС выполняется на коммерческой основе в зарубежных лабораториях. При этом, согласно Закону Украины № 2461 «Об обеспечении профилактики и лечения редких заболеваний» от 15.04.2014, и Приказов МОЗ Украины № 778 от 27.10.2014, № 919 от 30.12.2015 и № 731 от 29.06.2017, «Перечень редких (орфанных) заболеваний, приводящих к сокращению продолжительности жизни больных или их инвалидизации и для которых существуют признанные методы лечения» включает более 60 наследственных болезней обмена веществ. Это свидетельствует о значительном отставании нашей страны в вопросе, который, кроме этического и медицинского, имеет важное социальное и экономическое значение.Ключевым вопросом внедрения расширенного скрининга новорожденных с использованием высокопроизводительного и точного метода ТМС в Украине является отсутствие в государственных медико-генетических лабораториях современного аналитического оборудования и вспомогательной инфраструктуры, а также специалистов-аналитиков с достаточным уровнем подготовки. ТМС – технически сложный метод, требующий использования дорогостоящего вакуумного и хроматографического оборудования, специального программного обеспечения, реагентов с изотопными метками, высокочистых газов, сервисного обслуживания с привлечением иностранных специалистов, а также квалифицированного персонала.Учитывая наличие частной клинико-диагностической лаборатории, выполняющей ТМС-анализы в Украине, а не транспортирующей биоматериал в зарубежные лаборатории, способной выполнять весь комплекс исследований первого (массового) этапа скрининга, а также уточняющую диагностику НБО с использованием методов газовой хроматографии/масс-спектрометрии, высокоэффективной жидкостной хроматографии, определение активности ферментов и молекулярно-генетические исследования, в сентябре 2017 была начата разработка Программы усовершенствования диагностики наследственных болезней обмена веществ у новорожденных и детей старшего возраста в Украине. Инициаторами этой Программы являются Национальная академия медицинских наук Украины, ВОО «Ассоциация педиатров Украины», ВОО «Ассоциация неонатологов Украины», ГУ «ИПАГ имени академика О.М. Лукьяновой НАМН Украины», медицинские университеты и региональные лечебно-профилактические учреждения.Цель Программы – расширение до 29 нозологий перечня наследственных болезней обмена веществ, диагностируемых у новорожденных и детей старшего возраста, обеспечение своевременного медицинского сопровождения и лечения выявленных больных, что позволит снизить уровень неонатальной, младенческой и детской смертности и инвалидности. Программа базируется на следующих принципах: (i) четкое распределение сфер ответственности исполнителей, регламентированных рабочими процессами и процедурами скрининга; (ii) электронный документооборот с фиксацией движения биоматериала от момента отбора до выдачи результатов лабораторных измерений, документирование результатов их экспертной оценки и принятого решения относительно дальнейших действий; (iii) документированная обратная связь с заказчиком исследований с целью сообщения результатов и их экспертной оценки; (iv) создание информационной базы данных для расчета предельных уровней концентраций маркерных соединений (cut-off) для украинской популяции с целью снижения количества ложноотрицательных и ложноположительных результатов.Финансирование Программы планируется осуществлять за счет средств региональных бюджетов, внебюджетных фондов, собственных средств родителей.Выполнение подготовительного этапа Программы было начато весной 2018 года. Запуск пилотной части Программы в 5 регионах: Киев, Киевская область, Луганская и Донецкая области и г. Черновцы, - запланирован в апреле 2019. Расширение Программы по всей территории Украины планируется завершить в конце 2020 года. ; Рівень дитячої смертності в Україні прогресивно знижується протягом останнього десятиріччя, але лишається дуже високим у порівнянні з країнами Європейського Союзу. Показник смертності немовлят першого року життя в Україні у 2,5-3 рази вищий, ніж у країнах ЄС, при цьому рівень смертності новонароджених протягом першого місяця життя перевищує середньоєвропейський у 6,6 разів. Це свідчить про суттєве відставання нашої країни у впровадженні сучасних стандартів надання медичної допомоги як вагітним жінкам, так і новонародженим з використанням сучасних методологій діагностики та лікування.Одним з найбільш ефективних напрямків діяльності, яка забезпечила суттєве зниження рівня дитячої смертності та інвалідності у розвинутих країнах світу стало впровадження розширеного масового скринінгу новонароджених з метою виявлення спадкових хвороб обміну речовин (СХОР) – орфанних захворювань, які виникають внаслідок генетичних дефектів ферментів. Наявність СХОР, зазвичай, не вдається встановити при лікарському огляді новонароджених через відсутність клінічних симптомів. Діагностують СХОР двома способами: (і) по клінічним проявам у формі «катастроф неонатального періоду» та синдрому раптової смерті немовлят, (іі) по результатам біохімічного обстеження крові новонароджених (скринінгу). Затримка або помилки в діагностиці цих захворювань часто призводять до незворотних пошкоджень багатьох органів і, в першу чергу, головного мозку (неврологічні порушення, психічний регрес, слабоумство).Неонатальний скринінг – вимірювання у крові новонароджених концентрацій певного набору речовин, які характеризують ключові процеси білкового, вуглеводного та ліпідного обміну з метою раннього виявлення і початку лікування дітей зі СХОР та запобігання їх інвалідизації було розпочато у 60-х роках минулого століття у США з однієї хвороби – фенілкетонурії. Сьогодні програми неонатального скринінгу впроваджені більш, ніж в 50 країнах світу та забезпечують діагностику понад 45 СХОР. Значне (у 8-10 разів) розширення кількості СХОР, що можуть бути виявлені при дослідженні висушених на фільтрувальному папері плям крові, стало можливим завдяки впровадженню високопродуктивного методу тандемної мас-спектрометрії (ТМС) наприкінці 90-х років минулого століття. На відміну від імунофлюорометричного методу, який дозволяє визначати один показник в одній пробі крові, ТМС дозволяє вимірювати концентрації декількох десятків речовин в одній пробі крові.На теперішній час в Україні скринінг новонароджених впроваджено лише для 4 захворювань: фенілкетонурії, вродженого гіпотиреозу, адреногенітального синдрому та муковісцидозу, який проводиться з використанням низькопродуктивного імунофлюорометричного методу. В окремих випадках розширений скринінг новонароджених з використанням методу ТМС виконується на комерційній основі в зарубіжних лабораторіях. При цьому, згідно з Законом України № 2461 «Про забезпечення профілактики та лікування рідкісних захворювань» від 15.04.2014 та Наказами МОЗУ № 778 від 27.10.2014, № 919 від 30.12.2015 та № 731 від 29.06.2017, «Перелік рідкісних (орфанних) захворювань, що призводять до скорочення тривалості життя хворих або їх інвалідизації та для яких існують визнані методи лікування» включає більше, ніж 60 спадкових хвороб обміну речовин. Це свідчить про значне відставання нашої країни в питанні, яке, крім етичного та медичного, має важливе соціальне та економічне значення.Ключовим питанням впровадження розширеного скринінгу новонароджених з використанням високопродуктивного і точного методу ТМС в Україні є відсутність у державних медико-генетичних лабораторіях сучасного аналітичного обладнання та допоміжної інфраструктури, а також фахівців-аналітиків з певним рівнем підготовки. ТМС – технічно складний метод, який вимагає використання коштовного вакуумного та хроматографічного обладнання, спеціального програмного забезпечення, реагентів з ізотопними мітками, високочистих газів, сервісного обслуговування з залученням закордонних фахівців, а також кваліфікованого персоналу.З огляду на наявність приватної клініко-діагностичної лабораторії, яка виконує ТМС-аналізи в Україні, а не транспортує біоматеріал в закордонні лабораторії та здатна виконувати весь комплекс досліджень першого (масового) етапу скринінгу, а також уточнюючу діагностику СХОР з використанням методів газової хроматографії/мас-спектрометрії, високоефективної рідинної хроматографії, визначення активності ферментів та молекулярно-генетичні дослідження, у вересні 2017 р. було розпочато розробку Програми удосконалення діагностики спадкових хвороб обміну речовин у новонароджених і дітей старшого віку в Україні. Ініціаторами цієї Програми є Національна академія медичних наук України, ВГО «Асоціація педіатрів України», ВГО «Асоціація неонатологів України», ДУ «ІПАГ імені академіка О.М. Лук'янової НАМН України», медичні університети та регіональні лікувально-профілактичні заклади.Мета Програми – розширення до 29 нозологій переліку спадкових хвороб обміну речовин, які виявляються у новонароджених та дітей старшого віку, забезпечення своєчасного медичного супроводу та лікування виявлених хворих, що дозволить знизити рівень неонатальної, малюкової й дитячої смертності та інвалідності. Програма базується на наступних принципах: (і) чіткий розподіл відповідальності виконавців, регламентований робочими процесами та процедурами скринінгу; (іі) електронний документообіг з фіксацією руху біоматеріалу від моменту відбору до видачі результатів лабораторних визначень, документування результатів їх експертної оцінки та прийнятого рішення стосовно подальших дій; (ііі) документований зворотній зв'язок з замовником досліджень з повідомленням результатів та їх експертної оцінки; (iv) створення інформаційної бази даних для розрахунку граничних рівнів концентрацій маркерних сполук (cut-off) для української популяції з метою зниження кількості хибно-негативних та хибно-позитивних визначень.Фінансування Програми планується здійснювати за рахунок коштів регіональних бюджетів, позабюджетних фондів, власних коштів батьків.Виконання підготовчого етапу Програми було розпочато на весні 2018 року. Запуск пілотної частини Програми у 5 регіонах: м. Київ, Київська область, Луганська та Донецька області та м. Чернівці, – запланований у квітні 2019 р. Розширення Програми по всій території України планується завершити наприкінці 2020 року.

The infant mortality rate in Ukraine has been progressively decreasing over the past decade, but remains very high compared with the countries of the European Union. The mortality rate of infants in the first year of life in Ukraine is 2.5–3 times higher than in the EU countries, while the mortality rate of newborns during the first month of life exceeds the average European level by 6.6 times. This indicates a significant backlog of our country in the implementation of modern standards of medical care for both pregnant women and newborns using modern diagnostic and treatment methodologies.One of the most effective way that allowed to reduce significantly infant mortality and disability rates in the developed countries of the world proved to be introduction of expanded newborn screening as a tool of early detection of wide spectrum of inherited metabolic disorders (IMD) – orphan diseases caused by genetic defects of particular enzymes leading to alterations in specific metabolic pathways. As a rule, IMDs occurrence cannot be established during medical examination of newborns due to the absence of clinical symptoms. Therefore, IMDs are diagnosed in two ways: (i) with clinical manifestation in the form of "neonatal catastrophes" and/or sudden infant death syndrome, (ii) according to the results of a biochemical examination of the blood of all (asymptomatic) newborns (i.e. screening). Delays or errors in the diagnosis of these diseases often lead to irreversible damage of many organs, first of all, the brain (neurological deficits, mental retardation, oligophrenia). Newborn screening – measurement in dried blood spots, sampled in asymptomatic newborns, concentrations of a specific set of substances which characterize key processes of protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as a tool of early IMDs identification and prompt treatment initiation of affected children to prevent metabolic decompensation episodes and disability development was started in the 1960s in the United States with just one disease – phenylketonuria.By now, newborn screening programs have been implemented in more than 50 countries of the world and provide diagnostics of more than 45 IMDs. A significant (8–10 times) expanding the spectrum of IMDs that can be detected upon examination of dried blood spots on filter paper has been achieved by application of a high-throughput quantitative bioanalysis method – tandem mass spectrometry (TMS) in the late 1990s. Unlike routinely applied immunofluorimetric method allowing to measure just one biochemical agent in one blood sample, TMS allowed to analyze concentrations of several dozen substances in one dried blood spot.Currently, in Ukraine newborn screening is carried out for 4 diseases: phenylketonuria, congenital hypothyroidism, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and cystic fibrosis using the low-throughput immunofluorimetric method. In some cases, expanded newborn screening using TMS method is performed on a commercial basis in foreign laboratories. At the same time, according to the Law of Ukraine No. 2461 "On ensuring the prevention and treatment of rare diseases" dated April 15, 2014, and the Orders of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine No. 778 dated 10.27.2014, No. 919 dated December 30, 2015, and No. 731 dated June 29, 2017, "The list of rare (orphan) diseases, that lead to a reduction of patient's lifespan or their disability, and for these diseases there are well-established methods of treatment" comprises more than 60 inherited metabolic disorders.This indicates a significant backlog of our country in the issue of not only ethical and medical significance, but great social and economic importance.The key issue of the expanded newborn screening implementation using high-throughput and accurate TMS method in Ukraine is the absence of modern analytical instruments and supplementary equipment in the state medico-genetic laboratories, as well as analysts with sufficient level of training. TMS is a technically complex method based on application of expensive vacuum and chromatographic equipment, special software, isotopic labeling reagents, high-purity gases, instruments maintenance with the aid of foreign experts, as well as qualified lab staff.Such private clinical diagnostic laboratory, where TMS-measurements are performed routinely at site and biomaterials are not transferred abroad exists in Ukraine. This laboratory is capable to perform the full range of measurements at the initial stage of newborn screening (TMS-analysis) and the secondary confirmatory testing using gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry (GC/MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods, as well as enzymes activity assessment and molecular-genetic studies. On the basis of reached agreement in September 2017 it was started the development of the Program of improving the diagnostics of inherited metabolic diseases in newborns and older children in Ukraine. This Program has been initiated by the National Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine with the participation of "Association of Pediatricians of Ukraine" and "Association of Neonatologists of Ukraine", as well as membership of the "Institute of Pediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynecology named after academician O.M. Lukyanova of NAMS of Ukraine", medical universities and regional health-care providers.The purpose of the Program is to expand up to 29 the list of inherited metabolic disorders to be diagnosed in newborns and older children that allows early start of treatment and follow-up of affected patients. Wide implementation of the Program allows reducing the levels of neonatal, infant and child mortality and disability.The Program is based on the following principles: (i) a clear distribution of the responsibilities between participants considering newborn screening procedures and processes; (ii) implementation of electronic document management system to register transferring of biomaterial from the moment of sampling to presentation of laboratory measurement results, it's expert evaluation and medical recommendations for further actions; (iii) documented customer feedback to report the results and it's expert evaluation; (iv) creation of the database for calculating the threshold concentrations of biochemical markers and its' ratios (cut-off) for the Ukrainian population in order to reduce the number of false-negative and false-positive results.Financing of the Program have relied on funding of regional budgets, extra-budgetary funds and own funds of parents.The implementation of the preparatory phase of the Program was launched in Spring, 2018. The launch of the pilot part of the Program in 5 regions: Kiev, Kiev Region, Lugansk and Donetsk Regions, and the city Chernivtsi is scheduled for April 2019. The program is planned to be expanded throughout Ukraine at the end of 2020. ; Уровень детской смертности в Украине прогрессивно снижается в течение последнего десятилетия, но остается очень высоким по сравнению со странами Европейского Союза. Показатель смертности младенцев первого года жизни в Украине в 2,5-3 раза выше, чем в странах ЕС, при этом уровень смертности новорожденных в течение первого месяца жизни превышает среднеевропейский в 6,6 раз. Это свидетельствует о существенном отставании нашей страны во внедрении современных стандартов оказания медицинской помощи, как беременным женщинам, так и новорожденным с использованием современных методологий диагностики и лечения.Одним из наиболее эффективных направлений деятельности, которая обеспечила существенное снижение уровня детской смертности и инвалидности в развитых странах мира, стало внедрение расширенного массового скрининга новорожденных с целью выявления наследственных болезней обмена веществ (НБО) – орфанных заболеваний, которые возникают вследствие генетических дефектов ферментов. Наличие НБО, как правило, не удается установить при врачебном осмотре новорожденных из-за отсутствия клинических симптомов. Диагностируют НБО двумя способами: (i) по клиническим проявлениям в форме «катастроф неонатального периода» и синдрома внезапной смерти младенцев, (ii) по результатам биохимического обследования крови новорожденных (скрининга). Задержка или ошибки в диагностике этих заболеваний часто приводят к необратимым повреждениям многих органов и, в первую очередь, головного мозга (неврологические нарушения, психическое регресс, слабоумие).Неонатальный скрининг – измерение в крови новорожденных концентраций определенного набора веществ, характеризующих ключевые процессы белкового, углеводного и липидного обмена с целью раннего выявления и начала лечения детей с НБО и предотвращения их инвалидизации было начато в 60-х годах прошлого века в США с одной болезни – фенилкетонурии. Сегодня программы неонатального скрининга внедрены более, чем в 50 странах мира и обеспечивают диагностику более 45 НБО. Значительное (в 8-10 раз) расширение количества НБО, которые могут быть обнаружены при исследовании высушенных на фильтровальной бумаге пятен крови, стало возможным благодаря внедрению высокопроизводительного метода тандемной масс-спектрометрии (ТМС) в конце 90-х годов прошлого века. В отличие от иммунофлуориметрического метода, который позволяет определять один показатель в одной пробе крови, ТМС позволяет измерять концентрации нескольких десятков веществ в одной пробе крови.В настоящее время в Украине скрининг новорожденных ведется по 4-м заболеваниям: фенилкетонурии, врожденному гипотиреозу, адреногенитальному синдрому и муковисцидозу с использованием низкопродуктивного иммунофлуориметрического метода. В отдельных случаях расширенный скрининг новорожденных с использованием метода ТМС выполняется на коммерческой основе в зарубежных лабораториях. При этом, согласно Закону Украины № 2461 «Об обеспечении профилактики и лечения редких заболеваний» от 15.04.2014, и Приказов МОЗ Украины № 778 от 27.10.2014, № 919 от 30.12.2015 и № 731 от 29.06.2017, «Перечень редких (орфанных) заболеваний, приводящих к сокращению продолжительности жизни больных или их инвалидизации и для которых существуют признанные методы лечения» включает более 60 наследственных болезней обмена веществ. Это свидетельствует о значительном отставании нашей страны в вопросе, который, кроме этического и медицинского, имеет важное социальное и экономическое значение.Ключевым вопросом внедрения расширенного скрининга новорожденных с использованием высокопроизводительного и точного метода ТМС в Украине является отсутствие в государственных медико-генетических лабораториях современного аналитического оборудования и вспомогательной инфраструктуры, а также специалистов-аналитиков с достаточным уровнем подготовки. ТМС – технически сложный метод, требующий использования дорогостоящего вакуумного и хроматографического оборудования, специального программного обеспечения, реагентов с изотопными метками, высокочистых газов, сервисного обслуживания с привлечением иностранных специалистов, а также квалифицированного персонала.Учитывая наличие частной клинико-диагностической лаборатории, выполняющей ТМС-анализы в Украине, а не транспортирующей биоматериал в зарубежные лаборатории, способной выполнять весь комплекс исследований первого (массового) этапа скрининга, а также уточняющую диагностику НБО с использованием методов газовой хроматографии/масс-спектрометрии, высокоэффективной жидкостной хроматографии, определение активности ферментов и молекулярно-генетические исследования, в сентябре 2017 была начата разработка Программы усовершенствования диагностики наследственных болезней обмена веществ у новорожденных и детей старшего возраста в Украине. Инициаторами этой Программы являются Национальная академия медицинских наук Украины, ВОО «Ассоциация педиатров Украины», ВОО «Ассоциация неонатологов Украины», ГУ «ИПАГ имени академика О.М. Лукьяновой НАМН Украины», медицинские университеты и региональные лечебно-профилактические учреждения.Цель Программы – расширение до 29 нозологий перечня наследственных болезней обмена веществ, диагностируемых у новорожденных и детей старшего возраста, обеспечение своевременного медицинского сопровождения и лечения выявленных больных, что позволит снизить уровень неонатальной, младенческой и детской смертности и инвалидности. Программа базируется на следующих принципах: (i) четкое распределение сфер ответственности исполнителей, регламентированных рабочими процессами и процедурами скрининга; (ii) электронный документооборот с фиксацией движения биоматериала от момента отбора до выдачи результатов лабораторных измерений, документирование результатов их экспертной оценки и принятого решения относительно дальнейших действий; (iii) документированная обратная связь с заказчиком исследований с целью сообщения результатов и их экспертной оценки; (iv) создание информационной базы данных для расчета предельных уровней концентраций маркерных соединений (cut-off) для украинской популяции с целью снижения количества ложноотрицательных и ложноположительных результатов.Финансирование Программы планируется осуществлять за счет средств региональных бюджетов, внебюджетных фондов, собственных средств родителей.Выполнение подготовительного этапа Программы было начато весной 2018 года. Запуск пилотной части Программы в 5 регионах: Киев, Киевская область, Луганская и Донецкая области и г. Черновцы, - запланирован в апреле 2019. Расширение Программы по всей территории Украины планируется завершить в конце 2020 года. ; Рівень дитячої смертності в Україні прогресивно знижується протягом останнього десятиріччя, але лишається дуже високим у порівнянні з країнами Європейського Союзу. Показник смертності немовлят першого року життя в Україні у 2,5-3 рази вищий, ніж у країнах ЄС, при цьому рівень смертності новонароджених протягом першого місяця життя перевищує середньоєвропейський у 6,6 разів. Це свідчить про суттєве відставання нашої країни у впровадженні сучасних стандартів надання медичної допомоги як вагітним жінкам, так і новонародженим з використанням сучасних методологій діагностики та лікування.Одним з найбільш ефективних напрямків діяльності, яка забезпечила суттєве зниження рівня дитячої смертності та інвалідності у розвинутих країнах світу стало впровадження розширеного масового скринінгу новонароджених з метою виявлення спадкових хвороб обміну речовин (СХОР) – орфанних захворювань, які виникають внаслідок генетичних дефектів ферментів. Наявність СХОР, зазвичай, не вдається встановити при лікарському огляді новонароджених через відсутність клінічних симптомів. Діагностують СХОР двома способами: (і) по клінічним проявам у формі «катастроф неонатального періоду» та синдрому раптової смерті немовлят, (іі) по результатам біохімічного обстеження крові новонароджених (скринінгу). Затримка або помилки в діагностиці цих захворювань часто призводять до незворотних пошкоджень багатьох органів і, в першу чергу, головного мозку (неврологічні порушення, психічний регрес, слабоумство).Неонатальний скринінг – вимірювання у крові новонароджених концентрацій певного набору речовин, які характеризують ключові процеси білкового, вуглеводного та ліпідного обміну з метою раннього виявлення і початку лікування дітей зі СХОР та запобігання їх інвалідизації було розпочато у 60-х роках минулого століття у США з однієї хвороби – фенілкетонурії. Сьогодні програми неонатального скринінгу впроваджені більш, ніж в 50 країнах світу та забезпечують діагностику понад 45 СХОР. Значне (у 8-10 разів) розширення кількості СХОР, що можуть бути виявлені при дослідженні висушених на фільтрувальному папері плям крові, стало можливим завдяки впровадженню високопродуктивного методу тандемної мас-спектрометрії (ТМС) наприкінці 90-х років минулого століття. На відміну від імунофлюорометричного методу, який дозволяє визначати один показник в одній пробі крові, ТМС дозволяє вимірювати концентрації декількох десятків речовин в одній пробі крові.На теперішній час в Україні скринінг новонароджених впроваджено лише для 4 захворювань: фенілкетонурії, вродженого гіпотиреозу, адреногенітального синдрому та муковісцидозу, який проводиться з використанням низькопродуктивного імунофлюорометричного методу. В окремих випадках розширений скринінг новонароджених з використанням методу ТМС виконується на комерційній основі в зарубіжних лабораторіях. При цьому, згідно з Законом України № 2461 «Про забезпечення профілактики та лікування рідкісних захворювань» від 15.04.2014 та Наказами МОЗУ № 778 від 27.10.2014, № 919 від 30.12.2015 та № 731 від 29.06.2017, «Перелік рідкісних (орфанних) захворювань, що призводять до скорочення тривалості життя хворих або їх інвалідизації та для яких існують визнані методи лікування» включає більше, ніж 60 спадкових хвороб обміну речовин. Це свідчить про значне відставання нашої країни в питанні, яке, крім етичного та медичного, має важливе соціальне та економічне значення.Ключовим питанням впровадження розширеного скринінгу новонароджених з використанням високопродуктивного і точного методу ТМС в Україні є відсутність у державних медико-генетичних лабораторіях сучасного аналітичного обладнання та допоміжної інфраструктури, а також фахівців-аналітиків з певним рівнем підготовки. ТМС – технічно складний метод, який вимагає використання коштовного вакуумного та хроматографічного обладнання, спеціального програмного забезпечення, реагентів з ізотопними мітками, високочистих газів, сервісного обслуговування з залученням закордонних фахівців, а також кваліфікованого персоналу.З огляду на наявність приватної клініко-діагностичної лабораторії, яка виконує ТМС-аналізи в Україні, а не транспортує біоматеріал в закордонні лабораторії та здатна виконувати весь комплекс досліджень першого (масового) етапу скринінгу, а також уточнюючу діагностику СХОР з використанням методів газової хроматографії/мас-спектрометрії, високоефективної рідинної хроматографії, визначення активності ферментів та молекулярно-генетичні дослідження, у вересні 2017 р. було розпочато розробку Програми удосконалення діагностики спадкових хвороб обміну речовин у новонароджених і дітей старшого віку в Україні. Ініціаторами цієї Програми є Національна академія медичних наук України, ВГО «Асоціація педіатрів України», ВГО «Асоціація неонатологів України», ДУ «ІПАГ імені академіка О.М. Лук'янової НАМН України», медичні університети та регіональні лікувально-профілактичні заклади.Мета Програми – розширення до 29 нозологій переліку спадкових хвороб обміну речовин, які виявляються у новонароджених та дітей старшого віку, забезпечення своєчасного медичного супроводу та лікування виявлених хворих, що дозволить знизити рівень неонатальної, малюкової й дитячої смертності та інвалідності. Програма базується на наступних принципах: (і) чіткий розподіл відповідальності виконавців, регламентований робочими процесами та процедурами скринінгу; (іі) електронний документообіг з фіксацією руху біоматеріалу від моменту відбору до видачі результатів лабораторних визначень, документування результатів їх експертної оцінки та прийнятого рішення стосовно подальших дій; (ііі) документований зворотній зв'язок з замовником досліджень з повідомленням результатів та їх експертної оцінки; (iv) створення інформаційної бази даних для розрахунку граничних рівнів концентрацій маркерних сполук (cut-off) для української популяції з метою зниження кількості хибно-негативних та хибно-позитивних визначень.Фінансування Програми планується здійснювати за рахунок коштів регіональних бюджетів, позабюджетних фондів, власних коштів батьків.Виконання підготовчого етапу Програми було розпочато на весні 2018 року. Запуск пілотної частини Програми у 5 регіонах: м. Київ, Київська область, Луганська та Донецька області та м. Чернівці, – запланований у квітні 2019 р. Розширення Програми по всій території України планується завершити наприкінці 2020 року.

The thesis provides a complex analysis of the technologies of political marketing in the activities of political parties. Theoretical and methodological basis of research of problem fields are identified and patterns of formation and development of political marketing in political science are defined. The aim of the research was to determine the patterns of political marketing in Ukraine and specifics use of marketing techniques in political parties. The differences of scientific categories «marketing technologies of political party» and «technologies of political marketing» which are using by political parties are highlighted. The marketing technologies of political parties is meant as the totality of methods and means for promoting political products. The technologies of political marketing are defined as a set of practices in creating, maintaining and developing political relations between political actors by using political market products.According to the marketing strategy of positioning the Ukrainian political parties and key party product (ideology / «package of programs» / image ideology) the essence of technologies of political marketing that are used by political parties in their work, namely in design of party image, definition of party people, naming, creating ideological platform, design of party symbols and branding, are singled out in the research. Delimitation between scientific categories «party goods» and «party brand» is proposed. The term «party brand» provides for rooting in the public consciousness, symbolic content, emotional load and is the possibility to combine in itself few political goods. Party brand as result of political marketing is interpreted by the author as a unique offer of specific political party. Acquisition of traits of this unique offer in the marketing party strategy helps to create lasting image and form stable political reputation on the market. The author emphasized that the party proposals are updated by the election campaigns because the main function of political parties is electoral and the essence of parties is defined as organizations designed to gain and exercise of state power. Elections as a concentrated expression of the political market is a mechanism of legitimation of power to political parties. It is proposed the author's synthesis of areas of general marketing principles and Jean Baudrillard's concept of postmodern. It allowed investigating features of political marketing at essentially new level: the change from rational forms of symbolization to branding and sensory-emotional forms of symbolic exchange.It is proved that to the forefront of the political market political product should get, efficiency which is due not so much situational expectations as authentic mental peculiarities of the people combined with the current trends of global political market.The author identified four stages of political marketing in Ukraine that are determined by the characteristics of the party and electoral systems, the level of competition on the political market, the choice of means and methods of party activity:- stage of nucleation of political market (1991–1997);- stage of formation and development of political marketing technologies (1998–2003);- stage of amplification technologizing and virtualization election campaigns (2004–2009);- stage of expansion of technologies and their diversity (from 2010 – till now).It is substantiated that using of technologies of political marketing in the activities of political parties leads to the changes in their form and content, demonstrates successful participation of the same party in three electoral cycles, which is the evidence of party's institutionalization. As a result, specific partypolitical structuring from atomized to systems of almost large parties took place. In this regard, necessity to create brands in the party-political space of modern Ukraine, that driven by the desire of parties to ensure strategic planning for political product in the long term, is argued. The author proved dependence of dynamics of political marketing technologies in the activities of political parties with correlation between the type of party system, electoral law and the polarization of Ukrainian society.In the research, it is stressed that in the election campaigns in the late XX - XXI centuries in Ukraine ideological factor plays less important role than in the elections early 1990s. The current electoral process is not a competition of ideologies but a competition of symbols which main task is to engage to the side of the candidate a significant number of voters. The features of party proposals during parliamentary campaigns 2012, 2014 is analysed. The specific of personal factors and party imaging products in the design of the brand party is revealed. It is emphasized that party products and brands are the carriers of information. For example, names of political parties not only provide for information about specific political party, but about the laws of functioning of the political life in Ukrainian society, political power, the level of political culture.The role of the names and symbols of Ukrainian political parties is found out. It is concluded that by using symbolic form political party decrypts the meaning of the name, identifies itself ideologically, recalls the essence of their programmatic objectives, says the goal of the current campaign and immediate tasks. The content invested in party symbols is revealed. The author analyses its colours, which are powerful way of manipulating the human psyche. It is proved that the party proposals acquire symbolic and cease to carry a meaning and be based on real public demand. Political symbols become tools of manipulation and suggestion of populist ideas. On the one hand, it brings instant benefits to political parties, but on the other - leads to a decline in political culture and civic activity. The research substantiated that for design of effective symbolism must consider the level of political culture of the electorate, traditions, level of political education, voter mentality. It is emphasized that Ukrainian society tend to personalize perception of political power, which reduces the totality of power relations to a figure of specific political leader. The author highlighted that political parties are mass political organizations in which leadership can be distributed among several politicians.It was found that the challenges in 2014 led to new tendencies in the party system in Ukraine, namely the enhancing the process creation of parties, also inclusion in party lists ATO members, civil society activists, journalists, volunteers. It was due to public demand for «new faces», new alliances between political forces. A high level of personalization for Ukrainian politics connected primarily with the fact that most voters are not able to make a political choice, based on their own real interests. Ordinary citizens associate realization their life aspirations and dreams with the active leader of political force who is trying to act as a hero, a saviour. It is accentuated attention that political parties do not compete for the effective implementation of social development programs, but compete for the distribution of power. In their activities, profitable for a narrow circle of persons, but not national interests are dominated. Populism and excessive social orientation of the election programs of political parties are typical characteristics of modern political market in Ukraine.It is concluded that during the current transitional period the domestic party market has not reached a level that would satisfy the needs of society, political goods have not met the expectations and hopes. They are made without targeting consumers and based on stereotypical thinking. The party market does not match a model of «free competition», which makes it difficult to promote party products. Political parties are not associated with specific results of which should be designed to meet the most important values and needs of citizens. The research presents practical recommendations to improve political marketing technologies considering domestic political consumer. ; В исследовании осуществлен комплексный анализ технологий политического маркетинга в деятельности политических партий. Определены теоретико-методологические основы исследования проблемного поля, закономерности становления и развития политического маркетинга в политической науке.Выяснены теоретические основы изучения и использования в политической практике технологий политического маркетинга политическими партиями; обобщены и указано на расхождение содержания научных категорий «технологии политического маркетинга» и «маркетинговые технологии политической партии».Согласно маркетинговой стратегии позиционирования украинских политических партий и ключевого партийного продукта, предложено систематизировать технологии, которые используют политические партии в своей деятельности: конструирование имиджа партии; нейминг (разработка названия политической партии); определение бренд-персон политической партии; создание идеологической платформы и формирования программы партии; разработка дизайна партийной символики и рекламной продукции; партийный брендинг.Предложена целесообразность сочетания основ общего маркетинга и постмодернистской концепции Ж. Бодрийяра, что позволило исследовать особенности технологий политического маркетинга на принципиально новом уровне: замена рациональных форм символизации имиджевыми и чувственно-эмоциональными формами символического обмена.Обосновано, что на первый план партийного рынка должен выйти политический продукт, дееспособность которого обусловливается не столько ситуационными ожиданиями граждан, сколько аутентичными ментальными особенностями народа в сочетании с актуальными тенденциями мирового политического рынка. Указано на различия научных категорий «партийный товар» и «партийный бренд», суть последнего заключается в его укорененности в массовом сознании, символическом наполнении, эмоциональной нагрузке и возможности объединять в себе несколько политических товаров.Выделены четыре этапа динамики украинского политико-партийного рынка в условиях независимости. Обосновано, что использование технологий политического маркетинга в деятельности политических партий приводит к изменению их формы и содержания, демонстрируя успешное выступление одной и той же партийной силы в течение трех электоральных циклов, что свидетельствует о партийной институционализации, и обусловливает определенное партийно-политическое структурирование от авторизированной к системе почти крупных политических партий.Раскрыта специфика персонального фактора и визуализации партийных продуктов в конструировании бренда партии. Проанализированы особенности партийных предложений парламентских кампаний 2012, 2014 гг. Доказано, что в условиях нынешнего переходного периода отечественный партийный рынок не достиг того уровня, который бы удовлетворял потребности общества, политические товары не соответствуют ожиданиям и надеждам, создаются без ориентации на потребителя, базируются на стереотипном мышлении. ; У дослідженні здійснено комплексний аналіз технологій політичного маркетингу в діяльності політичних партій. Визначено теоретико- методологічні засади дослідження проблемного поля, закономірності становлення та розвитку політичного маркетингу в політичній науці. Метою дисертаційного дослідження було з'ясування закономірності розвитку політичного маркетингу в Україні та специфіку використання маркетингових технологій у діяльності політичних партій. Виділено розбіжності змісту наукових категорій: «маркетингові технології політичної партії» і «технології політичного маркетингу», що використовують політичні партії. Під маркетинговими технологіями політичних партій розуміється сукупність прийомів і засобів просування політичних продуктів, а технології політичного маркетингу визначаються як сукупність практик створення, підтримки та розвитку політичних взаємовідносин між акторами політичного ринку за допомогою політичних продуктів.Згідно маркетингової стратегії позиціонування українськими політичними партіями та ключового партійного продукту (ідеологія / «пакет програм» / іміджева ідеологія), у дослідженні виокремлено та розкрито зміст технологій політичного маркетингу, які використовують політичні партії у своїй діяльності, а саме: неймінг, конструювання іміджу партії, визначення партійних персон, створення ідеологічної платформи, розробка дизайну партійної символіки, брендинг. Запропоновано розмежовувати наукові категорії «партійного товару» та «партійного бренду», зміст останнього полягає в його вкоріненості у масовій свідомості, символічному наповненні, емоційному навантаженні та можливості об'єднувати у собі декілька політичних товарів. Партійний бренд, як результат політичного маркетингу, тлумачиться автором як своєрідна унікальна пропозиція конкретної політичної партії. Набуття її ознак в маркетинговій стратегії партії сприяє створенню довготривалого іміджу, формуванню її стабільної репутації на політичному ринку. Автором наголошено, що партійні пропозиції актуалізуються виборчими кампаніями, бо головна функція політичних партій – електоральна – визначається самою сутністю їх як організацій, призначених для завоювання й здійснення державної влади. Саме вибори як концентроване вираження політичного ринку є механізмом легітимації влади для політичної партії.Запропоновано доцільність поєднання основ загального маркетингу та постмодерністської концепції Ж. Бодрійяра, що дозволило дослідити особливості технологій політичного маркетингу на принципово новому рівні: заміна раціональних форм символізації іміджевими та чуттєво- емоційними формами символічного обміну. Доведено, що на перший план партійного ринку повинен вийти політичний продукт, дієздатність якого обумовлюється не стільки ситуаційними очікуваннями громадян, скільки аутентичними ментальними особливостями народу в поєднанні з актуальними тенденціями світового політичного ринку.Виокремлено чотири етапи політичного маркетингу в діяльності політичних партій України, які визначаються особливостями партійної та виборчої систем, рівнем конкуренції на політичному ринку, вибором засобів і методів партійної діяльності:- етап зародження політичного ринку (1991–1997 рр.);- етап формування та розвитку технологій політичного маркетингу (1998–2003 рр.);- етап посилення технологізації та віртуалізації передвиборчих кампаній (2004–2009 рр.);- етап розширення технологій та їх урізноманітнення (з 2010 р. – по теперішній час).Обґрунтовано, що використання технологій політичного маркетингу у діяльності політичних партій призводить до зміни їх форми і змісту, демонструючи успішний виступ однієї і тієї ж партійної сили протягом трьох електоральних циклів, що є свідченням партійної інституціоналізації, та обумовлює певне партійно-політичне структурування: від атомізованої до майже системи крупних партій. Можна говорити про певні перспективи щодо стабілізації української партійної системи: маємо зменшення фрагментації партійної системи у поєднанні зі зростанням ролі партійних організацій. У зв'язку з цим аргументовано необхідність створення брендів у партійно-політичному просторі сучасної Україні, щ обумовлюється прагненням партій до забезпечення стратегічного планування політичного продукту на довгострокову перспективу. Доведена залежність динаміки розвитку технологій політичного маркетингу в діяльності політичних партій від кореляції між типом партійної системи, виборчим законодавством і поляризацією українського суспільства.У роботі підкреслено, що у виборних кампаніях кінця ХХ – початку ХХІ ст. в Україні ідеологічний чинник відіграє менше значення, ніж на виборах початку 1990-х років. Сучасний виборчий процес – це змагання не ідеологій, а символів, основним завданням яких є залучати на сторону кандидата значну кількість виборців. Проаналізовано особливості партійних пропозицій парламентських кампаній 2012, 2014 рр. Розкрито специфіку персонального чиннику та візуалізації партійних продуктів у конструюванні бренду партії. Наголошено, що партійні товари та бренди є носіями інформації. Наприклад, назви політичних партій дають відомості не тільки про конкретну політичну силу, а й про закономірності функціонування політичного життя українського суспільства, політичної влади, рівень політичної культури. З'ясовано роль назви та символіки українських політичних партій. Зроблено висновок, що через символічні форми політична партія розшифровує значення своєї назви, ідеологічно ідентифікує себе, нагадує про суть своїх програмових завдань, заявляє про мету поточної кампанії і найближчі цілі. Розкрито зміст, вкладений в партійну символіку. Аналізується її колірна гама, яка є потужним засобом маніпулювання людської психіки.Доведено, що партійні пропозиції набувають символічності та перестають нести у собі смислове навантаження, спиратися на реальний суспільний попит. Політичні символи стають інструментами маніпулювання та навіювання популістських ідей, що, з одного боку, приносить миттєву вигоду політичним партіям, з іншого – веде до зниження рівня політичної культури та громадської активності. У дослідженні обґрунтовано, що при розробці ефективної символіки необхідно враховувати рівень політичної культури електорату, традиції, рівень політичної освіченості, менталітет виборця.Наголошено, що для українського суспільства притаманне персоніфіковане сприйняття політичної влади, яке редукує всю сукупність владних відносин до фігури конкретного політичного лідера. Підкреслено, що політичні партії – це масові політичні організації, в яких лідерство може бути розподілено серед кількох політиків. З'ясовано, що виклики 2014 р. призвели до нових тенденцій у партійній системі України, а саме активізації процесу партієтворення, включення у партійні списки учасників АТО, громадських активістів, журналістів, волонтерів, що було зумовлено суспільним запитом на «нові обличчя», створення нових союзів між політичними силами. Характерний високий рівень персоніфікації для української політики пов'язується, насамперед, з тим, що більшість не здатна здійснити політичний вибір, що заснований на їх власних реальних інтересах. Пересічні громадяни пов'язують втілення своїх життєвих сподівань та мрій з політичною активністю лідера сили, який намагається виступати в ролі героя, рятівника. Акцентовано увагу, що політичні партії змагаються не за втілення ефективніших програм розвитку суспільства, а за розподіл владних повноважень; у їх діяльності переважають вузькопартійні, а не загальнонаціональні інтереси. Популізм, надмірна соціальна орієнтованість передвиборчих програм політичних партій – типова характеристика сучасного політичного ринку України.Зроблено висновок, що за умов нинішнього перехідного періоду, вітчизняний партійний ринок не досяг того рівня, який би задовольняв потреби суспільства, політичні товари не відповідають очікуванням та надіям, створюються без орієнтації на споживача, базуються на стереотипному мисленні. Партійний ринок не відповідає моделі «вільної конкуренції», що зумовлює труднощі просування на ньому партійних продуктів. Партії не асоціюються з конкретними результатами діяльності, що мають бути спрямовані на задоволення найбільш значимих цінностей, потреб громадян.У роботі запропоновано практичні рекомендації щодо вдосконалення технологій політичного маркетингу з урахуванням споживача вітчизняного політичного товару.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF QUESTION AND ANSWER TECHNIQUE TO TEACH THE TENTH GRADE STUDENTS IN WRITING RECOUNT TEXT IN MA MA'ARIF NU DRIYOREJO GRESIK Firasari Fajarwati English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya firsa.soetikno@yahoo.com Drs. H. Aswandi M.pd English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya Abstract As a productive skill, writing has an important role to help the students to be able to communicate especially in indirect communication. The teacher must be creative in teaching of writing. Question and answer technique is suggested to be used as a technique in teaching writing. The teacher used recount text. In this study, the research questions consist of two questions; they are (1) how is the implementation of question and answer technique to teach the tenth grade students' writing skill of recount text in MA Ma'arif Gresik? (2) how is the students' responses after the implementation of question and answer technique? A teacher can use questions whether it is oral or written questions. It is to stimulate thinking and light the way to productive learning and retention of content material (Vacca, 1981: 159). Questions encourage students to think. Thinking can arise the students' interest and questions can also be used to evaluate. As the result of this function, it is believed that questions can direct someone's choice of ideas and activities, and can transform the often different topics from a scattered survey of the subject, problem, or theme into logical, coordinated for attaining knowledge. Based on the reason above, the researcher conducts this research about the implementation of question and answer technique to develop the tenth grade students' writing ability to write recount text in MA Ma'arif NU Driyorejo, Gresik, especially in X-1 class. The research design of this study is descriptive qualitative. The purpose of research design is to describe the activities of the teacher and the students in teaching and learning process during the implementation of question and answer technique in writing class. To collect the data, the researcher observes the implementation of question and answer technique in teaching and learning process. Then, she got the result of students' writing in every meeting. And the last, she collect the students' responses from questionnaire. After that, she analyzes all data in every meeting based on phenomenon that happen in teaching and learning process. The result of data analyzed, it can be seen that the students of X-1 had done the assignments well in every meeting. In each meeting, the students improve their writing ability. Applying question and answer technique in writing class can make the students improve their writing, especially in writing recount text. It can be seen from the students' responses the questionnaire. Almost all students said that they can improve their ability and it can motivate them to learn a foreign language, especially in writing class. It can be concluded that question and answer technique can be recommended as one of an alternative techniques in teaching writing. Because it can help the students develop their writing ability and can reduce boring situation in teaching and learning process. Keywords: Writing, Question and Answer Technique, Recount Text, Tenth Grade INTRODUCTION One way of learning foreign language is through writing. Not many centuries ago, writing was a skill in educational or religious institutions. Nowadays, written language has many functions in everyday life. They are particularly for action, information and entertainment. Sokolik (2003: 88) in Practical English Language Teaching states that writing is both physical and mental act. Nunan (2003: 88) writes out the definition of writing as a series of contrast: It is both physical and mental act. Physical act deals with committing words or ideas to some medium. Whereas mental act deals with the ability to invent ideas, express them, and how to organize them into a good writing which is clear to the reader. Its purpose is both to express and impress. Writing has a purpose to express ideas or feeling to the readers in order that the readers will be impressed with a writer's thought. It is both a process and product. In writing, there are some processes that are involved including collecting ideas, organizing, drafting, editing, and reading. Those will be very helpful in producing a good writing product. The last definition brings us to the explanation of the writing process. Langan (2005: 64) explains that there are three main steps which can help a writer create a good composition: Pre-writing In this stage, a writer will be able to think on a paper and to gradually discover what ideas that will be developed. Langan explains further that there are five techniques that will help a writer to develop ideas; they are: (1) free writing, which is a brainstorming activity in which a writer can write out every phrase or sentence that come up into mind about possible topics, (2) questioning, which can be an effective way of getting a writer to think about a topic from a number of different angles, which includes What? Why? Where? When? Who? and How? This technique is the one which is studied by the researcher, (3) making a list, in which the writer collects the ideas and details related to the subjects and makes it as a list without trying to sort the major details from minor ones, (4) clustering, which is also known as diagramming or mapping to show the relationship among ideas and detail that occur, (5) making an outline, in which the writer thinks carefully about the point that she will make. Drafting This is the part where the writer starts writing the complete thought that has been collected composition, including the introductory, the body, and the conclusion. Revising Here, the writer begins to revise the composition that has already been made. This stage can be done by rewriting, building on what has already been done, in order to make it stronger. Furthermore, writing is an important part of people's life for communication. Kelly (1999: 84) states that writing which forever defines communication in the written words is the important form of communication because it can be a solution when spoken communication is not possible. Byrne (1990: 1) supports that writing is one of language skill, which is used for medium of communication, especially indirect communication. People usually use indirect communication because of some problems; for instance: distance, time, activity, etc. by using indirect communication, they can still deliver their message. The Indonesian government gives attention to teach writing by making the English curriculum properly. The curriculum clearly states writing is one skill of learning English (BNSP, 2006: 164). Moreover, writing is a basic language skill of learning English which is important. The students need writing skill to convey their ideas in writing reports, scientific writing, short stories, etc. in the educational field. Unfortunately, many students are not interested in writing because, according to them, writing is difficult. The difficulty comes from the limited time for such an assignment that takes a continuous thinking process. However, it is still an important skill that a learner needs to master. Bramer (1981: 4) states that writing will continue to be an important part of a student's life, especially in college course and in many careers and profession. It is a skill which can make someone be recognized by the society , the schools, and objective language studies. One genre of texts taught in senior high school is recount text. The social function of recount text is to retell an activity, situation, or event in the past. Language features used in recount text is past tenses, action verbs, adverb of past time. The researcher believes that teaching writing is far more difficult than mastering the writing skill itself. Healon (1991: w135) states that writing skill is complex and sometimes difficult to teach, requiring not only of grammatical and theoretical devices, but also it has conceptual and judgment elements. Based on this problem, the researcher suggested this question and answer technique which could improve the students' ability in writing. Dealing with teaching and learning process, a technique is essential. A technique that is needed in a writing class is the one that can ease and helps the students to produce a composition. The researcher believed that the best way to stimulate ideas of the students who are learning to make a composition is by giving questions. Questions are used as an indicator of people doubt, which has occurred in his reasoning. Some people can express their thought easily, but some others cannot. It is because each person has different experience. Another influence comes from the person's psychological state. We can always find a case in a classroom where there are some students who keep the questions for themselves for fear of decision. Questions and answers are essential components of teaching and learning. Asking a good question will help the teacher to motivate students' curiosity about the topic, and it will help the teacher assesses how well they understand the materials. When constructing sentences, the students were given a series of questions. The complete answers of the questions are then constructed in a certain way to make a well-organized recount composition. RESEARCH METHOD This research is a descriptive qualitative research. This design is used to examine the events or the phenomena that happened in teaching and learning process, especially to get the data about the implementation of question and answer technique to develop student's writing. The subjects of the study were the teacher and the tenth grade students of MA Ma'arif NU Driyorejo, Gresik. The teacher is Agus Setiono, S. Pd. And there were 30 students of class X-1. The researcher will use three instruments in this study; they are (1) observation checklist, which contains some indicators, such as the teaching and learning process, the topic, and the question and answer technique, (2) field notes, which is a brief note made by researcher to observe the teaching and learning process, and (3) questionnaire, which is useful for the researcher to gather the students' responses. The data gathered from the teaching and learning process in the subject's classroom. The data will be collected through non-participant observation. Therefore, the researcher will only observe and make documentation out of the teaching and learning activities. The data will be interpreted in a descriptive manner in which the researcher describes the information which are collected with the instruments. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After analyzing all the data, the researcher presents the result and also the discussion which is based on the theories which the researcher was elaborated previously. The Implementation of Question and Answer Technique In the first and second meeting, the teacher started the class with opening session by greeting the students. The teacher then asked the students' feeling that day. He also checked the attendance list and asked the students to prepare the lesson. The teacher asked the students about their knowledge of kinds of texts, especially recount text. Then he continued to ask the students' prior knowledge and related information about recount text. In the first meeting, the students could not answer the teacher's questions completely, so the teacher needed to explain. The teacher explained everything about recount text; the definition, the generic structure, and the language use. In the second meeting, the teacher only reminded them at a glance because they had enough explanation on the first meeting. In the teaching and learning process, only in the first meeting the teacher introduced the technique used. Because it was the first time they applied this technique. He introduced the concept of question and answer technique in writing recount text. The teacher explained the procedure of the technique deliberately and the students paid attention. He also gave the example of how to elaborate the answers on whiteboard. In both meeting, the teacher gave the students question and answer paper. He asked the students to answer the questions on the paper and then elaborated the answer to make a recount text. The teacher asked the students to finish the task on time. The teacher controls the students' interaction in the teaching and learning process. He asked the students to do the task by themselves. He walked around and asked the students to do the task quietly. He also helped students who had difficulties. In the first and second meeting, the students had done all the steps of question and answer technique. However, in the first meeting, some students still find difficulties in writing recount text. It can be seen from the students who could not use time effectively. The teacher asked to submit their work, but some students had not finished yet. But in the second meeting, they could use time more effectively. Most of them got interested in writing recount texts based on their experiences. After the students submitted their works, the teacher corrected them. The teacher then showed their mistakes in their assignments. He also gave some corrections to the students. The teacher explained the students' mistakes in details. It means that he gives feedback to the students. The students paid attention to the teacher's explanation about their mistakes. They took some notes on their notebooks. From the data of the observation, it is obvious that the implementation of question and answer technique was very effective to teach writing recount text. It helps to motivate the students and bring and interest in teaching and learning process. Question and answer technique became a better way that provided a wide opportunity for the teacher and the students to interact each other in an enjoyable learning situation. The Students' Responses The students' responses towards the implementation of question and answer technique were positive from the result of the questionnaire. The percentage of the students who likes learning English is more than 50%.most of the students enjoy writing recount text by using question and answer technique. More than half of the students did not find any difficulties in writing recount text by using question and answer technique. They also did not find any difficulties in using vocabulary and language feature. The result of questionnaire showed that the application of question and answer technique was appropriate to overcome the students' difficulties in writing recount text. Based on the explanation above, it is clear that the students' ability had progressed in writing recount text. Most of the students could create a better composition than their previous composition. It showed that this technique is effective in improving the students' skill in expressing their ideas into written form. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion In general, the implementation of question and answer technique in teaching writing in every meeting was quite good. The students could enhance their language skill. This technique is the efficient way to learn about writing, especially in writing recount text. By using this technique, the students have the same opportunities to improve their writing and develop their ideas to write a recount text. It can be concluded that question and answer technique could bring interest to the students in composing a recount text. The response of the students toward the implementation of question and answer technique in teaching writing recount text was positive. The result of the questionnaire shows that most of the students are interested in this technique. They said that this technique was unique that it can reduce their boredom in the normal monotonous classroom activities. Most of the students admitted that they find themselves improving their ability in writing recount text. Suggestion After interpreting and analyzing all the data, the researcher has suggestions for several groups of readers who have similar interest. Using a variety of technique in teaching a foreign language will increase the students' interest in learning. It will also motivate them more to be actively involved in classroom activities. Therefore, English teachers should not be afraid of implementing every teaching technique provided by the experts. Being a creative teacher will bring effectiveness in teaching and learning process. However, it does not mean to neglect the process of choosing the appropriate materials for them. It will only disturb their confidence in completing every assignment given. This research is conducted to get to know deeper about a technique that has been developed by experts. Therefore, for other researchers who have an interest in investigating more about this technique, the researcher strongly recommends to conduct a research on this technique in different language skills or in different text genres. REFERENCES Abbot Gerry, Greenwood john, Mc Keating Douglas and Wingard Peter. 1981. The Teaching of English as an International Language: A Practical Guide. Great Britain. William Collin Sons and Co Ltd. Adam, Jager. 1998. Beginning to Write. USA: Massachusets, Institute of Technology. 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Se puede pensar que esta asociación pudiera tener alguna relación biológica, pero como argumenta Pauletti (2012) no hay raíces ancestrales de esta asignación de colores a las niñas y niños. Esta autora señala que estos colores empezaron a asociarse al sexo en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ya que antes se usaba el blanco para los bebes. La finalidad de esta imposición es establecer unas pautas, normas y estereotipos a las personas. Esta cuestión no tendría importancia si ello no conllevara una clasificación y jerarquización. Esta asignación condiciona el aspecto físico, el entorno y hasta los gustos. Y lo mismo ocurre con la música. Cuando se piensa en instrumentos o dirección de orquestas se extrapola a los varones. Si nos preguntasen por el nombre de algún compositor de música clásica, prácticamente todas las personas podrían responder como ejemplo que son Mozart, Beethoven o Falla. En cambio no mencionarían a las mujeres, como ocurre en otras artes. La invisibilidad de las mujeres en este ámbito es tan llamativa que, una de las razones para realizar esta Tesis es poner en evidencia los mecanismos que son los causantes de ese error. Los pilares básicos que sustentan este trabajo son la igualdad, el género, los derechos humanos, la música y la educación. Con los hallazgos se pretende conocer, analizar y demostrar cómo se construye la identidad del alumnado a través de la educación musical en la etapa de primaria, desde una mirada de género. Queremos "prestar nuestras gafas" para que se vea la discriminación que aún existe en la educación. De hecho la Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la mejora de la calidad Educativa (LOMCE), afirma que "el nivel educativo de los ciudadanos determina su capacidad de competir con éxito en el ámbito del panorama internacional y de afrontar los desafíos que se planteen en el futuro", esto supone abrir las puertas a puestos de trabajo de alta cualificación, lo que representa una apuesta por el crecimiento económico y por un futuro mejor. Para ello se resalta el papel de materias científicas y técnicas, eliminando la obligatoriedad de cursar educación artística (plástica y música) en Educación Primaria, y música en Educación Secundaria, hecho que posibilita que un alumno o alumna termine su escolarización en España sin haber estudiado dicha materia. Otra razón para iniciar este estudio es que, como docente que soy, comparto los planteamientos de la corriente constructivista (Porlan, 1993; Díaz-Aguado y Medrano, 1994; Carretero, 2010) en la consideración de que la investigación es un factor fundamental para que las personas elaboremos y reconstruyamos nuestro conocimiento. Está claro que es fundamental mantener una perspectiva investigadora que nos permita conocer cuáles serían los nuevos conocimientos más adecuados para interaccionar en un contexto de aprendizaje y/o de formación. Pero la valoración de esta disciplina no siempre ha sido positiva, en concreto en la enseñanza básica. Murphey (1992, pp. 8-9) recoge algunas creencias del profesorado sobre el uso de la música en el terreno educativo, como son ''Los profesores no se toman la música en serio; creen que puede molestar a las clases contiguas; los estudiantes "se desmadran " y se pierde el control de la clase; los diferentes gustos musicales entre los estudiantes de un mismo grupo es un problema. " Santos (1997a) insiste también en que siguen persistiendo los prejuicios contrarios a la utilización de las canciones en el colegio, ya que se considera una pérdida de tiempo, una distracción del currículum a seguir, además de una falta de rigor y seriedad académica. Partiendo de la afirmación ya conocida de que "la educación, bien entendida, no es tan solo una preparación para la vida; es, en sí misma, una manifestación permanente y armoniosa de la vida" (Willems, 1984, pp. 13-14). Nos planteamos que esta idea debería extenderse a todo estudio artístico y particularmente para la educación musical, que apela, como afirma Willems (1984, pp. 13-14) "a la mayoría de las facultades del ser humano ". El desarrollo de estas capacidades y cualidades en los niños y niñas va a depender de los ambientes sociales a los que están expuestos: la familia, la escuela y la sociedad en general. En particular, la familia es el primer ambiente en el que pasamos los primeros años de nuestra vida, y precisamente es en éste, dónde reside la base de la educación musical. En ella se adquieren las habilidades sociales que permitirán desarrollar la autonomía, ya que "e/ modo como están siendo educados puede contribuir para que lleguen a ser más completos o, por otro lado, para limitar sus iniciativas y sus aspiraciones" (Finco, 2010, p. 59). Por lo tanto, será la familia la primera forma natural de preparación, transmitiéndoles, por medio del canto y juegos, la sensibilidad por la música. Luego está la escuela que complementa la formación en valores que el discente recibe en su hogar, máxime cuando existen en el entorno deficiencias en esta formación (García, 2005). Incluso desde "las ropas rosas y azules y los pendientes que 'adornan ' las orejas de las niñas, son claros indicios de que el desarrollo de los roles de género comienza muy tempranamente" (Gómez Bueno, 2001, p. 56). El segundo agente es la escuela. El colegio tiene un importante papel socializador, transmisor de valores, normas, hábitos de comportamiento., que facilitan la convivencia entre las personas. Tiene una serie de funciones, las cuales podríamos resumir en tres: preparar al sujeto para su futuro profesional, educar a las personas moral y socialmente, y dar una cultura personal. El ambiente social y público de las instituciones educativas, posibilita una educación colectiva, lo que propicia al niño o niña diferentes experiencias por medio de la convivencia con las diferencias de sexo, edad, etnia, religión, entre otras (Faria y Finco, 2011). Dentro de la función socializadora que tiene el colegio, es destacable "el papel de las personas que intervienen en él, las relaciones de poder, usos del lenguaje, estereotipos de género, estrategias de enseñanza y pertinencia de sus contenidos, y evaluación en la escuela" (Chavez, 2006, p. 18). Imbemón (2002, p. 17) considera que "la educación por sí sola no puede introducir los cambios necesarios en las sociedades pero sí puede actuar como instrumento fundamental para promover cambios en la misma. Es precisamente en estos tres ambientes, donde se mueve este trabajo de investigación que se presenta como Tesis Doctoral, puesto que la música se aprende desde la familia, ya que forma parte de la cultura de un lugar, y se vivencia en la escuela y la sociedad. La finalidad de este trabajo de investigación tiene una doble vertiente, por un lado valorar y demostrar que la música es un potente agente transmisor de conocimientos, no solamente musicales, sino también de valores, costumbres, creencias, estereotipos., que influyen en el desarrollo de la identidad de las personas. Por otro lado, resaltar la importante labor de la música en el proceso educativo del alumnado, ya que a través de ella se desarrollan capacidades, habilidades, destrezas. básicas para la vida de nuestro alumnado. El interés por este tema, parte del año 2008, ya que me inicié en esta temática con el trabajo de investigación titulado "Análisis de la transmisión de los estereotipos de género en el cancionero de Huelva como recurso educativo" realizado para el programa de doctorado "La Educación en la sociedad multicultural" (Bienio 2006/08). Para el desarrollo de dicho trabajo, se tomó como referencia el Cancionero infantil de la provincia de Huelva, realizado por Francisco José García Gallardo y Herminia Arredondo Pérez (1995), investigadores y docentes de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación de esa provincia andaluza. Las conclusiones de dicha investigación fueron la génesis de esta tesis doctoral, pues como se verá más adelante en el apartado "Conclusiones Finales", se siguen manteniendo los estereotipos en los recursos utilizados en las clases de música. En los primeros pasos para profundizar en esta temática, se puso de manifiesto los pocos estudios realizados en nuestro contexto sobre este tópico. Precisamente éste fue uno de los motivos que profesionalmente como docente, me generó curiosidad y fue decisivo para iniciar el estudio de investigación Como se ha mencionado anteriormente, tras una primera labor de búsqueda de documentación e investigaciones al respecto, encontramos que existen trabajos sobre el desarrollo de la identidad en la infancia como Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith, 1995 y 2002; Pnevmatikos, Geka y Divane, 2010; y Markus, 2008; Al mismo tiempo, constan numerosos trabajos de investigaciones sobre transmisión de estereotipos de género a través de diversas asignaturas (como lenguaje, matemáticas, ciencias sociales, naturales, educación física. e incluso en la formación del profesorado que las imparte) como Márquez Guerrero, 2013; Álvarez, 1990; Torre, 2002; Velasco Marugán, 2012; Torres, G., y Arjona, 1988; Martínez Scott, 2012; Marco López, 1991; Lomas, 2004; Lozano Domingo, 1995; Díaz De Greñu, 2010; entre otros. Sin embargo, a la hora de abordar la educación musical como trasmisora de estereotipos a través de los recursos utilizados en las clases de música, existen muy pocas investigaciones al respecto. Con esta Tesis Doctoral, se pretende demostrar que en los recursos utilizados en clase, en este caso uno de los más empleados, como son los libros de texto de la asignatura de música en un centro educativo concreto, se transfieren conocimientos, hábitos, creencias., en definitiva, las concepciones existentes en una cultura andró céntrica, incluyendo los prejuicios. Se pretende poner de manifiesto el poder de este medio, ya que la educación es sonido e imagen; es decir, se transmite lo que se escucha y se ve, pero en la música, más concretamente, está acentuada esta relación por su incidencia en el desarrollo de las personas. Concretamente nos centramos en la influencia y efectos de la educación musical en la conformación de la identidad de género y en concreto en la transmisión de los estereotipos que se divulgan en los libros de texto de música. Para ello, se ha elegido un colegio onubense, el CEIP Aurora Moreno, ubicado en la localidad Gibraleón (Huelva). El planteamiento de este trabajo en el estudio de los libros texto es porque (desgraciadamente) en la educación en general, y la musical en particular, es el recurso más extendido a la hora de impartir las clases, limitando enormemente las actividades, tareas y ejercicios, ya que "todo está planificado" por las editoriales, ofreciendo hasta las respuestas estandarizadas que cada alumna o alumno debería dar, y no solo eso, sino las imágenes y textos que contienen, están encasillados en unas creencias, valores, pensamientos, actitudes. que poco a poco van influenciando la identidad de nuestras niñas y niños. Este poder educativo en la construcción del género, lo tiene incluso en la música actual, ya que se representan patrones de comportamiento que se asumen como normales y que, aun en la actualidad, ni se cuestionan. Podemos poner como ejemplo de esto la canción titulada "Mujer Florero" de Ella baila sola. Los fenómenos educativos no son de carácter meramente técnico. Son, más bien, de naturaleza moral y política. La actividad educativa está impregnada de contenidos morales. La responsabilidad que tenemos como profesionales del proceso educativo -en política, gestión, docencia.- es tener un control democrático externo de las acciones que se llevan a cabo y, también, un control interno nacido de las exigencias y necesidades de los protagonistas (Kelley y Beauchesne, 2001). Por eso, "no podemos ignorar o desatender que las escuelas están altamente implicadas en la educación, regulación, control y corrección de las expresiones sexuales y de género de niños y niñas, y que esas prácticas son indisociables de la producción simultánea de ordenamientos y jerarquías que legitiman y autorizan situaciones de exclusión, marginación, subordinación y violencia entre las identidades sexuales y de género, lo que posee una trascendencia política imposible de ignorar, por lo que urge avanzar en la inserción y discusión del tema en la formación de los y las profesionales de la educación" (Quaresma da Silva, Fanfa Sarmentó & Fossatti, 2012, p. 17). Los estereotipos de género que se muestran en muchas ocasiones en los libros de texto, canciones populares o tradicionales, videojuegos., encasillan a las mujeres en las "perfectas amas de casa y esposas", amables, dóciles, frágiles y, en definitiva, sin voluntad propia ni identidad o autonomía, dependientes siempre de un hombre para sentirse realizadas. Todo esto pertenece en educación al llamado currículum oculto. Se puede definir el currículum oculto como el conjunto de normas, costumbres, creencias, lenguajes y símbolos que se manifiestan en la estructura y el funcionamiento de una institución, constituyendo una fuente de aprendizajes para todas las personas que integran la organización (Santos Guerra, 2002). Los aprendizajes que se derivan del currículo oculto no solo afectan al alumnado sino también a los docentes. A partir del currículo oculto se asimilan significados a través de las prácticas que se realizan, de los discursos que se utilizan, de los textos que se leen (Santos, 2002). El androcentrismo tiene acciones muy poderosas y, en el ámbito musical más concretamente, han tratado de desvalorizar todo lo que hacen las mujeres. Estas acciones sumadas a la invisibilidad de las mujeres en la música, contribuye a desarrollar este papel secundario de ellas en esta materia de conocimiento. Por una parte se consigue infravalorar a la música realizada por mujeres, ya que carece de valor o importancia y, es por ello considerada una actividad propia de ellas, mientras que cuando hacen una aportación importante se destaca si son hombres. Como se plantea al inicio de este apartado todas y todos hemos oído hablar de Mozart o Beethoven, pero apenas se conoce la producción y el papel que han desempeñado en la vida de sus familiares mujeres como Fanny Mendelssohn (hermana de Félix), Clara Schumann (mujer de Robert), Alma Malher (mujer de Gustav) o Nanerl Mozart (hermana de Wolfgang Amadeus). Estas cuestiones son, muchas veces, olvidadas por el profesorado a la hora de seleccionar los libros de texto y quien tiene la responsabilidad en las editoriales, mostrando las concepciones y creencias arcaicas de una sociedad patriarcal, dominada por los hombres, que en algunas cuestiones es diferente en nuestros días, estando, por tanto, fuera de contexto. Con los hallazgos de este estudio se obtienen pruebas que resaltan la importancia que tiene el papel femenino dentro de la música y su efecto en la educación de las personas, en la línea que plantea una corriente actual del postmodemismo como es la musicología feminista. Esta rama de la musicología reivindica la figura de las féminas como eje central para evitar la discriminación de las mujeres no sólo como contenido, sino también como objeto. Para llevarlo a cabo, planteamos esta investigación cuya estructura se presenta a continuación: Para iniciar la fundamentación teórica de este trabajo, iniciamos una presentación de aspectos básicos que aportan la aclaración de los conceptos básicos que van a permitir la comprensión del mismo. Se parte de la idea de que la música es potente medio de comunicación, en muchas ocasiones objetivo y en otras subjetivo, otorgándole así una gran importancia como transmisor de ideas, creencias, valores, sentimientos. En primer lugar, se presenta la música como lenguaje, con sus elementos constitutivos, pues es una faceta poco conocida. También describimos lo inmensamente relacionada que está con la palabra, pues, muchos musicólogos coinciden en asignarle un origen común con el lenguaje oral. Como expresa Bernabé Villodre (2012, p. 107), "la música es una manifestación artística, es un medio de expresión de ideas, de emociones, de vivencias de una sociedad. El arte musical combina sus elementos propios de tal forma que acerca al oyente a la cultura del pueblo que la ha producido y a las emociones humanas. Por todo esto, podemos considerarla como una base para el establecimiento del diálogo intercultural, como una herramienta más de trabajo de la ínterculturalidad". La educación artística y, más concretamente la musical, ayuda a una transmisión de creencias, normas. ya que "en la música se enseñan valores y con la música se aprende a elegir valores" (Touriñán y Longueira, 2010, p. 160). Posteriormente, presentamos a la música como una fuente de expresión, e incluso haremos un recorrido cronológico del desarrollo expresivo de los niños y niñas a través de la misma. Además, se explicará con más detenimiento los tres tipos de expresión musical: vocal, instrumental y corporal. "El proceso de creación de la música puede contribuir a la apreciación de la diversidad cultural y al respeto de la libertad de expresión; de ahí, la importancia de la música como medio de comunicación entre culturas y, por extensión, la importancia de la educación por la música. Sin embargo, debe señalarse que no sólo la práctica musical en el ámbito formal puede favorecer la adquisición de la denominada competencia inter cultural" (García, Escarbajal de Haro y Escarbajal Frutos, 2007, p. 26). Posteriormente, se explica cómo el estudio de la música a lo largo de las distintas sociedades ha dado lugar a una ciencia llamada sociología. Se desarrolla una aproximación cronológica de la génesis de esta ciencia, así como de los distintos intelectuales importantes en el desarrollo de la misma. "Partimos de la idea de que la música se ha dotado desde un principio de una carga inherente de sociabilidad, es expresión de la vida interior, expresión de los sentimientos, pero a su vez exige por parte de quienes la escuchan, receptividad y conocimiento del estilo de que se trate, además de conocimiento de la sociedad en la que se crea, ya que cada obra musical es un conjunto de signos, inventados durante la ejecución y dictados por las necesidades del contexto social. Si desligamos a la obra de la sociedad que la creó los signos musicales tendrán sentidos distintos" (Hormigos, 2012, p. 75). En la antigüedad, el sentido musical estaba asociado a actividades colectivas, donde se compartían experiencias y vivencias, es decir, el contacto del individuo con la música se producía en el directo, compartiendo la experiencia musical con otras personas y generándose, de este modo, un verdadero acontecimiento social, sin embargo en la actualidad, es habitual que olvidemos esta dimensión ya que estamos demasiado acostumbrados a escucharla en solitario (Drósser, 2012). A continuación, se presenta el desarrollo cronológico de la función social de la música, desde la prehistoria hasta la actualidad. En este apartado se explica la importancia de la misma en las distintas sociedades y los usos que se hacía o hace de ella. En el desarrollo de este punto se resalta la importancia que tenía la música en la prehistoria hasta Grecia y Roma, pues entonces, tenía un valor formativo y educativo, y como posteriormente se le dio un trato de divertimento o pasatiempo, obviando sus propiedades. "Para descifrar el mensaje que posee toda composición musical es necesario entender su estructura y la forma de la música, estructura y forma que quedan determinadas por las características de la sociedad que las crea, las hereda o las interpreta. Por tanto, el hecho musical debe entenderse como una actividad social" (Hormigos, 2012, p. 76). Además, destaca la importancia del protagonismo femenino a lo largo de la historia, pues como veremos más adelante, las mujeres somos las "grandes olvidadas" en los libros de historia de la música. Green (2001, p. 25) argumenta que "la división del trabajo musical en una esfera pública, en gran medida masculina, y una esfera privada, en gran parte femenina, es un rasgo de la historia de la música occidental, así como de muchas culturas musicales de todo el mundo ". "En la música, el sistema patriarcal no ha sido menos influyente que en otros niveles sociales. La mujeres en la música han estado siempre invisibilizadas y relegadas a un segundo plano. No debemos olvidar que la música está insertada en un determinado modelo de sociedad que la produce, transmitiendo un determinado tipo de cultura, valores e intereses estéticos que siempre han de estar en conexión con el resto de factores que conforman dicha sociedad" (Laborda, 2015, p. 168) En el siguiente apartado se aborda el valor educativo de la música, iniciándolo en los antecedentes históricos y recorriendo cronológicamente las distintas épocas hasta llegar a la ley educativa actual, LOMCE. En este apartado, se desarrolla cómo se entiende la educación actual, así como más específicamente el currículum de música. Como en este trabajo es especialmente relevante el valor educativo de la música, así como de sus aportaciones a la etapa de primaria, se realiza una revisión detallada de los métodos de enseñanza y aprendizaje con fundamentación psicológica, los cuales aseguran que la música contribuye a una formación integral del alumnado, como son los de Suzuki, 1978; Willems, 1984; Kodaly, 1974; Ward, 1964; Orff-Schulwerk, 1969; Martenot, 1993; Paynter, 1999; y Dalcroze, 1998. En la escuela es fundamental tratar, estudiar y formar al alumnado en conocimientos sobre música. Según Alonso, Pereira y Soto (2003) la música es un instrumento educativo para la expresión de valores y sentimientos, ya que a través de la educación musical, el alumnado puede participar en producciones de forma cooperativa, establecer relaciones sociales, trabajo en equipo. Herrera (2007, p. 6), considera que "desde la educación musical podemos elaborar un marco de actuación idóneo para trabajar aspectos como la libertad, autonomía personal, autoestima, honestidad, felicidad, espíritu crítico, igualdad, solidaridad, pluralismo, cooperación, amor, creatividad. ". Una vez contextualizado el marco teórico, en el segundo bloque, se fundamenta y describen los objetivos de este estudio, que pueden resumirse en el título de esta Tesis Doctoral, realizar un análisis de la construcción de la identidad desde una perspectiva de género a través de la educación musical en la etapa de primaria. Para ello, se analizan los libros de texto de música desde una perspectiva de género; se realiza un análisis de los personajes que aparecen en los libros; se describe el rol social que desempeñan hombres y mujeres presentes en los libros de texto utilizados en las clases de música; se detectan y analizan los estereotipos de género que se le enseñan y transmiten al alumnado. Todo ello, con la finalidad de sensibilizar y crear conciencia entre el profesorado y a la administración pública de la presencia de un potente currículum oculto en los libros de texto; descubrir si en los libros de texto y editoriales seleccionadas existen valores racistas, sexistas o de otro tipo de discriminación de las personas de forma explícita y, además, proporcionar unas pautas de análisis que faciliten una mirada crítica, de género, sobre el material que se utiliza en las aulas de Educación Primaria que son los libros de texto. Sobre el material estudiado se ha realizado un análisis de contenido, cuyas categorías son la denominación de los personajes, descripción física, descripción psicológica, acciones que realizan, oficios o profesiones y objetos. Entre las conclusiones extraídas destaca el importante papel que desempeña la música como transmisora de normas, costumbres., en muchas ocasiones estereotipados, así como la influencia que esto produce en el desarrollo de la identidad del alumnado. De esta forma, se demuestra el verdadero valor educativo que tiene la música, más allá del aspecto lúdico, revalorizando su papel en el proceso formativo de los niños y niñas. Para finalizar, se ha incluido un apartado titulado "Limitaciones y posibles nuestras líneas de actuación" en el que se expondrá tanto propuestas de interacción como futuros estudios a realizar en esta línea. Dadas las condiciones de espacio y tiempo, hay cuestiones que no se pueden presentar en este trabajo, pero siento un gran interés para abordarlas en futuros estudios como son tratar las principales aportaciones de la musicología feminista, estudiar y poner de manifiesto en el contexto educativo los nombres de instrumentistas, directoras y compositoras, así como los instrumentos y repertorios considerados masculinos o femeninos. Por ello, hay que recalcar la importancia de una buena selección de los materiales utilizados por parte del profesorado en las clases, pues en la escuela, como agente socializador que es, se transfieren las creencias y valores inmersos en ellos. ; As presentation of this thesis, we want to mention the name of it in the title. By "Beyond Pink or Blue" we wish to express the arbitrariness of cultural patterns that prevail in childhood and spanning the entire life of the people. You might think that this association could have any biological relationship, but as argued Pauletti (2012) no ancestral roots of this color mapping to children. She points out that these colors began to associate sex in the Second World War, since before white for babies was used. The purpose of this tax is to establish guidelines, standards and stereotypes people. This issue would not matter if it did not involve a classification and prioritization. This assignment affects the appearance, the environment and even tastes. And so it is with music. When you think about instruments or orchestras address is extrapolated to men. If question at by the name of a classical composer, virtually everyone may respond as such they are Mozart, Beethoven and Falla. However not mention women, as in other arts. The invisibility of women in this field is so striking that one of the reasons for this thesis is to highlight the mechanisms that are responsible for that mistake. The basic pillars of this work are equality, gender, human rights, music and education. With the findings it aims to analyze and demonstrate how identity is constructed pupils through music education in the primary stage, from a gender perspective. We want to "pay our glasses" to see that discrimination still exists in education. In fact the Organic Law 8/2013, of 9 December, for the improvement of educational quality (LOMCE), states that "the educational level of citizens determines its ability to compete successfully in the field of the international scene and to face the challenges arising in the future ", this means opening the doors to jobs for highly qualified, representing a commitment to economic growth and a better future. For this, the role of scientific and technical matters is highlighted by eliminating mandatory study art education (plastic and music) in Elementary Education, and music in secondary education, a fact that enables a pupil finished his schooling in Spain without having studied this matter. Another reason to start this study is that, as a teacher I am, I share the ideas of the constructivist (Porlan, 1993; Diaz-Aguado y Medrano, 1994; Carter, 2010) in considering that research is a key factor for we draw people and rebuild our knowledge. Clearly it is essential to maintain a research perspective that allows us to know what would be the most appropriate new knowledge to interact in a context of learning and / or training. But the assessment of this discipline has not always been positive, particularly in basic education. Murphey (. 1992, pp 8-9) collects some beliefs of teachers on the use of music in the educational field, such as "Teachers do not take music seriously; They believe it can disturb adjacent classes; students "are desmadran" and control of the class is lost; different musical tastes among students of the same group is a problem . " Santos (1997a) also insists that those opposed to the use of songs in school prejudices persist, as it is considered a waste of time, a distraction from the curriculum to follow, along with a lack of rigor and academic seriousness. Starting from the well-known statement that "education, properly understood, is not just a preparation for life; is, in itself, a permanent and harmonious manifestation of life "(Willems, 1984, pp. 13-14). We propose that this idea should be extended to all artistic study and particularly for music education, appealing, as Willems (1984, pp. 13-14) "to most of the powers of the human being," he says. The development of these skills and qualities in children will depend on the social environments to which they are exposed: the family, school and society in general. In particular, the family is the first environment in which we spent the first years of our lives, and this is precisely where the basis of music education lies. In her social skills that will develop autonomy, because "the way we are being educated can contribute to become more complete and, secondly, to limit their initiatives and aspirations" (Finco, 2010 are acquired, p. 59). Therefore, the family is the first natural form of preparation, passing, through singing and games, music sensitivity. Then there is the school that complements the teaching of values that the learner receives at home, especially when there are deficiencies in the training environment (Garcia, 2005). Even from the "pink and blue clothes and earrings 'adorn' ears girls, are clear indications that the development of gender roles begins very early" (Gomez Bueno, 2001, p. 56). The second agent is school. The school has an important socializing role, transmitter of values, norms, habits of behavior . that facilitate the coexistence between people. It has a number of functions, which could be summarized in three: prepare the subject for their professional future, educate people morally and socially, and give a personal culture. The social environment and public educational institutions, enables a collective education, which encourages the child through different experiences of living with differences in gender, age, ethnicity, religion, among others (Faria and Finco, 2011) . Within the social function that has the school is remarkable "the role of the people involved in it, power relations, use of language, gender stereotypes, teaching strategies and relevance of its contents, and evaluation at school "(Chavez, 2006, p. 18). Imbernon (2002, p. 17) believes that "education alone can not make the necessary changes in societies but can act as a key instrument to promote changes in them." It is in these three environments, where the research work presented as a doctoral thesis, since music is learned from the family moves, as part of the culture of a place, and is experienced in school and society. The purpose of this research is twofold, first assess and demonstrate that music is a powerful transmitter agent of knowledge, not only music, but also of values, customs, beliefs, stereotypes . that influence the development the identity of people. On the other hand, emphasize the important role of music in the educational process of students, since through her abilities, skills . basic life of our students develop. Interest in this issue of the year 2008, since I started in this area with the paper titled "Analysis of the transmission of gender stereotypes in the songbook of Huelva as an educational resource" made to the doctoral program " Education in multicultural society " (2006/08 biennium) . For the development of this work, reference was made to child Songbook province of Huelva, by José Francisco Gallardo and Herminia Garcia Arredondo Perez (1995), researchers and teachers of the Faculty of Education of the Andalusian province. The findings of this investigation were the genesis of this dissertation, because as you will see later in "Final Conclusions" stereotypes are still maintained in the resources used in music classes. In the first steps to deepen this subject, it revealed few studies in our context on this topic. Precisely this was one of the reasons that professionally as a teacher, I generated curiosity and was instrumental in initiating the research study As mentioned above, after a first work of literature search and research the matter, we find that there are studies on the development of identity in childhood as Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith, 1995 and 2002; Pnevmatikos, Geka and Divane, 2010; and Markus, 2008; At the same time, numerous studies consist of research on transmission of gender stereotypes through different subjects (such as language, mathematics, social sciences, natural, physical education . and even in teacher training that taught) as Marquez Guerrero, 2013 ; Alvarez, 1990; Torre, 2002; Marugán Velasco, 2012; Torres, G., and Arjona, 1988; Scott Martinez, 2012; Marco Lopez, 1991; Lomas, 2004; Lozano Domingo, 1995; Diaz De grenu, 2010; among others. However, when dealing with music education as a transmitter of stereotypes through resources used in music classes, there is little research on the subject. This doctoral thesis aims to demonstrate that the resources used in class, in this case one of the employees, such as textbooks for the subject of music in a particular school, knowledge, habits, beliefs are transferred . In short, existing in a male-centered culture, including prejudice conceptions. It is intended to demonstrate the power of this medium, since education is sound and picture; that is, transmitting what is heard and seen, but in music, more specifically, this relationship is accentuated by their impact on the development of people. In particular we focus on the influence and effects of music education in shaping gender identity and specifically in the transmission of the stereotypes that are disclosed in music textbooks. To do this, we have chosen a school Huelva, CEIP Aurora Moreno, located in the town Gibraleón (Huelva). The approach of this work in the study of text books is because (unfortunately) in education in general, and music in particular, is the most widespread when it comes to teach the classes, greatly limiting the activities, tasks and exercises resource because "everything is planned" by publishers, offering up the standard replies that each student or student should give, and not only that, but the images and texts that contain, are encased in some beliefs, values, thoughts, attitudes . that they are slowly influencing the identity of our children. This educational power in the construction of gender, has it even in music today, as behavior patterns that are assumed to be normal and, even today, not at issue are represented. We can make an example of this the song entitled "Woman Vase" Her dances alone. Educational phenomena are not purely technical. They are, rather, moral and political. The educational activity is imbued with moral content. Our responsibility as professionals of the educational process-in policy, management, teaching . - is to have an external democratic control of the actions undertaken and also an internal control born of the demands and needs of the protagonists (Kelley and Beauchesne, 2001) . Therefore, "we can not ignore or neglect that schools are highly involved in education, regulation, control and correction of sexual expression and gender of children, and that these practices are inseparable from the simultaneous production of systems and hierarchies legitimizing and authorizing situations of exclusion, marginalization, subordination and violence between sexual identities and gender, which has a political significance impossible to ignore, it is urgent to advance the inclusion and discussion of the issue in the training of and education professionals "(Quaresma da Silva Sarmento Fanfa & Fossatti, 2012, p. 17). Gender stereotypes shown on many occasions in textbooks, popular and traditional songs, video games . pigeonhole women in "perfect housewives and wives", kind, gentle, fragile and ultimately without free will or identity or autonomy, always dependent on a man to feel fulfilled. All this belongs to the so-called hidden curriculum education. You can set the hidden curriculum as a set of rules, customs, beliefs, languages and symbols that appear in the structure and functioning of an institution, constituting a source of learning for all people within the organization (Santos Guerra, 2002 ). The lessons derived from hidden curriculum not only affect the students but also teachers. From the meanings hidden curriculum through the practices carried out, the speeches that are used, the texts read (Santos, 2002) are treated. Androcentrism has very powerful actions and, more specifically in the musical field, have tried to devalue everything that women do. These actions added to the invisibility of women in music, helps develop this secondary role of them in this area of knowledge. On the one hand it is achieved underestimate music by women because it has no value or importance and is therefore considered an activity for them, whereas when they make an important contribution stands out if they are men. As discussed earlier in this section each and everyone has heard of Mozart or Beethoven, but little production and the role they have played in the lives of their female relatives as Fanny Mendelssohn (sister of Felix), Clara Schumann is known ( wife of Robert), Alma Mahler (Gustav woman) or Nanerl Mozart (sister of Wolfgang Amadeus). These issues are often neglected by teachers when selecting textbooks and who is responsible for the editorial, showing the archaic conceptions and beliefs of a patriarchal society dominated by men, that on some issues is different nowadays, being thus out of context. With the findings of this study tests that highlight the importance of women's role in music and its effect on the education of persons, in line it posed a current stream of postmodernism and feminist musicology is obtained. This branch of musicology claimed the figure of the women as central to prevent discrimination against women not only as content but also as an object. To carry out this research propose the structure is as follows: To start the theoretical foundation of this work, we began a presentation of basics that provide clarification of the basic concepts that will allow the understanding of it. It starts from the idea that music is powerful means of communication, in many goal chances and other subjective, thus giving great importance as a transmitter of ideas, beliefs, values, feelings . First, music is presented as a language with its constituents, as it is a little-known facet. We also describe how immensely related one with the word, then, many musicologists agree to assign a common origin with the spoken language. As expressed Barnabas Villodre (2012, p. 107), "Music is an art form, it is a means of expressing ideas, emotions, experiences of a society. The musical art combines elements so that the listener about the culture of the people that has already produced human emotions. For all this, we can consider it as a basis for establishing intercultural dialogue as a working tool of multiculturalism ". Arts education and, more specifically musical, helps transmission of beliefs, rules . and that "values are taught music and music learn to choose values" (Tourinan and Longueira, 2010, p. 160). Subsequently, we present the music as a source of expression, including making a chronological development of the expressive children through it. Also, it is explained in more detail the three types of musical expression: vocal and instrumental body. "The process of creating music can contribute to the appreciation of cultural diversity and respect for freedom of expression; hence the importance of music as a means of communication between cultures and, by extension, the importance of education for music. However, it should be noted that not only the musical practice in the formal scope may favor the acquisition of the so-called intercultural competence "(Garcia de Haro and Escarbajal Escarbajal Frutos, 2007, p. 26). Later, he explained how the study of music along the various companies has led to a science called sociology. A chronological approach to the genesis of this science develops, as well as other leading intellectuals in developing it. "We start from the idea that music has provided from the beginning of an inherent burden of sociability, it is an expression of the inner life, expression of feelings, but in turn requires from those who listen, responsiveness and knowledge of style which, in addition to knowledge of the society in which you create concerned, as each musical work is a set of signs invented during implementation and dictated by the needs of the social context. If we disclaim the work of the society that created the musical signs have different meanings "(Hormigos, 2012, p. 75) In ancient times, the musical sense was associated with group activities where life experiences are shared, that is, the individual's contact with music was produced in the direct sharing music experience with others and generating, in this way, a real social event, but today, it is common to forget this dimension as we are too used to listen alone (Drosser, 2012). Then the chronological development of the social function of music, from prehistory to the present day is presented. In this section the importance of the same in different societies and the uses made of it does or says. In developing this point how important it was the prehistoric music to Greece and Rome, since then, had a formative and educational value, and subsequently was given as a deal of amusement or pastime, ignoring its properties it is highlighted. "To decrypt the message that has all musical composition is necessary to understand its structure and form of music, structure and form are determined by the characteristics of the society that created, inherited or interpreted. Therefore, the musical should be viewed as a social activity "(Hormigos, 2012, p. 76). It also highlights the importance of women's role throughout history, because as we shall see, women are the "forgotten ones" in the history books of music. Green (2001, p. 25) argues that "the division of the musical work in a public sphere, in large measure men and a private sphere, largely female, is a feature of the history of Western music, as well as many musical cultures around the world. " "In music, the patriarchal system has not been less influential than in other social levels. The women in music have always been invisible and relegated to the background. We must not forget that music is inserted in a particular model of society that produces it, conveying a certain type of culture, values and aesthetic interest must always be connected with the other factors that make that society "(Laborda, 2015 , p. 168) In the next section the educational value of music, starting it on the historical background and chronologically through the different times to reach the current education law, LOMCE addressed. This section develops understand how the current education and more specifically the music curriculum. As this work is especially relevant educational value of music as well as their contributions to the primary stage, a detailed review of the methods of teaching and learning is done with psychological foundation, which ensures that music contributes to a comprehensive training of students, such as Suzuki, 1978; Willems, 1984; Kodaly, 1974; Ward, 1964; Orff -Schulwerk, 1969; Martenot, 1993; Paynter, 1999; and Dalcroze, 1998. In school is essential to address, study and train students in knowledge about music. According to Alonso, Pereira and Soto (2003) music is an educational tool for the expression of values and feelings, and that through music education, students can participate in cooperative productions, social relationships, teamwork. . Herrera (2007, p. 6), believes that "from the musical education we can develop a framework for suitable action to work on aspects such as freedom, personal autonomy, self-esteem, honesty, happiness, critical thinking, equality, solidarity, pluralism, cooperation, love, creativity . " Once contextualized the theoretical framework, in the second block, is based and describe the objectives of this study can be summarized in the title of this thesis, an analysis of the construction of identity from a gender perspective through music education in the primary stage. To do this, the music textbooks are analyzed from a gender perspective; an analysis of the characters in the books is done; the social role played by men and women on the textbooks used in music classes described; They are detected and analyzed gender stereotypes that teach and transmit to students. All this, in order to sensitize and raise awareness among teachers and public administration of the presence of a powerful hidden curriculum in the textbooks; discover whether there are racist, sexist or other discrimination against people explicitly values in selected textbooks and publishers and also provide guidelines to facilitate analysis a critical, gender, about the material used in classrooms of primary education are textbooks. On the studied material it has conducted a content analysis, whose categories are the names of the characters, physical description, psychological description, actions performed, trades or professions and objects. Among the conclusions drawn stresses the important role of music as a transmitter of norms, customs . in many stereotyped occasions as well as the influence it has on the development of the identity of the students. Thus, the real educational value of music, beyond the recreational aspect, reassessing its role in the learning process of children is demonstrated. Finally , we have included a section entitled " Limitations and our possible courses of action " in which both proposals as future interaction studies performed on this line will be exposed. Given the conditions of space and time , there are issues that can not be presented in this work , but I feel great interest to address in future studies as they are treating the main contributions of feminist musicology, studying and highlighting the educational context names of musicians , directors and composers , as well as instruments and repertoires considered masculine or feminine. Therefore, we must stress the importance of a good selection of materials used by teachers in the classroom , because in school as a socializing agent that is , beliefs and values embedded in them are transferred .

Siba Grovogui on IR as Theology, Reading Kant Badly, and the
Incapacity of Western Political Theory to Travel very far in Non-Western
Contexts




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The study of International Relations is founded on a
series of assumptions that originate in the monotheistic traditions of the West.
For Siba Grovogui, this realization provoked him to question not only IR but to
broaden his enquiries into a multidisciplinary endeavor that encompasses law
and anthropology, journalism and linguistics, and is informed by stories and
lessons from Guinea. In this Talk, he
discusses the importance of human encounters and the problem with the Hegelian
logic which distorts our understanding of our own intellectual development and
the trajectory of the discipline of IR.




Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal
debate in current IR? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in
this debate?



I don't want to be evasive, but I
actually don't think that International Relations as a field has an object
today. And that is the problem with International Relations since Martin Wight and Stanley Hoffmann and all of
those people debated what International Relations was, whether it was an
American discipline, etc. I believe you can look at International Relations in
multiple ways: if you think of à
la Hoffmann, as a tool of dominant power, International Relations is to this
empire what anthropology was to the last. This not only has to do with the
predicates upon which it was founded initially but with its aspirations, for International
Relations shares with Anthropology the ambition to know Man—and I am using here
a very antiquated language, but that is what it was then—to know Man in certain
capacities. In the last empire, anthropology focused on the cultural dimension
and, correspondingly separated culture from civilization in a manner that
placed other regions of the world in subsidiarity vis-à-vis Europe and European
empires. In the reigning empire, IR has focused on the management and administration
of an empire that never spoke its name, reason, or subject.



Now you can believe all the stories
about liberalism and all of that stuff, but although it was predicated upon
different assumptions, the ambition is still the same: it is actually to know
Man, the way in which society is organized, to know how the entities function,
etc. If you look at it that way, then International Relations cannot be the
extension of any country's foreign policy, however significant. This is not to
say that the foreign policies of the big countries do not matter: it would be
foolish not to study them and take them into account, because they have greater
impact than smaller countries obviously. But International Relations is not—or
should not be—the extension of any country's foreign policy, nor should it be
seen as the agglomeration of a certain restricted number of foreign policies.
International Relations suggests, again, interest in the configurations of
material, moral, and symbolic spaces as well as dynamics resulting from the
relations of moral and social entities presumed to be of equal moral standings
and capacities.



If one sees it that way then we must
reimagine what International Relations should be. Foreign policy would be an
important dimension of it, but the field of foreign policy must be understood primarily
in terms of its explanations and justifications—regardless of whether these are
bundled up as realism, liberalism, or other. Today, these fields provide different
ways of explaining to the West, for itself, as a rational decision, or a
justification to the rest, that what it has done over the past five centuries,
from conquest to colonization and slavery and colonialism, is 'natural' and
that any political entities similarly situated would have done it in that same
manner. It follows therefore that this is how things should be. Those justifications,
explanations, and rationalizations of foreign policy decisions and events are
important to understand as windows into the manners in which certain regions
and political entities have construed value, interest, and ethics. But they still
belong, in some significant way, to a different domain than what is implied by
the concept of IR.



I am therefore curious about the
so-called debates about the nature of politics and the proper applicable
science or approach to historical foreign policy realms and domains, particularly
those of the West: I don't consider those debates to be 'big debates' in
International Relations, because they are really about how the West sees itself
and justifies itself and how it wants to be seen, and thus as rational. For the
West (as assumed by so-called Western scholars), these debates extend the
tradition of exculpating the West and seeing the West as the regenerative,
redemptive, and progressive force in the world. All of that language is about
that. So when you say to me, what are the debates, I don't know what they are,
so far, really, in International Relations. The constitution of the
'international', the contours and effects of the imaginaries of its
constituents, and the actualized and attainable material and symbolic spaces
within it to realize justice, peace, and a sustainable order have thus far
eluded the authoritative disciplinary traditions.



Consider the question of China today, as
it is posed in the West. The China question, too, emerges from a particular
foreign policy rationale, which may be important and particular ways to some
people or constituencies in the West but not in the same way to others, for
instance in Africa. The narrowness of the framing of the China question is why in
the West many are baffled about how Africa has been receiving China, and
China's entry into Latin America, etc. In relation to aid, for instance, if you
are an African of a certain age, or you know some history, you will know that
China formulated its foreign aid policy in 1964 and that nothing has changed.
And there are other elements, such as foreign intervention and responsibility
to self and others where China has had a distinct trajectory in Africa.



In
some regard, China may even be closer in outlook to postcolonial African states
than the former colonial powers. For instance, neither China nor African states
consider the responsibility to protect, to be essentially Western. In this
regard, it is worth bearing in mind for instance that Tanzania intervened in Uganda to depose Idi Amin in
1979; Vietnam ended the Khmer Rouge tyranny in Cambodia in 1979; India
intervened in Bangladesh in 1971—it wasn't the West. So those kinds of
understandings of responsibility, in the way they are framed today in the post-Cold
War period, superimposes ideas of responsibility that were already there and
were formulated in Bandung in 1955: differences between intervention and
interference, the latter of which today comes coded as regime change, were
actually hardly debated. So our imaginaries of the world and how it works, of responsibility,
of ethics, etc., have always had to compete with those that were formulated
since the seventeenth century in Europe, as "international ethics",
"international law", "international theory". And in fact that long history full
of sliding concepts and similar meanings may be one of the problems for
understanding how the world came into being as we know it today. And this is
why actually my classes here always begin with a semester-long discussion of
hermeneutics, of historiography, and of ethnography in IR and how they have
been incorporated.





How
did you arrive at where you currently are in IR?



I came to where I am now essentially
because of a sense of frustration, that we have a discipline that calls itself
"international" and yet seemed to be speaking either univocally or
unidirectionally: univocally in imagining the world and unidirectionally in the
way it addresses the rest of the world, and a lot of problems result from that.




I had trained as a lawyer in Guinea, and
when I came to the US I imagined that International Relations would be taught
at law school, which is the case in France, most of the time, and also in some
places in Germany in the past, because it is considered a normative science
there. But when I came here I was shocked to discover that it was going to be
in a field called Political Science, but I went along with it anyway. In the
end I did a double major: in law, at the law school in Madison, Wisconsin, and
in political science. When I came to America and went the University of
Wisconsin, I first took a class called "Nuclear Weapons and World Politics" or
something of the sort, it was more theology and less science. It was basically
articulated around chosen people and non-chosen people, those who deserve to
have weapons and those who don't. There was no rationale, no discussion of
which countries respected the Non-Proliferation Treaty, no reasoning in terms of which
countries had been wiser than others in using weapons of mass destruction,
etc.: there was nothing to it except the underlying, intuitive belief that if
something has to be done, we do it and other people don't. I'm being crass
here, but let's face it: this was a course I took in the 1980s and it is still
the same today! So I began to feel that this is really more theology and less
science. Yes, it was all neatly wrapped in rationalism, in game theory, all of
these things. So I began to ask myself deeper questions, outside of the ones
they were asking, so my Nuclear Weapons and World Politics class was really
what bothered me, or you could say it was some kind of trigger.



This way of seeing IR is related to the
fact that I don't share the implicit monotheist underpinnings of the
discipline. That translates into my perhaps unorthodox teaching style,
unorthodox within American academia anyway. Teaching all too often tends to be
less about understanding the world and more about proselytizing. In order to
try to explore this understanding I like to bring my students to consider the
world that has existed, to imagine that sovereignty and politics can be
structured differently, especially outside of monotheism with its likening of
the sovereign to god, the hierarchy modeled on the church, Saint Peter, Jesus,
God, uniformity and the power of life (to kill or let live), and to understand
that there have always been places where the sovereign was not in fact that
revered. Think of India, for example, where people have multiple gods, and some
are mischievous, some are promiscuous, some are happy and some are mean, so
there are lots of conceptions and some of these don't translate well into
different cultural contexts. The same, incidentally, goes for the Greek gods.
Of course, we had to make the Greeks Christians first, before we drew our
lineage to them. You see what I mean? Christianity left a very deep impact on
Western traditions. Whether you think of political parties and a parallel to
the Catholic orders: if you are a Jesuit, the Jesuits are always right; if you
are a Franciscan, the Franciscans are always right. The Franciscans for instance
think they have the monopoly on Christian social teaching. In a similar way, it
doesn't matter what your political party does, you follow whatever your party
says. The same thing happens when you study: are you a realist, are you
liberalist, etc. You are replicating the Jesuits, the Franciscans, those monks
and their orders. But we are all caught within that logic, of tying ourselves
into one school of thought and going along with one "truth" over another,
instead of permitting multiple takes on reality..



For me, as a non-monotheist myself,
everything revolves around this question of truth: whether truth is given or
has to be found and how we find it. Truth has to be found, discovered, revealed—we
have to continuously search. The significant point is that we never find it
absolutely. Truth is always provisional, circumstantial, and pertinent to a
context or situation. We all want truth and it is always evading us, but we
must look for it. But I don't think that truth is given. It is in the Bible,
the Quran, and the Torah. And I am
comfortable with that but I am not in the realm of theology. I dwell on human
truths and humans are imperfect and not omniscient, at least not so
individually. 



If I had the truth, then I might be one
of those dictators governing in Africa today. I was raised a Catholic by the
way, I almost went to the seminary. If you just think through the story of the
Revelation in profane terms, you come to the realization that ours are multiple
revelations. Again in theology, one truth is given at a time—the Temple Mount,
the Tablets, and all that stuff—but that is not in our province. I leave that
to a different province and that is unattainable to me. The kind of revelation
I want is the one that goes through observing, through looking, through
deliberating, through inquiry—that I am comfortable with. There can be a
revelation in terms of meeting the unexpected, for example: when I went to the
New World, to Latin America for the first time, I said, 'wow, this is
interesting'. That was through my own senses, but it had a lot to do with the
way I prepared myself in order to receive the world and to interact with the
world. That kind of revelation I believe in. The other one is beyond me and I'm
not interested in that. When I want to be very blasphemous, even though I was
raised a Catholic, I tell my students: the problem with the Temple Mount is
that God did not have a Twitter account, so the rest of us didn't hear it—we
were not informed. I don't have the truth, and I don't really don't want to
have it.





What
would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a
global way?



I am not sure I want to make a canonical
recommendation, if that's what you are asking me for. Let me tell you this: I
have trained about eleven PhD students, and none of them has ever done what I
do. I am not interested in having clones, I don't want to recreate theology,
and in fact I feel this question to betray a very Western disposition, by
implying the need to create canons and theology. I don't want that. What I want
is to understand the world, and understanding can be done in multiple ways:
people do it through music, through art, through multiple things. The problem
for me, however, is actually the elements, assumptions, predicates of studies
and languages that we use in IR, the question to whom they make sense—I am
talking about the types of ethnographies, the ways in which we talk about
diplomatic history, and all of those things. The graduate courses that I was
talking about have multiple dimensions, but there are times in my seminars here
where I just take a look at events like what happened in the New World from
1492 to 1600. This allows me to talk about human encounters. The ones we have
recorded, of people who are mutually unintelligible, are the ones that took
place on this continent, the so-called New World. And what this does is that it
allows me to talk about encounters, to talk about all of the possibilities—you
know the ones most people talk about in cultural studies like creolization,
hybridization, and all those things—and all of the others things that happened
also which are not so helpful, such as violence, usurpation, and so forth.



What that allows me to do is to cut
through all this nonsense—yes I am going to call it nonsense—that projects the
image that what we do today goes back to Thucydides and has been handed down to
us through history to today. There are many strands of thought like that. If
you think about thought, and Western thought in general, all of those
historically rooted and contingent strands of thought have something to do with
how we construct social scientific fields of analysis today—realism,
liberalism, etc.—so I'm not dispensing with that. What I'm saying is that
history itself has very little to do with those strands of thought, and that
people who came here—obviously you had scientists who came to the New World—but
the policies on the ground had nothing to do with Thucydides, nothing to do
with Machiavelli, etc. Their practices actually had more to do with the
violence that propelled those Europeans from their own countries in seeking
refuge, and how that violence shaped them, the kind of attachments they had.
But it also had to do with the kind of cultural disposition here, and the
manner in which people were able to cope, or not. Because that's where we are
today in the post-Cold War era, the age of globalization, we must provide
analyses that are germane to how the constituents (or constitutive elements) of
the historically constituted 'international' are coping with our collective
inheritance. For me, this approach is actually much more instructive. This has
nothing to do with the Melian Dialogue and the like.



All of the stuff projected today as
canonical is interesting to me but only in limited ways. I actually read the
classics and have had my students read them, but try to get my students to read
them as a resource for understanding where we are today and how we were led
there, rather than as a resource for justifying or legitimating the manner in
which European conducted their 'foreign' policies or their actions in the New
World. No. I know enough to know that no action in the New World or elsewhere
was pre-ordained, unavoidable, or inevitable. The resulting political entities
in the West must assume the manners in which they acted. It is history,
literally. And of course we know through Voltaire, we know through Montaigne, we know even through Roger Bacon, that even in those times people realized that in
fact the world had not been made and hence had not been before as it would
become later; that other ways were (and still) are possible; and that the
pathologies of the violence of religious and civil wars in Europe conditioned
some the behaviours displayed in the New World and Africa during conquest and
enslavement.



For the same reason I recommend students
to read Kant: I tell them to read Kant as a resource for understanding how we might
think about the world today, but I am compelled to say often to my students
that before Kant, hospitality, and such cultural intermediaries as theDragomans in the Ottoman Empire, the Wangara in West Africa, the Chinese Diaspora in East and
Southeast Asia, and so forth, enabled commerce across continents for centuries
before Europe was included into the existing trading networks. This is not to
dismiss Kant, it is simply to force students to put Kant in conversation with a
different trajectory of the development of commercial societies, cross-regional
networks, and the movements to envisage laws, rules, and ethics to enable
communications among populations and individual groups.



This approach causes many people to ask
whether the IR programme at Johns Hopkins really concerns IR theory or something
else. I actually often get those kinds of questions, and they are wedded to
particular conceptions of IR. I am never able to give a fixed and quick answer
but I often illustrate points that I wish to make. Consider how scholars and
policymakers relate the question of sovereignty to Africa. Many see African
sovereignty as problem, either because they think it is abused or stands in the
way of humanitarian or development actions by supposed well-meaning Westerners.
I attempt to have my students think twice when sovereignty is evoked in that
way: 'sovereignty is a problem; the extents to which sovereignty is a problem
in Africa; and why sovereignty is unproblematic in Europe or America'. This
questioning and bracketing is not simply a 'postmodernist' evasion of the
question.



Rather, I invite my students to
reconsider the issue: if sovereignty is your problem, how do you think about the
problem? For me, this is a much more interesting question; not what the problem
is. For instance, if you start basing everything around a certain mythology of
the Westphalia model, particularly when you begin to see everything as either
conforming to it (the good) or deviating from it (the bad), then you have lost
me. Because before Westphalia there were actually many ways in which sovereigns
understood themselves, and therefore organized their realms, and how
sovereignty was experienced and appreciated by its subjects. Westphalia is a crucial
moment in Europe in these regards—I grant you that. If you want to say what is
wrong with Westphalia, that's fine too. But if Westphalia is your starting
point, the discussion is unlikely to be productive to me. Seriously!





In
your work on political identity in Africa, such as your contribution to the
2012 volume edited by Arlene Tickner and David Blaney, the terms periphery,
margin, lack of historicity recur frequently. What regional or perhaps even
global representational protagonism can you envisage for IR studies emerging
from Africa and its spokespeople?



The subjects of 'periphery' and 'marginalization'
come into my own thinking from multiple directions. One of them has to do with
the African state and the kind of subsidiarity it has assumed from the
colonization onward. That's a critique of the state of affairs and a commentary
on how Africa is organized and is governed. But I do also use it sometimes as a
direct challenge to people who think they know the world. And my second book, Beyond Eurocentrism and Anarchy (2006), was actually about that, and that book
was triggered by an account of an event in Africa, that everybody in African
Studies has repeated and still continues to repeat, which is this: in June
1960, Africans went to defend France, because
France asked them to. This is to say that nobody could imagine that
Africans—and I am being careful here in terms of how people describe Africans—understood
that they had a stake in the 'world' under assault during World War II. And so
the book actually begins with a simple question: in 1940, which France would
have asked Africans to defend it: Vichy France which was under German control,
or the Germans who occupied half of France? But the decision to defend France
actually came partly from a discussion between French colonial officers in Chad
and African veterans of World War I, who decided that the world had to be
restructured for Africa to find its place in it. They didn't do it for France,
because it's a colonial power, they did it for the world. That's the thing. And
Pétain, to his credit, is the only French
official who asked the pertinent question about that, in a letter to his
minister of justice (which is an irony, because justice under Pétain was a
different question) he said: 'I am puzzled, that in 1918 when we were
victorious, Africans rebelled; in 1940, we are defeated, and they come to our
aid. Could you explain that to me?' The titular head of Vichy had the decency
to ask that. By contrast, every scholar of Africa just repeated, 'Oh, the
French asked Africans to go fight, and the Africans showed up'.



Our inability to understand that Africa
actually sees itself as a part of the world, as a manager of the world, has so
escaped us today that in the case of Libya for instance, when people were
debating, you saw in every single newspaper in the world, including my beloved Guardian, that the African Union decided
this, but the International Community decided that, as if Africans had
surrendered their position in the international society to somebody: to the
International Community. People actually said that! The AU, for all its 'wretchedness',
after all represents about a quarter of the member states of the UN. And yet it
was said the AU decided this and the International Community decided that. The
implication is that the International Community is still the West plus Japan
and maybe somebody else, and in this case it was Qatar and Saudi Arabia: "good
citizens of the world", very "good democracies" etc. That's how deeply-set that
is, that people don't even check themselves. Every time they talk they chuck
Africa out of the World.  Nobody says,
America did this and the International Community decided that. All I am saying
is that our mindscapes are so deeply structured that nothing about Africa can
be studied on its own, can be studied as something that has universal
consequence, as something that has universal value, as something that might be
universalizing—that institutions in Africa might actually have some good use to
think about anything. Otherwise, people would have asked them how did colonial
populations—people who were colonized—overcome colonial attempts to strip them
of their humanity and extend an act of humanity, of human solidarity, to go
fight to defend them? And what was that about? Even many Africans fail to ask
that question today!



And it could be argued that this
thinking is, to some degree, down to widespread ignorance about Africa. We all
are guilty of this. And oddly, especially intellectuals are guilty of this, and
worse. Let me give you an example: recently I was in Tübingen in Germany, and I
went into a store to buy some shoes—a very fine store, wonderful people—and I
can tell you I ended up having a much more rewarding conversation with the
people working in the shoe shop than I had at Tübingen University. Because
there was a real curiosity. You would like to think that it is not so unusual
in this day and age that a person from Guinea teaches in America, but you
cannot blame them for being curious and asking many questions. At the
university, in contrast, they actually are making claims, and for me that is no
longer ignorance, that is hubris.





Your work presents an original take on the role of
language in International Relations. How is language tied up with IR theory?



The language problem has many, many
layers. The first of these is, simply, the issue of translation. If I were, for
instance, to talk to someone in my father's language about Great Power
Responsibility, they would look totally lost. Because in Guinea we have been what
white people call stateless or acephalous societies, the notion that one power
should have responsibility for another is a very difficult concept to
translate, because you are running up against imaginaries of power, of
authority, etc. that simply don't exist. So when you talk about such social scientific
categories to those people, you have to be aware of all the colonial era
enlightenment inheritances in them. When we talk about International Relations
in Africa, we thus bump into a whole set of problems: the primary problem of
translating ideas from here into those languages; another in capturing what
kind of institutions exist in those languages; and a third issue has to do with
how you translate across those languages. Consider for instance the difference
between Loma stateless societies in the rain forest
in Guinea, and Malinke who are very hierarchical, especially since SundiataKeita came to power in the 13th
century. But the one problem most people don't talk about is the very one that
is obsessing me now, is the question how I, as an African, am able to communicate
with you through Kant, without you assuming that I am a bad reader of Kant.



The difference that I am trying to make
here is actually what in linguistics is called vehicular language which is
distinct from vernacular language. Because a lot of you assume that vehicular language
is vernacular—that there is Latin and the rest is vernacular; that there is a
proper reading of Kant and everything else is vernacular; or you have
cosmopolitan and perhaps afropolitan and everything else is the vernacular of
it. But this is not in fact always the case. The most difficult thing for
linguists to understand, and for people in the social sciences to understand,
is that Kant, Hegel and other thinkers can avail themselves as resources that one
uses to try to convey imaginaries that are not always available to others—or to
Kant himself for that matter. And it is not analogical—it is not 'this is the
African Machiavelli'. It is easy to talk about power using Machiavelli, but to
smuggle into Machiavelli different kind of imaginaries is more difficult.
Nonetheless, I use Machiavelli because there is no other language available to
me to convey that to you, because you don't speak my father's language.



Moreover, there is a danger for instance
when I speak with my students that they may hear Machiavelli even when I am not
speaking of him, and I warn them to be very careful. Machiavelli is a way to
bring in a different stream of understanding of Realpolitik, but it's not entirely Machiavelli. If you spoke my
father's language, I would tell you in my father's language, but that is not
available to me here, so Machiavelli is a vehicle to talk about something else.
Sometimes people might say to me 'what you are saying sounds to me like Kant
but it's not really Kant' then I remind them that before Kant there were
actually a lot of people who talked about the sublime, the moral, the
categorical imperative, etc. in different languages; and if you are patient
with me then we will get to the point when Kant belongs to a genealogy of
people who talked about certain problems differently, and in that context Kant
is no longer a European: I place Kant in the context of people who talk about
politics, morality, etc. differently and I want to offer you a bunch of
resources and please, please don't package me, because you don't own the
interpretation of Kant, because even in your own context in Europe today Kant
is not your contemporary, so you are making a lot of translations and I am
making a lot of translations to get to something else: it is not that I am not
a bad reader.



At an ISA conference I once was attacked
by a senior colleague in IR for being a bad reader of Hegel, and I had to
explain to him that while my using Hegel might be an act of imposition, and a
result of having been colonized and given Hegel, but at this particular moment
he should consider my gesture as an act of generosity, in the sense that I was
reading Hegel generously to find resources that would allow him to understand
things that he had no idea exist out there, and Hegel is the only tool
available to me at this moment. But because all of you believe in one theology
or another, he insisted that if I spoke Hegelian then I was Hegelian, and I
retorted that I was not, but that deploying Hegel was merely an instance of
vehicular language, allowing me to explore certain predicates, certain precepts
and assumptions, and that is all. In this way, I can use Kant, or Hegel, or
Hobbes, or Locke, and my problem when I do this is not with those thinkers—I
can ignore the limitations of their thinking which was conditioned by the
realities of their time—my problem is with those people who think they own
traditions originating from long dead European thinkers. Thus, my problem today
is less with Kant than with Kantians.



Or take Hobbes: Hobbes talked about the
body in the way that it was understood in his time, and about human faculties
in the way that they were understood at that time. Anybody who quotes Hobbes
today about the faculties of human nature, I have to ask: when was the last
time you read biology? I am not saying that Hobbes wasn't a very smart man; he
was an erudite, and I am not joking. It is not his problem that people are
still trivializing human faculties and finding issue with his view of how the
body works—of course he was wrong on permeability, on cohabitation, on what
organs live in us, etc.—he was giving his account of politics through metaphors
and analogies that he understood at that time. When I think about it this way, my
problem is not that Hobbes didn't have a modern understanding of the body, the
distribution of the faculties and the extent of human capacities. Nor is my
problem that Hobbes is Western. My problem is not with Hobbes himself. My
problem is with all these realists who based their understanding of sovereignty
or borders strictly on Hobbes' illustrations but have not opened a current book
on the body that speaks of the faculties. If they did, even their own analogies
may begin to resonate differently. There is new research coming out all the
time on how we can understand the body, and this should have repercussions on
how we read Hobbes today.



The absence of contextualization and
historicization has proved a great liability for IR. Historicity allows one to
receive Hobbes and all those other writers without indulging in mindless
simplicities. It helps get away from simplistic divisions of the world—for
instance, the West here and Africa there—from the assumptions that when I speak
about postcolonialism in Africa I must be anti-Western. I am in fact growing very
tired of those kinds of categories. As a parenthesis, I must ask if some of those
guys in IR who speak so univocally and unidirectionally to others are even
capable of opening themselves up to hearing other voices. I must also reveal
that Adlai Stevenson, not some postcolonialist, alerted me
to the problem of univocality when he stated in 1954 during one UN forum that 'Everybody
needed aid, the West surely needs a hearing aid'. Hearing is indeed the one
faculty that the West is most in need of cultivating. The same, incidentally,
could be said of China nowadays.



One of the things I would like
to deny Western canonist is their inclination to think of the likes of Diderot as Westerners. In his Supplément au Voyage a Bougainville (1772), Diderot presents a
dialogue between himself and Orou, a native Tahitian. Voltaire wrote dialogues,
some real, some imaginary, about and with China. The authors' people were
reflecting on the world. It is hubris and an act of usurpation in the West
today to want to lay claim to everything that is perceived to be good for the
West. By the same token that which is bad must come from somewhere else. This
act of usurpation has led to the appropriation—or rather internal colonization—of
Diderot and Voltaire and like-minded philosophers and publicists who very much
engaged the world beyond their locales. I have quarrels with this act of
colonization, of the incipit parochialization of authors who ought not to be. I
have quarrels with Voltaire's characterization of non-Europeans at times; but I
have a greater quarrel with how he has been colonized today as distinctly European.
Voltaire rejected European orthodoxies of his day and opted explicitly to enter
into dialogue with Chinese and Africans as he understood them. Diderot, too, was
often in dialogue with Tahitians and other non-Europeans. In fact, the
relationship between Diderot and the Tahitian was exactly the same as the
relationship between Socrates and Plato, in that you have an older person
talking and a younger person and less wise person listening. A lot of Western
philosophy and political theory was actually generated—at least in the modern
period—after contact with the non-West. So how that is Western I don't know. I
encounter the same problem when I am in Africa where I am accused of being
Western just because I make the same literary references. It is a paradox today
that even literature is assigned an identity for the purpose of hegemony and/or
exclusion. Francis Galton (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton) travelled widely and wrote dialogues from this
expedition in Africa, so how can we say to what extent the substance of such
dialogues was Western or British?





So in sum you are not trying to counter Western
thought, but do you feel that the African political experience and your own
perspective can bring something new to IR studies?



I am going to try and express
something very carefully here, because the theory of the state in Africa
brought about untold horrors—in Sierra Leone, in Liberia, and so on—so I am not
saying this lightly. But I have said to many people, Africans and non-Africans,
that I am glad that the postcolonial African state failed, and I wish many more
of them failed, and I'm sure a lot more will fail, because they correspond to
nothing on the ground. The idea of constitutions and constitutionalism came
with making arrangements with a lot of social elements that were generated by
certain entities that aspired to go in certain directions. What happened in
Africa is that somebody came and said: 'this worked there, it should work here'—and
it doesn't. I'll give you three short stories to illustrate this.



One of the presidents of postcolonial
Guinea, the one I despise the most, Lansana Conté (in office 1984-2008), also gave me one
of my inspirational moments. Students rebelled against him and destroyed
everything in town and so he went on national TV that day and said: 'You know
I'm very disheartened. I am disheartened about children who have become
Europeans.' Obviously the blame would be on Europe. He continued, 'They are
rude, they don't respect people or property. I understand that they may have
quarrels with me, but I also understand that we are Africans. And though we may
no longer live in the village', and it is important for me that he said that, 'though
we may no longer live in the village, when we move in the big city, the council
of elders is what parliament does for us now. We don't have the council of
elders, instead we have parliament. They, the students, can go to parliament
and complain about their father. I am their father, my children are older than
all of them. So in the village, they would have gone to the council of elders,
and they could have done this and I would have given them my explanation'. And
the next morning, the whole country turned against the students, because what
he had succeeded in doing was to touch and move people. They went to the head
of the student government, who said: 'The president was right. We had failed to
understand that our ways cannot be European ways, and we can think about our
modern institutions as iterations of what we had in the past, suited to our
circumstances, and so we should not do politics in the same way. I agree with
him, and in that spirit I want to say that among the Koranko ethnic group,
fathers let their children eat meat first, because they have growing needs, and
if the father doesn't take care of his children, then they take the children
away from the father and give them to the uncle. Our problem at the university
is that our stipends are not being paid, and father has all his mansions in
France, in Spain, and elsewhere, so we want the uncle.' He was in effect asking
for political transition: he was saying they were now going to the council of
elders, the parliament, and demand the uncle, for father no longer merits being
the father. He was able to articulate political transition and rotation in that
language. It was a very clever move.



The second one was my mother who was
completely unsympathetic to me when I came home one day and was upset that one
of my friends who was a journalist had been arrested. She said, 'if you wish
you can go back to your town but don't come here and bother me and be grumpy'. So
I started an exchange with her and explained to her why it is important that we
have journalists and why they should be free, until our discussion turned to
the subject of speaking truth to power. At that moment she said, 'now you are
talking sense' and she started to tell me how the griot functioned in West Africa for the past
eight hundred years, and why truth to power is part of our institutional
heritage. But that truth is not a personal truth, for there is an organic
connection between reporter and the community, there is a group in which they
collect information, communicate and criticize, and we began to talk about
that. And since then I have stopped teaching Jefferson in my constitutional
classes in Africa, as a way of talking about the free press, instead I talk
about speaking truth to power. But it allows me not only to talk about the
necessity of speaking truth to power, but also to criticize the organization of
the media, which is so individualised, so oriented toward the people who give
the money: think of the National Democratic Institute in
Washington, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung in Germany, they
have no organic connection to the people. And my mother told me, 'as long as
it's a battle between those who have the guns and those who have the pen, then
nobody is speaking to my problems, then I have no dog in that fight'. And
journalists really make a big mistake by not updating their trade and
redressing it. Because speaking truth to power is not absent in our tradition,
we have had it for eight hundred years, six centuries before Jefferson, but we
don't think about it that way. I have to remind my friends in Guinea: 'you are
vulnerable precisely because you have not understood what the profession of
journalism might look like in this community, to make your message more
relevant and effective'. You see the smart young guys tweeting away and how
they have been replaced by the Muslim Brotherhood, because we have not made the
message relevant to the community. We are communicating on media and in idioms
that have no real bearing on people's lives, so we are easily dismissed. That
is in fact the tragedy of what happened in Tunisia: the smart, young protesters
have so easily been brushed aside for this reason.



The third story is about how we had a
constitutional debate in Guinea before multipartism, and people were talking about
the separation of powers. And I went to the university to talk to a group of
people and I put it to them: why do you waste your time studying the American
Constitution and the separation of powers in America? I grant you, it is a
wonderful experiment and it has lasted two hundred years, but that would not
lead you anywhere with these people. The theocratic Futa Jallon in Guinea (in the 18th and
19th centuries) had one of the most advanced systems of separation
of powers: the king was in Labé, the constitution was in Dalaba, the people who
interpreted the constitution were in yet another city, the army was based in
Tougué. It was the most decentralised organization of government you can
imagine, and all predicated on the idea that none of the nine diwés, or provinces, should actually
have the monopoly of power. So those that kept the constitution were not
allowed to interpret it, because the readers were somewhere else. But to make
sure that what they were reading was the right document, they gave it to a
different province. So the separation of powers is not new to us.



In sum, the West is a wonderful
political experiment, and it has worked for them.
We can actualize some of what they have instituted, but we have sources here
that are more suited to the circumstances of the people in that region, without
undermining the modern ideas of democratic self-governance, without undermining
the idea of a republic. Without dispensing with all of those, we must not be
tempted to imagine constitution in the same way, to imagine separation of
powers in the same way, even to imagine and practice journalism in the same
way, in this very different environment. It is going to fail. That is my third
story.





Siba N. Grovogui has
been teaching at Johns Hopkins University after holding the DuBois-Mandela
postdoctoral fellowship of the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor in 1989-90 and
teaching at Eastern Michigan University from 1993 to 1995. He is currently
professor of international relations theory and law at The Johns Hopkins
University. He is the author of Sovereigns,
Quasi-Sovereigns, and Africans: Race and Self-determination in International
Law (University of Minnesota Press, 1996) and Beyond Eurocentrism and Anarchy: Memories of International Institutions
and Order (Palgrave, April 2006). He has recently completed a ten-year long
study partly funded by the National Science Foundation of the rule of law in
Chad as enacted under the Chad Oil and Pipeline Project.





Related links




Faculty Profile at Johns Hopkins University
Read Grovogui's Postcolonial Criticism: International Reality and Modes of Inquiry (2002 book chapter) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's The Secret Lives of Sovereignty (2009 book chapter) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's Counterpoints and the Imaginaries Behind Them: Thinking Beyond
North American and European Traditions (2009 contribution to International Political Sociology) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's Postcolonialism (2010 book chapter) here (pdf)
Read Grovogui's Sovereignty in Africa: Quasi-statehood and Other Myths (2001 book chapter in a volume edited by Tim Shaw and Kevin Dunn) here (pdf)




Print version of this Talk (pdf)

This essay continues with a discussion concerning the intersection between indigenous technological adoption/adaptation and the range of perspectives with respect to local communities' use of technology in general. Analytical instruments will be presented at the end of this article. First, however, the reader will have the opportunity to examine the 'views' of outsiders with respect to the debate surrounding sustainability, environmental management and territorial ordering. Responses to an on-line survey concerning the above issues together with my own comments, will add to the discussion. ; Gestión ambiental; Ordenamiento Territorial; Sostenibilidad; TIC; Usos ; 1 TECHNOLOGY IN NORTHWEST AMAZONIA (NWA) VIEWS OF VIEWS: SUSTAINABILITY, ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND TERRITORIAL ORDERING A contribution to a Political Ecology for Northwest Amazonia1 This essay continues with a discussion concerning the intersection between indigenous technological adoption/adaptation and the range of perspectives with respect to local communities' use of technology in general2. Analytical instruments will be presented at the end of this article. First, however, the reader will have the opportunity to examine the 'views' of outsiders with respect to the debate surrounding sustainability, environmental management and territorial ordering. Responses to an on-line survey concerning the above issues together with my own comments, will add to the discussion. Aims Initially there were two aims behind the construction of a website. One of was to overcome impediments to my personal mobility and direct access3. ICT facilitated communications with other interested people and helped solicit their views on indigenous management of the forest and their opinions with respect to the process of territorial ordering in Amazonia. The other aim was to serve the process of opening up political opportunities for NWA's inhabitants. Grassroots organisations all around the globe were (and are) establishing links through ICT. The indigenous peoples of Amazonia may attempt the same and this experience could, in the future, be an instrument of education for NWA. The introduction of such technology among indigenous peoples, if possible, will have impacts, which will to be judged as positive or negative, depending of the political interests of the observer and the moment of observation. It is argued here, that despite there being no indisputable positive or negative effects of technological transfer, it would be contrary to indigenous people's rights to self-determination to prevent the promotion of ICT among them. We wish to question conservative forces: if governments, corporations, NGOs and even international drug dealers and terrorist groups are using ICT to fortify their political positions, why should indigenous peoples be denied access to it? The access (or lack of it) of grassroots organisations to ICT facilitates (or impedes) the 1 The author wishes to thank: Jim Connor and Mark Bennett of Imperial College, the former for his advice on the use of Arcview-GIS and the latter for helping to write the cgi-script form for the website. Thanks are also due to: Stuart Peters from the University of Surrey for training in Web- Page design; Adriana Rico from Páginas.Net for valuable advice during the design process and Alvaro Ocampo for a detailed critique of Kumoro.com before it went live. I also wish to thank the Board of Puerto Rastrojo Foundation, which gave me permission to use their vegetation map as a base for the Yaigojé vegetation map that appears on the web-site. Finally thanks to all the people that took the time to fill out the on-line survey. Their contributions made this chapter possible. 2 This discussion was introduced in "Technology in Northwest Amazonia: Sketches from Inside" (Forero 2002b). 3 A restriction of one of the scholarships the author was granted as well as guerrilla incursions at the time, prevented the author from going back to NWA. 2 development of their rights to be informed (and educated) in accordance with the actual historical context of a globalising corporate economy and cultural hybridisation. For indigenous peoples, as well as for other ethnic minorities, financial resources to set up ICT are extremely limited compared to those of corporations, governments and even NGOs. The establishment of an ICT network for indigenous peoples' organisations in NWA remains a Utopia. But without a Utopian vision there is no aim for social mobilisation; this is something that was underlined by responses to the on-line survey. Fieldwork in NWA involved the author in the territorial ordering process, helping with the formation of indigenous people's organisations, and getting involved in communities' economic and educational projects. My work in NWA can thus be characterised as participatory action research (PAR) and one way of continuing to engage in PAR without going back to the field was to set up a website, wait for an opportunity to share my experience with the people of NWA and promote projects that would allow them to take over the website and use it for their own projects4. Deconstruction of an Internet generated discourse Elsewhere the author has dealt with descriptions and deconstructions of discourses of indigenous and institutional organisations, be they NGOs, churches, governmental or international. This process of deconstruction has included the author's own work among indigenous organisations and NGOs, which was one of the aims of "Indigenous knowledge and the scientific mind: activism or colonialism?" (Forero 2002a). I wish to explain the inclusion of governmental and non-governmental organisations within the category 'institutional'. There are great differences as well as important coincidences in governmental actions and the work of NGOs in developing countries due to the limited nature and poor quality of State-driven action in such nations. E.g. in Colombia, COAMA, the largest NGO network in NWA, has been involved in the political administrative reforms, and served as a consultant in matters of education, health and sustainable production. Furthermore, COAMA staff accompanied indigenous peoples in all these processes and without their intervention it is doubtful that many of the indigenous political organisations of Amazonia would ever have succeeded in their quest for legal recognition5. NGOs and governmental institutions may pursue similar political aims and share administrative structures. Inasmuch as small organisations are successful, (and usually this success is a result of strong personal commitment to a cause and personal knowledge of all members of the organisation), they tend to obtain more funds, which in turn forces them to become increasingly bureaucratic. As 4 At the time of writing (May 2002) the author was preparing to visit NWA at the invitation of indigenous leaders, including the Co-ordinator of an education committee who wanted to discuss the roll of ICT in education. 5 See Forero, Laborde et al. 1998 and the interview with the director of COAMA Martín von Hildebrand, in The Ecologist 2002 (Vol. 32 No.1-February). 3 organisations grow, individual members have fewer opportunities to get to know each other personally and maintain an accordance of principles, aims and political means. This is not to say that NGOs are condemned to be inefficient bureaucratic institutions, (which is not uncommon among developing countries' governmental institutions). But it is important to draw attention to the risk that when resources are pumping in and recruitment is growing there is more chance of becoming detached from grassroots sensibilities with respect to issues and less chance of correctly interpreting local developmental idioms. Views of Indigenous Environmental Management The design, production and publishing of a website on the development of a political ecology for NWA, taking the Yaigojé Resguardo as a study case, may seem a very simple task with little impact. But it proved to be a very delicate matter that involved exhausting work. The production of a map of the Yaigojé Resguardo, (which was to be included on the website) has been explained elsewhere, although it is worth mentioning something about the methodology involved. The author accompanied shamans (who were selected by indigenous leaders from the Apaporis) on several trips in which all the recognised sacred places of the Apaporis River and some of its tributaries where identified. The shamans learn the names of the places during their training. These names are recited in myths, chants and spells. The shamans carry, as they say, the map within themselves. It is impressive to see these men point to a place and give its name without hesitation. It is like this even when they have never been in that place before. It is impressive that this orally transmitted geography corresponds so precisely to the physical aspects that start to become relevant for people who, like the author, have different epistemological instruments for their interpretations of the world. While visiting the sacred places shamans spoke of trips they had made previously. In the case of shamanistic trips, visits did not actually involve physical journeys, but what were referred to as trips en pensamiento, en espíritu (in thought, in spirit). While accompanying them I recorded the geographical co-ordinates using a satellite guided geographical positioning system (GPS). The geographical co-ordinates thus generated were converted to plane co-ordinates and a map was generated using AUTOCAD software. Translations, drawings and reflections about this map-making process are included in a MSc thesis of the University of Warwick (Forero 1999). The work I will describe now, although partially derived from my work with the shamans is distinct in character and intention from that reported in Forero (1999). The use of technological gadgetry allowed me partially to reflect the Tukano world in a way that non-indigenous people could understand. And although this was a significant and, I believe, useful undertaking the real knowledge of the territory lies within the shamans with whom I worked. The fact that the 'indigenous territorial' aspects of the website are illustrated with maps is a by-product of the technology. A more significant value of the work (and the reason behind the shamans' wish to become involved in mapping) is that the maps were going to provide evidence for the legal process through which the ACIYA 4 indigenous organisation would claim rights over lands outside the recognised Resguardo Indigenous Reserve (Forero, Laborde et al. 1998). This work was successful and an extension to the Resguardo was indeed granted. Work on the website began by making a provisional outline of the desired end product. The original plan included six pages: Introduction (Home), vegetation map, traditional territorial map, discussion (an introduction to the political ecology of the Yaigojé Resguardo), bibliography (for those looking for references to NWA and the Yaigojé in particular), and a questionnaire that would generate the information from which this chapter has been developed6. The contrasting discourses obtained from the questionnaires Although I shall refer to percentages in this section, there is no intention of making any predictions based on statistical analyses. Neither is it suggested that the analysis of questionnaires can provide an objective account of outsiders' opinions with respect to the politics of the environment and people of NWA. The following notes are not representative in that sense and such was never the intention of the exercise. What is intended is that the reader gets an insight into the perceptions of survey respondents. What is important in a qualitative data analysis, like this, is to present differential tendencies. If discourses are constituents of reality then the confusing scenario of political confrontation in NWA should be linked to the visions and perspectives of all of us, including the views of people that have never been in Amazonia but nonetheless hold an opinion. And, if there is a marked difference between indigenous and exogenous perspectives with respect to sustainability and environmental management in Amazonia, which relates to whether people have visited NWA or not, this should be reflected in the answers to the surveys. The information generated from the on-line survey was collected between May and December of 2001. Eight hundred invitations were sent through e-mail. They were sent mainly to academics and organisations working on indigenous issues, conservation or sustainable development in NWA. One of these invitations reached COLNODO7 and the ICT network asked if we wished to submit the website in a weekly contest for the best new website, which we did and subsequently won! This meant that COLNODO subscribers were notified and invited to visit the site. But we have no idea how many hits were derived from COLNODO invitation. What we know is that during these 8 months we received 51 completed survey forms. This is a 6.4% response rate to the original 800 invitations8. 6 The survey form is in Appendix 1and, a summary of the technical work involved in the construction of the web-site is in Appendix 2. 7 "COLNODO is a Colombian communications network serving organizations dedicated to community development. It is operated by the non-profit organization called Colombian Association of Non-Governmental Organizations for Email Communication" (http://www.colnodo.org.co/summary_english.html). For a critical review of COLNODO work the interested reader could consult Gómez, R. 1998. 8 This response rate is rather low relative to postal questionnaire surveys, but we are unable to assess it relative other on-line surveys. 5 For the purposes of the analysis respondents (R) were divided into two groups: those claiming to have visited NWA (VA – 29% of R) and those claiming not to have visited the region (NVA – 71% of R). With respect to occupation, 68% of R come from the academic sector, including five anthropologists (almost 10% of R) all of whom had visited NWA. In contrast, although there were the same number of environmental managers as anthropologists answering the questionnaire, none had visited NWA. With respect to gender, the percentage of male (53%) and female (47%) respondents is similar across both VA and NVA groups. In terms of age, there were four groups: 1) 18 to 24, 2) 25 to 34, 3) 35 to 50, and 4) over 50. For R the percentages were: 8%, 47%, 35% and 10% respectively. The majority of respondents belong to the second group, between 25 to 34 years of age. However with respect to age groups the composition of VA and NVA groups differs: 56% of the NVA group belong to this second age cohort (25-34), while the majority of the VA group (47%) is between 35 and 50. Additionally, 13% of the VA group are over 50. 61% of the NVA group are between 18 and 34 years of age, while 60% of those that have visited Amazonia are over 35. A comparison of age among the survey respondents thus shows that those that have visited Amazonia (VA) tend to be older than those that have not (NVA). To distinguish among the views held by survey respondents we have to present the responses to each of the questions of the survey. We have made some associations of responses with the intention of outlining the different tendencies that we identify, but the reader might identify others. Before we do so a word about the view of respondents with respect to the website itself should be said. Website evaluation An evaluation of the web-site made by users was included in the questionnaire. Respondents were asked to rate the site between four categories: poor, fair, good and excellent. These categories were chosen as follows: 0, 2, 32 and 15 respectively. Two of the respondents did not offer a rating for the site. Additionally, respondents had the opportunity to suggest improvements. Some respondents suggested changes in design: modification of fonts and colours (some changes had already taken place). There were those who asked for more pictures, a photo album, more links and the construction of a chat room. With respect to the content, some wanted more ethnographic data, another more on political ecology, others asked for better visibility of the maps, while others called for additional links to related sites, and/or more information in general. One suggestion was to make the website less personalised, while another expressed interest in knowing more about the author's research project. Others asked for an enhanced bibliography. Some changes had already taken place by the time these comments were analysed but further changes are still being undertaken at the time of writing. With respect to the questionnaire, two people suggested larger windows to facilitate vision and to be able to comment largely, in contrast, another suggested encouraging more 'yes/no' responses. An important suggestion was: "Perhaps it is now appropriate to include some questions on communication 6 and information flows" (S52). Although not sought explicitly, information was gathered with respect to the use of ICT in the territorial ordering process of Amazonia. One of the respondents suggested that in future the website should be used by indigenous peoples of the Yaigojé. This has been the intention of the author, which has made a visit to Yaigojé (summer 2002) with intention to advance in that direction. Access to ICT for the indigenous peoples of the Yaigojé Resguardo is very limited but present. Future modification of the site will respond to indigenous peoples' feedback. During the visit few indigenous people gave their opinions on the website but several discussions on the roll of ICT in developmental processes took place9. Q1 - Are development and sustainability compatible? A clear response to Question 1 was that this depends on the definition of both terms: "It is impossible to answer this question as it is, as both terms are open to interpretation… " (S26). The question could have been and was read as: Is sustainable development attainable? Respondent S26 continued: "I think sustainable development is possible but hard to achieve in an environment of often conflicting interests and values (economic vs. environmental vs. cultural.)… " One respondent (S22) did not answer this particular question, and two others seemed to be confused (S38 and S41). Forty respondents (78% of R) answered that they were or could be compatible, although there are differences in the way they perceived this compatibility. Development first There were few respondents that failed to question the meaning of 'development' as concept or practice: the developmental project. These responses somehow postulated that certain environmental concerns should be acknowledged and dealt with in order for the development processes to continue: "Yes… . Development as the integration of western technologies or increase of income per capita, can be carefully done by implementing appropriate technologies into the productive activities of the communities. Sustainability defined as a continuous productivity level over the long term." (S2); "Yes. It is only a question of integration of environmental considerations in all we do and adjustment of behaviours accordingly." (S12); "Yes, because there can never be sustainability without development. People have, first to develop for them to have a sense of sustainability." (S13); "Yes, I do. The point is how you can reach a determinate "state" of development without undermining financial, ecological and human capacities in a determinate site (or taking into account their characteristics)." (S40) SD: human - environmental security There were others that perceived the compatibility or the possibility of sustainable development as the chance to diminish human/environmental security risks: "Yes of course in the long run - otherwise life is not possible." (S18); 9 The author is currently preparing a report that will summarise some of these discussions. 7 "Yes. Both are necessary for the survival of the area." (S21); "Si. Solo las acciones en el hoy nos pueden garantizar acciones en el mañana. (Yes. Only by taking action now we can guarantee we could act tomorrow)." (S23); "Yes, development should always be sustainable otherwise there are costs that are not taken into account. i.e. cost of pollution" (S39); "We don't have any choice. We have to make development and sustainability compatible as it's the only way we can survive and at the same time preserve the earth for future generations." (S42) Pessimism, in the sense that without SD life will no longer be possible, was to be repeated in the responses to all of the survey questions. Sustainability is an aim The majority of the respondents that believed development and sustainability to be compatible or capable of becoming compatible, were also of the opinion that the goal of sustainable development had not yet been achieved. Some of them discussed requisite conditions for achieving sustainability. They either underlined the importance of accepting sustainability as a guiding principle for development policy and interventions or/(and) exemplified ways in which sustainable practices might be instituted: "They have to be. I think they are because they have to be. I am optimistic that eventually it will be seen as natural to have sustainable development, but the problem is when this attitude kicks in." (S3) "Depends on how you define the two terms. If you mean that human quality of life can improve while maintaining the natural resource base, I think this is possible but very difficult to achieve." (S5) "Yes, but development in qualitative and not in quantitative terms." (S8) "Yes… there can be sustainable development in an ecological sense of the word - which means installing 'best ecological practice' in planning development." (S24) "No solo lo creo sino que estoy seguro que ambos pueden ser compatibles. Un desarrollo sin considerar ciertos indicadores de sustentabilidad/ sotenibilidad no es posible o viceversa. Uno y otro deberan de ir al parejo tratando de limar los conflictos que a menudo surgen cuando se pretende no un desarrollo pero un crecimiento economico sin considerar la parte social/cultural o ecologica. (Not only I believe that the two can be compatible, I am certain. Development without considering certain indicators of sustainability is impossible or vice versa. Both should go hand in hand, trying to solve the social, cultural and ecological problems that often arise when economic growth rather than sustainable development is the goal)." (S 25) "Sim, no alto rio Negro onde trabalho a ideia e essa: implementar um programa regional de desenvolvimento indedgena sustentado. (Yes, in the Upper Black River, where I work, the idea is precisely to implement a regional programme for sustainable indigenous development)" (S29) "Yes they are. The problem is with the material and energy growth and its compatibility with some environmental standards, like critical thresholds and so on." (S35) "Yes. The only way is by avoiding rapid over-development and having good planning."(S37) ".El concepto de desarrollo sostenible lo veo mucho mas como algo a lo que se quiere llegar, es una nocion implementada por parte de las politicas gubernamentales y ong's donde lo que se 8 procura con estos es el aprovechamiento al maximo de los recursos con un minimo impacto ambiental y social. (I see the concept of sustainable development as goal towards which we heading. It is an idea implemented through governmental and non-governmental policies which aim at maximum exploitation of resources with a minimum of environmental and social impacts)." (S48) "Yes, because they represent the best option to keep for human life." (S51) The need for local definitions Among the respondents that considered sustainability and development compatible if certain conditions were met, there is group of responses that emphasised the need for local definitions of 'sustainability' and 'development', or 'sustainable development': "They can be compatible providing that development is targeted at the right level i.e. small scale and in-keeping with the natural resources and environment." (S5) "Depende de las condiciones y del desarrollo para quién? Por lo tanto el desarrollo es sostenible si es buscado y logrado por la misma comunidad local (It depends on the conditions and on the question 'Development for whom'? Development can only be sustainable if it is sought and implemented by the local community itself)" (S20) "Yes but mainly if made through indigenous methodologies in their territories in Amazonia" (S27) "Yes. There is work done in northern Scandinavia where the "sammi" (lapps) have been given economical support and encouraged to create their own parliament. They have programs protecting their way of life, language and customs. The Norwegian broadcasting company NRK sends news in the language and coastal dialects. All this, at least for Norwegian sammi (lapps) has been key factors in late developments where communities have developed economically achieving great sustainability, contributing, not only to their well being, but to the sustainability of the inhospitable sub-artic regions." (S31) "Yes - but only if there is an 'appropriate' deployment of tools, techniques and processes of development in line with local community needs." (S52) Semantics and the economic imperative Interestingly, one respondent was very pessimistic about the possibilities for sustainable development even when it was sought and pursued at the local level. This respondent brought into the equation the idea that people are driven by monetary benefits to deplete their environment, even though they know that such practices are unsustainable: "To a certain degree, yes. I think that monetary considerations will always outweigh humanitarian concerns and it is very hard to convince people who are seeking a living from sometimes-meagre resources that it is in their own good to give consideration to long-term sustainable use of their resources. It is usually easier and cheaper to move on to the next area when one area has been depleted." (S17) This last argument derives from a rationality that considers poor people to be collaborators in their own misery. In this particular response there was no questioning of the developmental project or the social structures within which people are stimulated to act regardless of the future; but it did address 'monetary considerations' as the driving force. 9 Those responses that argued that the concepts are incompatible claimed an intrinsic contradiction in "sustainable development": "Development of any kind cannot sustain anything." (S4). Instead of blaming the people (needy or not), the proponents of incompatibility pointed their fingers at 'the system'; contemporary capitalist structures, the current developmental project and the prevailing economic model are seen as unavoidably contrary to sustainable practices: "No because development is premised upon economic gain, and capitalism is inherently unsustainable" (S10); "The problem with sustainability is that the economic model is not compatible with social, economic and ecological aspects at the same time and proportion. The neo-liberal model promotes the economic aspect leaving as secondary the social and ecological." (S19); "No, because development does not imply a recognition of limits or the necessity to preserve the natural and human resources used to achieve it. It is an economic concept, which has bases in the apparently unlimited uses of resources… " (S47); "… Si lo entemos [desarrollo] como crecimiento economico, por supuesto que no son compatibles. Ya que el crecimiento economico, tal y como lo plantean los economistas, excluye de raiz criterios sociales, culturales y ambientales requeridos para la sustentabilidad." (If we understand development as economic growth, of course they [sustainability and development] are not compatible. This is because economic growth, as economist have brought it up, excludes from its bases the environmental, cultural and social requirements of sustainability)" (S34) S.D. inconsistent with the present There are less radical rejections of the compatibility, which do not portray sustainable development as a contradiction itself but rather as inconsistent with current economic and ecological trends. The point such respondents make is that the necessary conditions for sustainable development are currently, rather than inherently unattainable: "… The current model of industrial development, where 'development' means material economic growth, is unlikely to be sustainable on a long term basis for the majority of the world population." (S1) "Present development of our world is clearly not sustainable" (S33) "Yes, they are compatible. But in a different social and economic order, not in the one the world is living now… " (S36) "Yes, if we change the way development is understood, for instance, development is associated to living styles resembling to those Europe and USA have, which are a lot related to consumption. But we could live in a healthier and more compatible way with our environment if we change our pattern of consumption and the generalised idea of development nowadays, it would be turning it into "only use what I need and get from nature, exclusively this, not until I just can't get anymore from it", 'cause I over pressed the place, to obtain more benefits. So, at last, this could be possible but in the long term, I hope not when there's nothing left to do." (S45) 10 Greening politics Some responses expressed doubts about the compatibility of sustainability and development. These doubts arise from the apparent use of "sustainability" as a green rhetoric, the aim of which is the continuation of projects that degrade the environment or human rights: ". usually development translates into cutting down natural habitats without regard to "sustaining" cultures" (S32); "In theory 'yes' but much depends on the definition of the terms and societies' acceptance of equal human rights and obligations to others." (S7) "Los conceptos de desarrollo y de sostenibilidad resultan ser bastantes amplios y ambiguos. En la mayoria de los casos cuando se plantean proyectos de desarrollo se trata de relacionarlos directamente con proyectos que resulten ser favorables para el medio ambiente. Como si un concepto llevara implicito otro, sin embargo creo que lo que se esta haciendo desde hace algunos años es precisamente disfrazar los proyectos de desarrollo para que sean aprobados bajo el nombre de mantenimiento del medio ambiente." (The concepts of sustainability and development are very ambiguous. In the majority of cases, there is an attempt to portray development projects as environmentally friendly[, a]s if one concept implied the other. However, I believe that what has been happening for the last few years is a camouflaging of development projects, in order to get them approved under the heading of environmental management) (S48). Reflections on responses to Q110: If "all development is not 'absolute' but will have a beginning and an end" (S24) then, "[d]evelopment of any kind cannot sustain anything." (S4). The impossibility of re-establishing high quality energy after it has been transform into low quality energy (or entropy) is a characteristic feature of closed systems, this would leave us with a world in decline where there is no possibility of sustaining anything. It could be argued that this is the case, as we cannot even guarantee perpetual solar energy flow. But this is perhaps taking the concept of sustainability too far, leaving us with no possibility for discussion. The central political discussion arising from the different responses revolves around the contradiction between those arguments of compatibility that leave the development project unquestioned and those that reject any possibility of compatibility because of a profound questioning of development. Between the two, the picture is blurred, undefined, open and elusive. There does not appear to be any significant correspondence between the two opposite groups of respondents in relation to whether they have been in Amazonia or not. Three out of five of the respondents claiming that there is absolutely no compatibility between development and sustainability have been in Amazonia; but so have two out of four of the respondents that left the development project unquestioned. However, it may be of some significance that none of those that accepted 'sustainable development' are related to social sciences. Those respondents with academic backgrounds in the social sciences all fit into groups 10 A schematic summary can be found in Table 1, Appendix 3. 11 that see sustainable development as a principle, something to be defined locally or as a reformist greening of politics. None of them were found in the group arguing for absolute incompatibility. The middle ground, where the picture is most blurred, came from the majority of respondents by whom it was argued that sustainable development may be possible but that they were unsure about how it might be achieved. Although these responses varied from those expressing suspiciousness (those pointing out the rhetoric of sustainability) to hope: "They have to be. I think they are because they have to be". This acceptance of a possibility of sustainable development, despite the semantic contradiction and current political rhetorical manipulation of the term, reflects a process of thinking and acting that is deeply rooted in Utopian beliefs. This 'sustainability' will happen in the future, in another time, when local communities take control of their lives and their resources, when environmental protection is taken seriously, when today's actions reflect our responsibility toward the future, etc. According to one of the respondents even continuous increases in productivity will be possible, when the proper technology has been developed. Q2 - Is there a relationship between indigenous reserves (IR) and protected areas (PA)? In Colombia IR are called "Resguardos Indígenas" or "Resguardos de Tierras". The term resguardo, literally means protection. Its meaning is not too different from that given to natural conservation areas of different grades: áreas protegidas, protected areas (PA). Both, IR and PA, emphasise the need for an area to be specially protected. Some of the respondents of this question pointed out an implicit relationship between IR and PA perhaps departing of this meaning: "… In a general sense, indigenous reserves are protected areas; they are protected from outside influence for the benefit of the indigenous people… " (S1); "Yes there are relationships. Both have natural systems and environmental quality that requires some level of conservation and protection" (S9); "Yes , for obvious reason. Because the protected reserves are a birth child of indigenous reserves and because we do not want to lose the nature environment the relationship should be maintained." (S13); "Yes, indigenous reserves are protected areas" (S28) As in the case of Q1 (Do you think that development and sustainability are compatible?) some respondents pointed out that it would depend on what we understand by the two terms: "Depends on the sort of protected area or what we mean with protected area… " (S25). "There could be" (S38); "It could be, but I am not sure" (S46); "… this has to be context specific" (S1). Five respondents simply said "yes" (S37, S18, S22, S43, S50) and one simply said "no" (S15). However many of the respondents did go on to qualify the relationship in some way. 12 Harmony or the need for it Some of the affirmative responses portrayed indigenous peoples as the guardians of the environment while others offered concrete examples of this viewpoint: "Si. Las culturas indigenas han demostrado que sus culturas han vivido armonicamente con su entorno durante miles de años" (Yes. Indigenous peoples have demonstrated that their cultures have lived in harmony with their environment during millennia). (S23); "Empirical evidence through statistical analysis has shown (particularly in Colombia in the north west region of the Sierra Nevada) that there is a direct relation between conservation and indigenous reserves. So, the answer is "yes, I do think so". (S40) There were those that referred to the need for a harmonic relationship because: 1) the environment should be protected for the benefit of indigenous peoples: "… indigenous reserves are related with spaces or areas that the government leaves for indigenous people and protected areas are where the local authorities or government provide the ($) resources in order to protect them" (S19); "Existe una relación, historica y cultural, respecto a su territorio, esto debe ser respetado y protegido para las mismas comunidades indigenas" (There is an historic and cultural relationship with respect to their territories. This should be respected and protected by indigenous communities for their own sake (S20). 2) the protection is fundamental for biodiversity conservation: "… Podria ser que se proteja un area porque existe cierta flora o fauna que esta en peligro de extincion. Por ejemplo, muchos animales que viven en la selva solo se aparean una vez al año en cierta temporada y si estos son interrumpidos por presencia humana su decendencia podria verse aun mas en peligro de extincion… " (It may be that an area is protected because there are endangered flora or fauna. For example, there are many rainforest animals that mate once a year or seasonally; if they are interrupted by human activities their progeny could be further endangered) (S25); "… development there should be restricted for the sake of conservation" (S33) 3) sustainable practices could be developed based on indigenous peoples' experiences: "Yes. By protecting areas where almost all indigenous people are more and more confined, there will be a way to preserve indigenous experiences in order for these experiences to contribute to a sustainable development." (S11). Utopia There were also those sorts of answers that reflected a feeling of hope or a sense of Utopia, in which a harmonic, positive relationship was acknowledged as desirable but not yet achieved: "I imagine IR to equate with PA in some way. Perhaps naively. IR is implicitly protected from external development forces, but not necessarily internal." (S3); "There can be. If people are continuing a way of life that has been sustainable in the past and are able to develop sustainably (… ) there is no reason why both should not coexist." (S6); "Most indigenous reserves must be also protected areas. How to effectively do it? I don't know." (S36); "In countries with mindless and irresponsible politicians and business people, it should be mandatory that 'indigenous reserves' must be synonymous with 'protected areas'. (S42) 13 Contamination and cultural imposition Some respondents signalled the risk of contamination, this is of indigenous peoples being influenced by a mestizo culture and therefore driven to break the presumed harmonic relationship with the natural environment. This may be seen as a lost opportunity, that of the rest of humanity to learn from indigenous experiences or, that of given indigenous people to assert managerial control: "Yes, as indigenous populations tend to live in harmony with nature these areas tend to require protection from the outside world. (S12); "… I also think it is difficult to put it into practice since indigenous people want to be part of the economic system and therefore there is a risk of depletion. Anyway who is better to protect certain areas than the people who have lived there for hundred of years!!!" (S39); "Yes, in fact, so far as I know, many of our indigenous people live in these protected areas, where most of them have been able to live in a sustainable way, I say most of them, because others are affected by the mestizo men that live nearby or want to get something from that place due to its economic importance, affecting these natural areas." (S45) It was pointed out that both types of jurisdiction, IR and PA, derived from a cultural-historical process, in which self-determination was not accounted for: "Yes, a very imperialistic one - especially in the Americas (including Canada). It is an old regressive link between the two, in the 60s and 70s this paternalistic viewpoint saw indigenous culture as static --which is wrong!" (S24); "Yes, they both seem to be defined by the ruling 'white' government." (S26) A respondent that had visited Amazonia (VA) added that there is resistance to this imposition, at least as far as indigenous peoples of Colombia are concerned: "yes-especially when indigenous management systems are practised in spite of the models of dominant society in Colombia" (S27). Similarly, another VA respondent suggested that in Colombia there are no friendly relationships between IR and PA: "It depends from country to country, but in Colombia no" (S10)! Analytical responses The analysis provided by some of the respondents tended to localise the relationship: to put it into the historical process. The analysis underlined the main problem for a "non-confrontational" relationship between IR and PA regimes. As they are designations that came about without public participation and from a rationality that is especially alien to indigenous peoples, when IRs and PAs overlap, competition for management arises. These type of answers either acknowledged that the relationship happens through overlap, or mentioned the difficulties of hitting indigenous rights and conservation target simultaneously: "Freedom of choice for all people, in terms of lifestyle, cultural heritage can translate into giving management control to indigenous people in protected areas. However the balance between sustainable economic development for indigenous people and at the same time protecting the environment is a difficult topic to discuss at a macro level. Individual environmental and socio-cultural circumstances need to be fully accounted for and explicitly articulated." (S7) "Yo creo que existe una relacion estrecha entre reservas indigenas y areas protegidas alrededor del mundo. Ya que estas dos figuras juridicas en muchos casos (p.e. Colombia) se encuentran translapadas." (I believe there is a close relationship between indigenous reserves and protected areas around the world. It derives from the fact that in many cases these two jurisdictions overlap) (S34). 14 "There is a relationship when they overlap, which I think happens often." (S44) "Los resguardos y las reservas indigenas han tenido la tendencia a considerarse y definirse como areas protegidas, sin embargo me parece importante tener en cuenta que al establecer los limites territoriales entre los resguardos quedan zonas intermedias que no pertenecen necesariamente a algun resguardo, y esto hace de un modo u otro que tambien se presenten roces con diferentes actores. Por la misma razon que al no estar circunscrito en un resguardo aparentemente se consideraría como un area no protegida… " (It has been the tendency to consider the resguardos and indigenous reserves as protected areas. However, I think it is worth considering that when the resguardo boundaries are established, there are zones in-between not ascribed to any resguardo. And this makes it somehow possible for different [political] actors to get confrontational. This happens as a consequence of the non-ascription of the in-between zone, which is not considered as protected area… ) (S48) However it came about and assuming that both jurisdictions are somehow competing, some respondents argued that IR should be more effective, as it gives responsibility to the people for their own lives: "Yes, although I think indigenous reserves serve to protect the environment/area better. This is because they are protected by local people who value the resources and use them in a traditional and more sustainable way. Protected areas can be designated/run by Governments and this can remove the responsibility from the indigenous peoples." (S5); "Yes. I think that indigenous reserves do offer more protection than protected areas because it gives local people more incentive to use sustainable practices. They can see it being in their own interests" (S17) In contrast, one respondent argued: "Maybe there is, but I don't believe in reserves" (S35). And a second respondent (VA) added that poverty have driven indigenous peoples to behave unsustainably: "I think it is possible. However, some indigenous areas are completely degraded because they are selling their natural resources to survive." (S53). This response (S53) is related to one of those made to Q1: "To a certain degree, yes. I think that monetary considerations will always outweigh humanitarian concerns and it is very hard to convince people who are seeking a living from sometimes meagre resources that it is in their own good to give consideration to long-term sustainable use of their resources. It is usually easier and cheaper to move on to the next area when one area has been depleted." (S17) Both answers (Q1-S17, Q2-S53) echo a neo-Malthusian argument. It implies that a 'tragedy of the commons' is happening in Amazonia and elsewhere as result of overpopulation. The politics involved "No. Indigenous reserves and protected areas (for nature conservation) are two different political land use strategies. If the government is assigning an Indian reserve then they should respect the use the indigenous people are making of the terrain according to traditional use or to improved technologies. Areas for Nature conservation must be treated separately and with a different priority. We cannot make the indians responsible for the disappearing of the diversity. The government has to be responsible by applying appropriate conservation and management regimes" (S2) This response makes an argument for the need to differentiate between IR and PA as diverse political strategies that pursue different aims. The first would aim to 15 comply with Indigenous Peoples Rights, particularly that of self-determination. The second political strategy would aim at biodiversity conservation. The respondent acknowledges indigenous social change as indigenous management depends on both, tradition and technological improvement. Interestingly, the analysis provided does not try to conceal the confrontational nature of the relationship; nor does it neither place much hope in conciliation. On the contrary, it advocates for a distinction. If there is some hope or sense of utopia in the response it comes from solutions provided by technological improvement. Which is something this particular respondent had already stressed in Q1: "… . Development as the integration of western technologies or increase of income per capita, can be carefully done by implementing appropriate technologies into the productive activities of the communities. Sustainability defined as a continuous productivity level in the long term." (S2) Non-conclusive comment-Q211 Nowadays, the establishment or enlargement of IRs (Resguardos in Colombia) and PAs requires the interested proponents to follow long protocols, the fulfilment of precise administrative procedures and of legal conditions. One aim of the process is to allow different stakeholders to participate and to assure the fulfilment of fundamental rights to all citizens in equal conditions. In Colombia, like in many other parts of the developing world, when the "juridical figures" were established these procedures were not necessary, therefore, many IRs and PAs were established without participation of all interested parties. It is not surprising that some of the respondents refer to the confrontation or competition of regimes that began with their imposition. It could be of some significance that none of the respondents that claimed the need to harmonise IR and PA have been in Amazonia. In contrast, the two respondents that pointed out that these two regimes are conflicting in Colombia have been there. The analytical response that called for clear differentiation between the two also came from the group of people that had visited Amazonia (VA). From the set of answers given to Q2 it is clear that different and contrasting narratives ascribed to with respect to environmental management. For some of the respondents indigenous peoples are guardians of the environment, victims of colonialism or in risk of a cultural contamination that will force them to adopt maladaptive strategies that would threaten conservation strategies. For others, indigenous reserves are untrustworthy designations: the environment should be preserved against development and human intervention, be it indigenous or otherwise. Therefore indigenous peoples should not be in charge of environmental management. Yet, another political perspective is derived from hopes of compatibility between the two regimes, which although pursuing different aims are seen as relevant for environmental and human security at the same time. Thus, the third perspective could be characterised as dialectic or iterative. From this (last) perspective indigenous experience could help the development of conservation strategies; and, 11 Schematic summary: Table 2, Appendix 3. 16 at the same time, the revision of environmental and conservation management strategies could be vital for the survival of indigenous peoples. Hope or Utopian visions also have a place here: the development of technology is seen as a key component for adequate environmental management. Technological improvement would allow both compliance with indigenous peoples' rights and biodiversity conservation. We are sketching a continuum from our comment on Q1, suggesting that the narrative of conciliation 'reflects a process of thinking and acting that is deeply rooted in utopia'. Q3 - Do you think that the concepts of protected areas (PA), indigenous reserves (IR) and sustainable development (SD) are useful for environmental management today? Two respondents say that the concepts should be context specific: "Yes, but which of them is useful depends on context… " (S1). "As I said before, all these terms have to be defined properly in the first place before they can be applied." (S2). There were two respondents that simply said 'yes' (S14, S22), while one answered: "yes, if it works" (S4). S4's response suggests that concepts are instruments, and not surprisingly many answers referred to the "applicability" of these three concepts. Environmental indians and contamination risk Some respondents reiterated the idea, already expressed in Q1 and Q2, that indigenous peoples are practitioners of SD or conservation managers: "… Indigenous reserves are important because they allow the preservation of a way of living in sympathy with the environment long gone in most areas… " (S12); "Claro que si. Las culturas indigenas son un ejemplo de convivencia y explotacion sostenible del entorno en que viven" (Yes of course. Indigenous cultures are an example of coexistence with the environment they live in and of sustainable exploitation.) (S23); "Yes because indigenous people are the 'shepherds' of the landscape and they have a first-hand understanding and experience (handed down from previous generations) of ecosystem processes. Sometimes indigenous customs and habits reflect an understanding of nature's processes that can be exemplary in the planning of management plans… "(S41) One response re-enforced an idea presented in Q2, that indigenous sustainable practices are in risk as the younger generations begin to adopt western lifestyles: "… , but this knowledge is also in danger [endangered],… , shamanism is related in many cases to the management of the natural resources, but I have listened to the indigenous people from the community that I'm working in, that they're not interested in receiving this knowledge from their parents, and day by they they're a lot like us in their agricultural practices." (S45) Principles as instruments Various responses made reference to certain conditions that would have to be fulfilled in order for the concepts to be useful. This perspective, where the concepts are understood as political instruments, could be useful if a 'real' or 'truth-value' definition of them were accomplished. This truth-value would come from using the political instrumentality of a concept only if it were to reflect a set of principles such as intergenerational equity, empowerment, and participation. 17 And, in the case of participation, special emphasis were given to the incorporation of indigenous people, their knowledge and ways of dealing with the environment: "The concept of protected areas will only be successful if indigenous peoples are involved, therefore this would seem to indicate that indigenous reserves would be the best way forward of the two" (S5) "… indigenous reserves need to be redefined according to the wishes of the people who will be living in them,… (S6); "… If sustainable development means development with the means which exist and with the participation of the people concerned… " (S11); Yes. Exercising indigenous knowledge should not be limited to reserves but integrated into the management plans along with scientific knowledge more widely. (S26); "Yes… Any protected area, etc. must actively incorporate the participation of indigenous people" (S41) The idea of intergenerational equity is attached to that of resource reserve for the developmental process: "Yes… The sustainable development concept relating to the obligation of the present generation to leave enough natural assets and capital for future generations to enjoy at least the same quality of life we enjoy today must be at the heart of environmental management activities." (S12) "Yes, because the natural environment that we believe is endangered should be protected as a reference in future years to come and because of this a sense of environmental management is very important as the same environment becomes a resource for development" (S13) "Yes. We need to protect the area and its people and provide for sustainable development. (S21) "… pero estoy cierto que las areas protegidas independentemente del interes en prervarlas desempeñan un papel importante en el manejo de ambientes naturales para la captura de CO2, conservación de recursos biogenéticos/biodiversidad/ y como elementos de estudio para futuras generaciones… " (… but I am certain that, independently of the interest in preserving them, protected areas play a roll in the management of natural environment for CO2 sequestration, conservation of biodiversity/genetic resources and as study subjects for future generations (S25) "yes, otherwise development will go against our own endurance. I think we have to consider the possibility that we are not the most powerful force in this world." (S38) Risk and Protection Following this idea is that of concepts (as political instruments) being useful if they could provide and enforce protection (S13, S21 above). In this case either the environment is seen at risk (endangered species or ecosystems) or both indigenous peoples and their environments: "Yes. Protected areas are important as pools of natural resources not affected by human activity. Indigenous reserves are important because they allow the preservation of a way of living in sympathy [tune] with the environment long gone in most areas." (S12); "I think they are vital. Until everyone has a responsible attitude to environmental control certain protections have to be enforced." (S17) Some of the responses expressing a need for environmental protection have a sense of impending catastrophe: "Yes, but they are loaded concepts so we have to be careful in using them… sustainable development is the only way we will survive, but is usually glibly applied." (S6); "in a limited sense perhaps.but what we need to accomplish is protection of all that there is left, without cutting and taking land around the so called protected area. stop the modernisation process wherever it has not already reached into" (S32); "Yes, because they are the only source to preserve life on earth." (S51) 18 Protection but of cultural diversity: "… They may contribute to 'capturing' and saving fragile cultures and 'unknown' languages." (S31) Although acknowledging the need for protection, some respondents made it explicit that IRs were not effective, as the policies derived from such concepts (regimes) would increase risk instead of attenuating it: "… in terms of indigenous groups if they become circumscribed to a specific protected area then this will prevent persistence of nomadic lifestyles etc. and as a result the protected area may become 'unsustainable' as people are becoming circumscribed to a specific reserve. I guess this also answers the question on indigenous reserves, however, the indigenous reserves of N. America should be used as an example of the problems of tying people to such reserves,… " (S10) "… 'indigenous reserves' are not so useful - most of indigenous social problems have been caused by the colonisers, and are being reproduced through generations. Keeping indigenous people enclosed in such areas, and introducing paternalistic rules and laws is not healthy for any society. It instils racism in a society, and will not ensure that indigenous practices of environmental management will be maintained - that depends on the indigenous group and how they choose to manage their environment… " (S24) The need for integration and its impediments Some emphasis was put on the idea that there is or should be a link between the concepts (political instruments): "Yes all concepts are useful as they each permit different aspects of the economic/ecology debate to enter into the wider public arena. Ultimately for there to be sustainable solutions to environmental problems there needs to be a holistic approach adopted… " (S7) "… environmental development will not be meaningful without taking into account the interrelation between 'indigenous reserves' and 'sustainable development'" (S11) "Yes, because all areas are linked with each other very closely" (S18). "Yes. Exercising indigenous knowledge should not be limited to reserves but integrated into the management plans along with scientific knowledge more widely." (S26) "… Lo que creo es que tanto las reservas indigenas, como las areas protegidas deberian orientarse hacia un desarrollo sostenible. Bien sea que estas dos figuras se translapen o no. Si entendemos el desarrollo sostenible como un proceso que involucra criterios sociales, culturales, economicos, y ambientales." (… What I do believe is that indigenous reserves as well as protected areas should direct their attention towards sustainable development, whether or not the entities [juridical regimes] overlap. If we understand sustainable development as a process that involves social, cultural, economic and environmental criteria.) (S34) However, quiet a few responses pointed out the problems that prevent this integration from taking place: 1) Incompatibility of interests between IR and PA: "… Protected areas are useful, but they raise the debate as to whether one should protect an area and exclude people from it so that a certain species/ archaeological site/community can survive or whether people should have access… " (S10); "It is quite difficult to harmonies those concepts, specifically among indigenous people. They are convinced that 'sustainable development' is an imperialist concept, and the first idea they have -as far as they hear the concept- is that they are going to be exploited by others… " (S40) 2) The prevalence of economic efficiency and profit at the expense of anything else: 19 "… El desarrollo sustentable que ha sido cada vez mas un objetivo importante en varios paises del mundo. Pero encontrar los balances correctos ha sido y es dificil, particulrmente cuando las sociedades y gobiernos estan sometidos a un proceso de globalizacion y de efeicientizacion economica. He ahi los conflictos permanentes de lograr un desarrollo verdaderamente sustentable que considere no solo los aspectos economicos, pero politicos, cultrales, sociales y ecologicos o ambientales. (Sustainable development has become an increasingly important objective in several countries around the world. But to find the correct balances has been and continues to be difficult; in particular as a result of societies and governments being subjected to economic efficiency within the globalisation process. There are permanent conflicts in the way of obtaining a real sustainable development that involve not only the economic aspects, but also the social, cultural, ecological and environmental criteria " (S25). "… too many people think of 'sustainable' as meaning economic sustainability and not environmental sustainability." (S30). "… While protected areas and indigenous reserves serve to maintain environmental quality, the concept of sustainable development is often disregarded for the sake of profits and globalisation." (S33) 3) Political manipulation: "I think there have been problems with these concepts for two reasons: First, they mean different thing for different people, second, they have been used and to serve particular interests. There are several and opposite definitions of 'sustainable development' and it's a difficult concept. 'Indigenous reserve', used as a general concept does not describe usefully the complex realities and 'protected areas' have been used to serve particular interests over time so I think it is seen suspiciously by a lot of people." (S44) "I think so, but these concepts are used a lot by politicians, and then the meaning can be manipulated". (S46) "… The big problem is not related to the concepts alone, it is related to the way in which these are applied according with particular interests and purposes. Many times the terms are used by different groups or organisations in order to pretend to be environmental friendly or responsible, when the real purposes reveal an opposite target or interest." (S47) "… Muy seguaramente estos términos se manejan como deben ser en el plano académico teórico, mas no ocurre lo mismo en el ambito práctico donde lo que prevalece son los interese de los diferentes actores que trabajan en este campo, lo que lleva inevitablemente a que se presenten situaciones de tension entre estos y se deje de lado el objetivo primordial en cuanto a la conservación y le manejo ambiental" (For sure, theoretically and within the academic circles these concepts are managed as they should be. Although, in the practical scenario privilege is given to the particular interests of those different [political] actors who work in this field. Thus, it is unavoidable that tensions will arise between these [political actors], which leave aside the fundamental aim of environmental management and conservation) (S48) 4) Semantics, the concepts mean too many things to too many different political actors (S44 above): "… 'Sustainable development' is not so useful for environmental management, as the concept is too contested - it means too many different things to different people." (S24); "As I said, the problem is that there are many definitions of those terms and it makes it difficult to determine if they are useful in one place compared to other places" (S50) Dynamism The perspective of 'dynamism' reflects a perception of mutating meanings as an advantage. Under this perspective 'contested' means 'in change', which is seen as part of a learning process, which is in tune with the idea of local definition of concepts (emphasised above): "Ultimately for there to be sustainable solutions to environmental problems there needs to be a holistic approach adopted, where people can better appreciate that their lifestyle has much in 20 common with others - even if they are in an OECD country and cannot appreciate the day to day lifestyle of someone in a less developed country. … . Therefore the concepts listed can provide an opportunity to raise the awareness of the majority of the world's people." "Yes, there is plenty that can be learned from these three concepts and also applied" (S37) "A lot, I believe there are a lot of things we can learn from them, specially in this field of study,." (S45) "If these concepts are [understood or interpreted] under a dynamic and changing world (attached to contexts), which mean that there is not a unique definition or way to apply them, I think they are still useful for environmental management." [original: understanding or interpreting… ] (S47) The need for new concepts-Q3 Contradicting narratives can be appreciated through the reading of these responses. There is a group of respondents that are uncritical of the concepts or the policies derived from them (like S37, S45 above and): "Yes, they are important to efficient environmental management" (S28); "Yes. An understanding of the mechanism of these terminologies is essential for effective environmental management … " (S9). Another group could be made out of those responses that reflect suspicion or are definitely critical of the concepts (S10, S24, S25, S30, S33, S40, S44, S46, S47, S48, S50 above). And, besides the group of respondents that express conditionality or hope (see above), there is a group of responses that, while critical of the concepts, acknowledge that at present they are all we have: "… which of them is useful depends on context… If an ethnic group is to be allowed to determine the course of events within its own territory, then the territory must be reserved for them until such time as they develop complete autonomy or decide to integrate more closely with wider society. Sustainable development may seem a rather broad, unspecific term, but it does at least draw attention to the unsustainability of conventional development… " (S1) "… The concept of sustainable development is gradually getting better developed and, even if it is not strictly attainable, gives decision-makers something to work towards… (S5) "I don't agree with the concept of SD as it is a contradiction in terms, but at present there are few better alternatives… " (S10) One respondent actually moved forward in the critique, pointing out that the concepts were built on preconceptions and identifying the need to generate new concepts that would integrate the useless categorical divide of nature and society: "I think they are old fashioned, and generated by the Anglo-Saxon culture. We should move towards an increased compatibility between human activities and nature, making it therefore not necessary to talk about reserves, or natural areas." (S35) Non-conclusive comment-Q312: The majority if not the totality of respondents took 'concepts' as 'politics'. They discussed the history of these politics, their adequacy and sufficiency. It is very interesting that while the conduct through which political ideas become policies is supposed to be complex, it is obvious for the respondents that there is more than theoretical debate going on in the process of policy making. There is a prevailing, sometimes automatic or non-reflexive awareness that narratives pursue the aims that drive the policies and politics that are transforming the environment. 12 Schematic summary: table 3, Appendix 3. 21 In continuity with the results of Q2, only 1 out of five respondents of those who argued for the need to integrate the concepts had been in Amazon; while the two respondents that argued the case of 'incompatibility of interests' had been there. Of those which suggested that these concepts –political strategies- are useful for environmental protection or that this is the last chance –catastrophism- for life, none had visited Amazonia. It may be of some significance that none of the five respondents that suggested that IR might be a better strategy than PA have been in Amazonia, while one person of the two that argued that IRs are ineffective had been there. The responses correspond to several narratives that can be identified. One of them is that of 'confidence in science and trust in political instrumentality' derived from the (traditional definitions of) concepts outlined. Another narrative is that of 'natives as heroes and outsiders as villains', which is reflected in the suspiciousness of concepts based in untested assumptions and in mistrust of the governmental policies derived from them. In summary there is a status-quo narrative and a counter narrative. Yet a third type of narrative could be identified, that of 'critical understanding'. Q4 – Should environmental managers (EM) get involved in the territorial ordering process (TOP) of the Amazon? One of the respondents simply answered yes (S4). One was unsure (S52), perhaps suspicious? One considered the question was tricky (S32), and three of them put the question into question. Two of these responses asked for the term 'environmental manager' to be defined: "Difficult to answer. Define the roles, mandate and empowerment of the environmental manager… " (S31); "What do you mean by environmental managers?." (S6). The third one was more critical: "this sentence is colonialist as if indigenous peoples of Amazonia were not in fact environmental managers" (S27). With a similar intent, one respondent argued that indigenous people were better-qualified environmental mangers: "Las comunidades indigenas han sido las mejores administradoras del territorio ancestral, eso debe ser respetado y replicado en zonas donde la intervención humana 'civilizada' ha afectado las condiciones ambientales. (Indigenous communities have been the best managers of ancestral territories, this should be respected and should be replicated in areas where 'civilised' human intervention has affected environmental conditions) (S20)" The response of Indigenous peoples as better managers had been expressed in Q1, Q2 and Q3. Another three responses reinforced the ideas of catastrophism, the need for urgent environmental protection and to stop development (S32, S33, S42). Perspectives EMs are the ones: "Definitely" (S12); " … They have in many cases a better view for the long-run." (S18); 22 Yes. Who else is better suited to do so?" (S21); "Environmental Managers should get involved. They are best able to ensure protection of ecosystem" (S28); "Por supuesto que si. Ya que el ordenamiento territorial de un territorio (en este caso de la Amazonia) debe tener como objetivos el desarrollo sostenible." (Definitely. Territorial ordering (of the Amazon in this case) should have sustainable development as an objective) (S34); "Because they are the ones that can understand the balance that must exist between economic development, traditional culture and environment." (S36); " They should, how can they do whithout?" (S46) "Yes, because they can contribute to better territorial ordering in the region" (S53) EMs and scientists figure out the solutions and take the decisions: "Deben estar involucradas todas las personas del planeta, pero con mas razon los 'decision makers', que a fin de cuentas, toman las acciones concretas sobre nuestro futuro medioambiental. (All people from the planet should get involved, but the 'decision makers' have more reason to be there, after all they are the ones that take the concrete actions in respect to our environmental future) (S23); "Yes, but along with some other scientists, not only because of the importance of the Amazon from a global point of view, but specially for the importance for the people living there." (S35); "Yes, always considering multiple disciplines result in a better understanding and so better solutions." (S38) But taking into account the other opinions: "Yes, although indigenous peoples will also play a major part and without them any agreements between Governments and environmental managers will not work… " (S5); "Not always, because it is necessary to take into consideration lay people's opinions too." (53) Indigenous peoples direct EMs: "If they are asked to do so by indigenous peoples, I see no problem with this." (S1); "Territorial ordering should be primarily decided upon by the indigenous groups that inhabit them, … ultimately decisions need to come from the bottom upwards" (S10); "… The indigenous people should be in charge of the program at the ultimate level" (S14). " They should but they should make sure they respect the opinion of indigenous people and they should be very discreet in their approach and aim for cooperation." (S41) EMs have equal rights to participate as other stakeholders: " Of course. All actors should be involved in the process… It doesn't mean that they have to take decisions but they can evaluate the circumstances under different and also important perspectives." (S2); "What do you mean by environmental managers? But yes, I think they also have a stake in the fate of the Amazon, and have a right to make their voices heard. (S6); " Involvement - yes but only in collaboration and co-operation with the Amazonian people and those in the higher levels of bureaucracy and policy making … Environmental managers can make significant contributions in this area, given their depth of understanding of the issues (relative to the general public)" (S7); "Deveriam estar envolvidos no processo de re-ordenamento territorial, junto com edndios, ribeirinhos etc" (they should be involved in the territorial ordering process together with indigenous peoples, riverine inhabitants, etc." (S29); " I think they should be involved as advisors and technical support but I support the idea of a non-technical management, where decisions are taken by the different stakeholders based on the technical advice and the social, cultural and economic factors." (S44) 23 But this intervention should be avoided within indigenous territories: "Not in indigenous reserves or territories which historically have been managed by indigenous communities. In other areas, should be taking part in dialogue of knowledge between cultures, people, communities, scientists and decision makers from private and government sectors, to order process on the amazon area." [Original text:… historically has been management by… ](S47) The apolitical EM: "Yes, but not for political reasons. It should be for the cause of sustainable use of our natural environment which is our heritage." (S9); " … Generally though I think that environmentalists like missionaries before them should not get involved in political processes as this can have a very negative reaction within the local community." (S17) "Yes, their knowledge will hopefully be of use in the ordering process" (S37) The political participation of EMs: "Yes, to counteract the interference of other external actors but hopefully to work with the indigenous people respecting their values and practices, not independently." (S26) EMs as facilitators of the dialog between IK and WS: "… without them [indigenous peoples] any agreements between Governments and environmental managers will not work. Environmental Managers should facilitate discussion… " (S5); "Territorial ordering should be primarily decided upon by the indigenous groups that inhabit them, environmental managers roles here should be as referees to help in the co-ordination of the process, but ultimately decisions need to come from the bottom upwards." (S10); "It's necessary for people involved in this field of study, that had already gained a conscience, and that are able to understand that we have to work with indigenous, not from our usual management vision, but theirs, trying to see the world like they do. In this way could be easier, perhaps to understand and give convincing and why not scientific arguments to the authorities (or people in charge of handling these affairs) about the different way they have already distributed their territory, which [in] most of the case (if not all) doesn't have our political distribution. (I.E, those groups that live between Colombia and Brazil boundaries) they don't have the same division of territories, because of this, they must be managed in a way more in concordance to their political organisation." (S45) Capacity, ability and quality of EMs: "Depends who the environmental managers are - if they are from the area and have a passion for the area, then why not. If they are drafted in from outside, and seen as the 'outside experts' then probably not - it usually causes friction within the area."(S24) "Define the roles, mandate and empowerment of the environmental manager. They may fall into different categories, of which I may name at least 4: 1. The conflictive manager. Created by a lobbying body. A good example is the body (forget the name) that is in charge of the Everglades in Florida. Their work is tainted by conflict of interest: the provision of water to cities and sugar cane farmers, at the same time maintaining the 'wet lands' as an ecosystem and controlling flooding! 2. The romantic. Exemplified by rich Europeans or North-Americans. Wanting to keep habitats, they may buy some land and resort to eco-tourism in order to keep their sustainability. I believe there are some German managed 'eco' destinations in Ecuador. Driven by an alternative way of life, they may not 'manage' the environment as they should. 3. The bureaucrat. A member of a government agency or NGO that may not be aware of local needs, responding always to policies made from a distance. Current legislation may be a hinder. "Los paisas", developed and colonised what is today Risaralda, Quindio, Caldas and 24 parts of Choco in Colombia, by using legislation that enabled them to cut and clear big forest areas to be claimed afterwards, creating the concept of the "colono". A colonisation process I witnessed in Caquetá some years ago. 4. The "grass roots" manager. Perhaps, the type who knows best the ecosystem and the power relationships that develop around it by the people involved with it. Usually their voice is not heard, mainly because of the threat they represent to some landowners or 'colonos'. If the law regarding claiming land that has been cleared is still existing, managing the environment is going to be a great task. One shall not forget that the 'colono' phenomenon represents one of the many socio-economical problems a nation like Colombia faces. … Management work usually develops around a policy. Trust among all participants is primordial. There ought to be some kind of legal-economical framework that will ease management work. If this is in place and all conflicts of interest reduced, then the territorial ordering process of Amazonia may become real." (S 31) Political risks, EMs tough job: "Yes, however the pressures on the person might be extreme. It would be preferable to have both on-site environmental managers and use some respected external managers as reference." (S15); "Yes, but bearing in mind that you should work with politicians and many kinds of 'parasitic' people which are thinking every day in the short term. It means that environmental managers are not enough for sustainable management and use of natural resource: their analytical models as well as their technical capacity is necessary, but they cannot work isolated, they require to work with others, despite the fact that 'the others' could (and should) think in a different way." (S40) Summarising-Q413 Like in the responses to Q1, Q2 and Q3, we can identify different and often contradictory perspectives. There were those that argued that environmental managers14 are the best qualified for the task and appeared somewhat perplexed by the question. Within that group there were those responses that assumed that decisions were taken by environmental managers or should be taken by them, although two expressed that others' opinion should be considered to a lesser extent. In the other direction were the responses that questioned intervention by EMs and considered it useful only when the decision-making process was led by indigenous peoples themselves. Yet, a third group was of the opinion that EMs should get involve in the same conditions that other stakeholders, such as indigenous peoples but, one respondent suggested they should not intervene in the management of indigenous peoples' territories at all. 13 See also Table 4, Appendix 3. 14 Called EMs in the survey to differentiate them from other experts and indigenous peoples. As it has been explained elsewhere (See "The march of the Manikins: Agroforestry practices and Spiritual dancing in Northwest Amazonia) indigenous peoples management of the environment departs from a different rationality and uses different instruments. What indigenous people from Northwest Amazonia call "management of the world" is not only a set of shamanistic practices but a way of living that combines social aims, aesthetic values, religious believes, and economic practices in a distinctive manner. Although acknowledging indigenous peoples from Northwest Amazonia are in fact environmental managers, the author has stressed that their "management of the world" incorporates many things, some of them of tremendous importance for environmental management more generally. 25 The other contrasting perspectives concerned the character of the intervention. While one group of responses were of the opinion that EMs should not get involved in politics, but have a technical approach, others thought that they should get involved to contrast and balance the political interests of other groups. A third group emerged, which advocated the intervention of environmental managers as conciliators and facilitators. Related to this roll of managers as advisers there was a group of responses showing concern with the capacity, ability and quality of environmental managers and, the possible risks that they have to face. Non-conclusive comment-Q4: As in responses to questions one, two and three, we can trace arguments and contra-arguments. One set of respondents portrays EMs as heroes. In this scenario they face a tough job, they are well trained, better able and indispensable for the process of territorial ordering; their politically risky job in which they have to make the decisions would be fundamental for diminishing environmental risk and even saving life on earth. (As in Q2 and Q3 none of those arguing conservation/catastrophism had been in Amazonia). A counter narrative is that provided by respondents arguing that EMs' participation should be directed by indigenous peoples (IP) or that the projects should be led mainly by natives, and that EMs should not intervene in the management of indigenous territories: in this case the heroes are indigenous peoples. A second counter narrative seems to be reflected by some of the respondents. In this scenario, EMs like IP should have equal rights to participate as different stakeholders, in this case decisions would come from a rational process in which dialog between cultures would take place. The participation of EMs would not be limited by their status/power but by their capacity, ability and their roll as facilitators or conciliators. Discussion European colonisation of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Australasia from the late fifteenth century onwards, gave a tremendous boost to the volume of global transactions involving natural resources. Over the long run, trade in these resources, and in an increasingly diverse array of environmental services, has been expanding ever since. However, much of what is called globalisation in the twenty first century has more to do with developments in information technology since the late 1900s. The increasing speed of communications media and information transfer have proved fundamental in economic restructuring and the transformation of the world into a largely urban space (Castells 1996). In the globalised, twenty first century, local political decisions have little chance of being autarchic; international policy advisors inform local stakeholders about what is considered adequate or legal in accordance with international treaties, foreign protocols and political compromises. The local politics of environmental management is the concern of everybody: corporations, governments, international, regional and national NGOs, all of which compete for access to information and expansion of their scope of power in the political arena (Ambrose-Oji, Allmark et al. 2002). During the 1990s, and especially after the Río Earth Summit in 1992, one of the main topics of discussion was management of the global environment (Sachs 26 1993). Global targets for sustainable development were established at Río and similar processes were set in train at regional, national and local scales all over the world, following the guidelines set out in one of the policy documents agreed at Río: "Agenda 21". The official discourse that emerged from the Río process was replicated and many of the assumptions that informed the original discourse have been accorded a quasi-factual status by many people all over the globe (Sevilla_Guzmán and Woodgate 1997). The official discourse on globalisation emphasised the need for environmental management at supranational levels. At the same time, counter-discourse or anti-globalisation narratives have emerged. These emphasise the rights of indigenous people and local political actors to manage natural resources independently, in ways that allow them to make their own livelihood decisions and establish resource-use regimes that can provide the environmental goods and services that people need15. The management of the environment has always motivated debate and often led to confrontation. One of the main arguments of conservative conservationists concerns the 'vulnerability' of rainforest environments, and thus the need for their protection. Since the 1980s the problem of deforestation of tropical rainforests has been a global issue with special emphasis in South East Asia, the Congo basin and Amazonia (Adger, Benjaminsen et al. 2001). In a 1998 analysis of 'rainforest' web-sites, Stott revealed four metawords within the conservation rhetoric: orientalism (the exotic other), climax (harmony), old age (ancient, undisturbed) and vulnerability (Stott 1999). Metawords such as these become key rhetorical devices so that even research and development project proposals tend to employ them, thus replicating assumptions that are no longer questioned. How is this metalanguage produced? What are the bases of its principal cannons? And why is it that semantic analysis tends to remain the preserve of scientists – or is it something that is also dealt with at a local level? Narratives can be traced back in time. Equilibrium disturbance (climax rupture) and environmental fragility (vulnerability) both played parts in Hardin's 1968 'tragedy of the commons' (Hardin 1998). The neo-Malthusian discourse of environmental catastrophe as a result of an increasing population (of 'poor people') lies at the heart of Hardin's tragedy. The conservative conservationist perspective on the management of the rainforest is based on mistrust of systems of environmental management in which property rights (over life and resources) are not yet marketable. From a conservative political perspective responsible environmental action can only be achieved through the clarification of property rights to allow the unfettered action of free markets for the negotiation of such rights. It is assumed that the tragedy of the commons is happening or will happen in rainforest contexts where private property rights are not yet the rule and where societies still practise communal environmental management regimes based on indigenous knowledge rationalities in which nature and society form an ontological continuum. For conservatives only free markets for environmental rights, good and services can guarantee sustainable development. Neo-Malthusian 15 The discourses that emphasise on the need of eco-efficiency, economic transnationalization and planetary ecological management, were named by Sachs as contest and astronauts' perspectives. And the counter-discourse arising from the desempowered communities of the South as the home perspective (Sachs 1977). 27 and neo-liberal assumptions are fundamental to this perspective on sustainable development. With the aim of promoting Agenda 21 at local, national and regional levels, a complex and sophisticated process of institutionalisation was embarked upon. Amazonia did not escape this process; governmental officials or conservationist NGOs replicated the dominant conservationist discourse at the local level in NWA16. This official discourse of deforestation with its main initiative of protection of the environment from people has been labelled 'hegemonic' (Stott and Dullivan 2000) or 'neo-Malthusian' and 'managerial' (Adger, Benjaminsen et al. 2001). It should come as no surprise then that counter narratives have developed in Amazonia (and elsewhere), for many of which the principal intention is to contradict the conservative policies derived from this hegemonic discourse. The rights of indigenous people to define the course of their lives: their rights to manage natural resources and the environmental services used or supplied by the Amazonian environment have been key issues in these significant counter-claims against the official Amazonian territorial ordering politics and policies, which have involved environmental management that has been designed elsewhere. This counter-narrative pursues the principle and right of self-determination against the interests of political initiatives for global environmental management. The counter-narrative was not just a reaction to neo-liberal, neo-Malthisian conservative politics and conservation policies during the 1980s and '90s, however. In Latin America, all indigenous peoples' rebellions against the European empires were motivated by a call to reconstruct pre-colonial socio-cultural orders returning to territorial orders where the management of 'agroforestry' was undifferentiated from the sacred (Varese 1996:124-25). In modern, post-colonial states, indigenous peoples continued to struggle for the recognition of their territories. In today's NWA this struggle is related to governmental and conservationists policies of environmental management and the presence of armed groups opposed to political resolution of territorial ordering. Many of the Protected Areas (PAs) of NWA were created at a time when no legal procedure was established for public intervention in the designation of such areas. The official titles of the PA or IR (Resguardos in Colombia) have not prevented non-native invasion of lands or the expansion of illegal crop production inside either PAs or IRs. Conservationists and indigenous peoples alike have vacillated between alliances with, and the rejection of, the armed groups in charge of illegal crop production, depending on the political gains to be made and the risks involved in rejecting the proposals or achieving an alliance. The armed groups, on their part, have sought political alliances when such co-operation could benefit their military capacity or improve the managerial efficiency of their enterprises.17 16 With respect to the territorial ordering process, the Colombian Amazon controversy is discussed in Forero 1999, 2000; Forero, Laborde et al. 1998. 17 See Forero 2000, "Territoriality and Governance in the Colombian Amazon". 28 As far as local inhabitants were concerned, rainforest conservation policies arrived in NWA from another space and time. The legal establishment of protected areas took no account of the opinions or desires of the peoples already inhabiting NWA. Indigenous agro-ecosystems and the livelihood strategies of more recent colonisers were both ignored. The ideology expressed through legal frameworks was that of protection of the environment from people. The villains were local inhabitants and the regulations to be enforced were those of expelling people from the 'conservation' areas and maintaining their exclusion. The dominant discourse made no distinction between complex indigenous agro-ecosystems and the less sophisticated livelihood strategies being developed by recent immigrants. All of them were labelled as "slash and burn" agriculture (Myers 1980). Yet it has become increasingly apparent over the last thirty years that slash and burn is just an aspect of indigenous environmental management in Amazonia, which combines agricultural production, fish and game management, ritual prescriptions, and aesthetic developments18. It has even been suggested that movement towards "short cropping/long-fallow" cultivation patterns within indigenous Amazonian agro-ecosystems was an strategic response to alien invasion of territories and the introduction of metal axes (Denevan 2001: 115-31). Today, most ethnoscientists find it self-evident that the concepts of "chagras" (gardens) and "rastrojos" (abandoned gardens) are far too simplified to reflect the structure of cultivations over the short-, medium- and long-terms, in accordance with local knowledge of agro-ecological variation. It is obvious that indigenous environmental management has transformed Amazonian ecosystems for millennia; this was already evident to many of the nineteenth century European explorers19. Even the most knowledgeable people in the industrialised world have no precise idea of how 'vulnerable' rainforest is and few have accurate knowledge about the political conditions facing indigenous peoples or other human inhabitants of the Amazonian rainforest. With respect to NWA, even the most determined researcher would have problems accessing this information. It is often said that the rainforests of Amazonia are the 'lungs of the planet' (S.33), a metaphor used to emphasise the region's role in the carbon cycle, especially the absorption of CO2. This is somewhat ironic given that our own lungs actually consume oxygen and release CO2 during respiration. Indigenous people have been portrayed as villains or victims depending on the observer and the moment of observation. When portrayed as victims the picture is something like this: the wise guardians of the rainforest are obliged by violence to sell their natural resources or abandon their noble environmental practices. The role of violence in the functioning of extractive economies has been well documented. Violent coercion has been the dominant system in NWA for more than a century. Although indigenous people are no longer sold, 'debt-peonage' systems still dominate and exploit poor indigenous and immigrant inhabitants of 18 See Forero 2001, " The march of the Manikins: Agroforestry Practices and Spiritual Dancing in Northwest Amazonia". 19 See Forero 2002a, " Indigenous Knowledge and the Scientific Mind: Activism or Colonialism". 29 NWA. These people are employed for the harvesting, transport and commercialisation of coca base, cocaine and, the functioning of 'extractive economies' in general (Gómez, A. 1999). But there has been an indigenous response. This has sometimes taken the form of open rebellion and sometimes that of making strategic and tactical alliances in an attempt to obtain or preserve political power, to secure the acquisition of merchandise or simply to survive20. The counter-hegemonic narratives that we mentioned above have been labelled 'populist discourse': making it explicit that the victims are the indians and the villains the international organisations, sometimes allied to transnational corporations (like oil drilling companies) and the dependent and often corrupted governments that collaborate with these international organisations (Adger, Benjaminsen et al. 2001: 687). For NWA there are reports that seem to corroborate these arguments; e.g. indigenous peoples and environmental campaigners have protested jointly in Ecuador and Brazil against the construction of massive pipelines planned to cross through both IRs and PAs in both countries. The pipeline construction projects in both countries have arisen following collaboration between national governments and international oil exploration companies and have provoked public feelings of outrage (Weinberg 2001)21 . " [In NWA] Governments, multilateral lenders, multinational corporations, private banks and other institutions may not be counting on the convenient disappearance of indigenous peoples who get in the way of their ambitious development plans, but they often act as if they are." (Rabben 1998:122) "We who live in indigenous communities are surviving in the midst of a war imposed upon us by different factions and by the very same Colombian state that historically abandoned the countryside and permitted our lands to be invaded by waves of colonizers. Today we are caught in the crossfire, menaced by killings and displacement, while the State manifests its presence in the air with planes that slowly kill our plants and animals, our subsistence crops, and our people." (Organizacion Zonal Indigena del Putumayo_ OZIP 2002) However, is it possible to claim that there is a policy of 'ethnic cleansing' for NWA? From one side the whole issue of national sovereignty has been put into question; the expansion of Plan Andino (formerly Plan Colombia), the USA's anti-drug strategy for Latin America, exemplifies the delicate situation in which some of the Latin American countries have entered the twenty first century. The military component Plan Andino is aimed to support economic measures, the famous and indeed infamous structural adjustment plans that have provoked strikes and rebellions22. Additionally, even if there were an official policy of ethnic cleansing, South American States, given their size and power, would find it difficult to implement 20 See "Indigenous Knowledge and the Scientific Mind: Activism or Colonialism" (Forero 2002a), and "Technology in Northwest Amazonia: Sketches from Inside" (Forero 2002b). 21 For recent (March 2002) press releases on this issue see www.amazonwatch.org and www.americas.org 22 See Forero and Woodgate 2002, "The semantics of 'Human Security' in Northwest Amazonia: between indigenous peoples''Management of the World' and the USA's State Security Policy for Latin America". 30 it. The poor, be they indigenous peoples or colonisers are in the middle of a territorial war linked to international networks of criminality; they have been displaced, kidnapped or killed regardless of their claims of neutrality. In the case of Colombia, although some military authorities have been linked to some of the worst of the paramilitaries' atrocities, it has not been proved that the State itself has a policy of ethnic cleansing. In the case of Brazil, in 1996 the national executive proclaimed Decree 1775, instructing a right to contravene which, contrary to 169 WTO international agreement on Indigenous Peoples' rights, gave other stakeholders the opportunity to challenge Indigenous property rights. Paramilitary groups associated with illegal evictions of indigenous peoples in Brazilian Amazonia have long sought such a 'charter'. At the same time, the decree left the definition of indigenous land rights to the will of the executive power itself (Ministry of Justice). But, as in the case of Colombia, it cannot be proved that there is a policy of ethnic cleansing. It has been suggested in the non-conclusive comments on the survey results, that many people's responses echoed hegemonic and populist narratives. Indigenous peoples were portrayed as heroes or victims, as well as scientists and environmental managers. However, quiet a few of responses cannot be associated with either populist or hegemonic narratives. There is a group of responses that reflect critical thinking and are willing to challenge such simplistic dichotomies. Thus, the concept of sustainable development has been questioned, suspiciousness of western, scientific and technological solutions was expressed, and there was little willingness to give environmental managers carte blanche to prescribe whatever measures they might see fit. Interestingly, this last group, while acknowledging the need for: new concepts and adequate guidelines for environmental management, and the difficulty of achieving conservation targets while complying with indigenous peoples rights, still consider the concepts of SD, PA and IR as useful or the politics derived from them as desirable. What is interesting is that the responses to this survey, which were made by outsiders (respondents were not inhabitants of Amazonia), reflect a tendency to picture the conflict over territory in ways that do not correspond to either of the two main narratives. We can say that inasmuch as outsiders see possibilities for political action outside hegemonic or populist approaches, so Amazonian insiders are organising and negotiating regardless of whether their political discourse echoes either conservative or counter-hegemonic politics of territorial ordering. As no significant statistical analysis could be derived from the survey it would be difficult to speak of tendencies. At first sight it seems that adherence to hegemonic, counter-hegemonic, utopic or conciliatory narratives reflects each respondent's intellectual background more than his or her witnessing of the situation of peoples and forests in Amazonia. However, certain coincidences among the responses to each question might be representative: - For Q1-SD, two out of four of the respondents that accepted the imperative of SD without question have been in Amazon, none of them is a social scientist (SS) though and the other two were environmental managers. None of the SSs 31 that had visited the region argued for complete incompatibility between sustainability and development. Instead, SSs were part of a third group acknowledging that the concept of SD might be of some use, given certain conditions. - For Q2 – the relationship between IRs and PAs, not one of those who argued for the need to harmonise the two concepts (5), or those that emphasised SD as a desirable aim that has not yet been reached (4), or those or that argued that IRs are better than PAs (2) had been to the Amazon (in total 21 % of respondents). Respondents that had visited Amazonia (VA) were among those that acknowledged a relationship between IRs and PAs and that the relationship can be both complementary and competitive. Two respondents from the VA group argued that a complementary relationship was not possible in Colombia and one of them pointed out that being political strategies with different aims they should be kept differentiated in order to avoid conflict. This result might indicate that people that have been in Amazonia are more aware of the problems of territorial ordering caused by the imposition of regimes based in alien concepts. - For Q3 – on the usefulness of the concepts, none the five respondents arguing that IRs might be better that PAs had been in Amazonia, while one of the two that argued that IRs are ineffective had visited. Only one out of five respondents that argued for the need to integrate the concepts had been in Amazonia, while both those that argued for an incompatibility of interests have. This result seems to confirm that people who have visited the area are more conscious of the problems caused when policies formulated elsewhere are imported to Amazonia. Conclusions All technological adoption/adaptation has diverse effects in the life and development of society. People living within the society that is adopting them, and the outsiders that are analysing cultural change perceive these effects in different ways. The assessments of 'usefulness' or 'risk' a society makes when adapting/adopting technologies are linked to the conscious and subconscious present and future scenarios into which the society places itself alongside other societies. If the rest of the world wishes to respect Amazonian indigenous peoples' rights of self-determination, they should not intervene in ordering processes of indigenous territories. The problem is that indigenous ways of dealing with the world might not be compatible with the ideas that foreigners have with respect to Amazonia, its peoples and its future. And, for good or bad, fairly or unfairly, each group has a way of intervening and exercising a certain amount of power to modify the global political agenda for the governance of Amazonia in function of their own particular interests. Replication of narratives is a common strategy used by all groups aiming to make alliances and enhance their power. However, the responses analysed here seem to indicate that a large group of people (at least from the academic sector) is 32 unhappy with the assumptions behind either populists or hegemonic discourses with respect to rainforest management, and seeking new ways of environmental policy making. This group of people acknowledged that political conflict has derived from policy formulated elsewhere, and derived from an epistemology alien to local inhabitants. There are varied political groups competing for the governance of Amazonia. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilitates analysis and political action. It is expected that better-informed indigenous peoples would be in a better position to make decisions with respect to the governance of Amazonia. At the present time, the indigenous peoples of Amazonia have very limited and precarious access to ICT. Thus, their perspectives on territorial ordering are less likely to be represented than those such as conservation agencies, multinational developers, insurgent and mafiosi groups, all of which have far superior access to ICT. 33 Appendix 1 PRIVACY POLICY: Email addresses will be used only to send out materials related to this survey. Aggregate survey results may be distributed, but all personal data will be kept strictly confidential. No information about individual users will be disclosed to third parties. 34 Appendix 2 Summary of Web-site technical work The most demanding work was designing the pages that would contain indigenous territorial maps. CAD versions of the map would have to be transformed into image files suitable for Web use. In order to do this ArcView- GIS (Geographical Information Systems) software was needed. A picture of the map could be easily generated in ArcView-GIS and to certain extent, editing and colouring could enhance some features. But such a map or, more precisely, such a picture of the bi-dimensional representation of the Tukano territory remained inadequate for publication in WebPages. "The pics were to heavy" (I would learn the ICT design jargon), meaning that the memory used to storage, loading and unloading of these pictures was vast. Besides dividing the map and generating pictures of several areas, these pictures needed transforming to make them 'lighter'. This meant that the pictures had to be edited and the storage format had to be changed in terms of the colour pallet and resolution (a maximum of 72 dpi). Most importantly, the pictures should look better! An early version of PhotoImpactTM was used to change the colours and other features as well as to design the icons that would be used to identify the hypertext links between pages. However, the software was not appropriate for the task and the 'pics' were still too heavy. The design was poor, too rigid, with inappropriate colours and, worst of all the 'weight' of the maps would not allow for easy loading of the images by potential users. To change the maps (pics) again, PhotoshopTM was used, while major design transformations were achieved using FireworksTM software. For the actual montage and edition of the whole web-site Dreamweaver3TM was used. A similar process was followed to generate the vegetation map, which was adapted from one of the Amazonian Vegetation maps generated by Puerto Rastrojo. The introduction to a political ecology taking as a case study the Yaigojé Resguardo, was originally a single text (like in the preliminary version) but following the advice of critical reviewers, this page was divided into six parts. 35 Appendix 3 Table 1 Q1- Do you think that 'development' and 'sustainability' are compatible? RESPONSE - ARGUMENT SURVEY No. NVA VA Profession Unquestioning the developmental project 2 1 PhD Student Biology 12 1 Environmental Engineer 13 1 Environmental Engineer 40 1 Project Co-ordinator (SD) Yes, to diminish environmental risk 18 1 Student 21 1 Taxation 23 1 Designer 39 1 Postgraduate Student 42 1 Biologist Sustainable Development is an aim to be 3 1 Epidemiologist reached 5 1 Civil Servant 8 1 Accountant 24 1 Student 25 1 PhD St. Agriculture & Development 29 1 Anthropologist 35 1 Lecturer 37 1 Postgraduate Student 48 1 Anthropologist 51 1 Postgraduate Student Compatible if defined locally 5 1 Civil Servant 20 1 Lecturer: Ecotourism 27 1 Anthropologist 31 1 Postgraduate Student 52 1 Lecturer: IT & Development Possible but risk of economic imperative 17 1 Unemployed Incompatible a) Contradiction in terms 24 1 Student 4 1 PhD St. Environmental genetics b) Financial economic imperative 10 1 Student 19 1 PhD St. Agriculture & Development 34 1 PhD Student: Environmental Manager 47 1 PhD Student SD inconsistent at present time 1 1 Lecturer: Env. Sociology 33 1 PhD Student 36 1 Research Engineer 45 1 EM SD is green rhetoric 7 1 Student 32 1 Teacher 48 1 Anthropologist 36 Table 2 Q2 - Do you think there is any relation between 'indigenous reserves' (IR) and 'protected areas' (PA)? RESPONSE - ARGUMENT SURVEY No. NVA VA Profession Yes 37 1 Postgraduate Student 18 1 Student 22 1 Anthropologist 43 1 Anthropologist 50 1 PhD Student No 15 1 Consultant: Health & Safety Need to harmonise IR and PA to protect a) For (IP) Indigenous Peoples' benefit 19 1 PhD St. Agriculture & Development 20 1 Lecturer: Ecoturism b) Protection of Biodiversity 25 1 PhD St. Agriculture & Development 33 1 PhD Student c) SD based on IP experiences 11 1 Consultant: Rural Development. SD as Utopia 3 1 Epidemiologist 6 1 Lecturer Ecology Env. Management 36 1 Research Engineer 42 1 Biologist IR and PA are different political strategies 2 1 PhD Student - Biologist IR and PA are colonisation strategies 10 1 Student 24 1 Student 26 1 Student Indigenous resistance to IR/PA strategies 48 1 Anthropologist IR and PA overlapped 7 1 Student 34 1 PhD St. Environmental Management 44 1 Postgraduate Student Environmental Indian 23 1 Designer 40 1 Project Co-ordinator (SD) Environmental Indians contaminated 12 1 Environmental Engineer by mestizo culture 39 1 Postgraduate Student 45 1 Environmental Manager IR are Inefficient 35 1 Lecturer 53 1 Journalist IR more effective that PA 5 1 Civil Servant 17 1 Unemployed 37 Table 3 Q3 - Do you think that the concepts of 'protected areas' (PA), 'indigenous reserves' (IR) and SD are useful for environmental management today? RESPONSE - ARGUMENT SURVEY No. NVA VA Profession Depends on the context 1 1 Lecturer: Env. Sociology 2 1 PhD St. Biologist Yes 4 1 PhD St. Env. Genetics 14 1 Economist 22 1 Anthropologist Indigenous Environmental 12 1 Environmental Engineer 23 1 Designer 41 1 PhD Student Indigenous Environmental in contamination risk 45 1 EM Concepts: Principles and instruments a) Participation: IR better than PA 5 1 Civil Servant 6 1 Lecturer Ecology EM 11 1 Consultant: Rural Development RD 26 1 Student 41 1 PhD Student b) Intergenerational Equity: resource reserve 12 1 Environmental Engineer for Development 13 1 Agriculturist 21 1 Taxation 25 1 PhD St. Agriculture & Dvnt. 38 1 Gardener (MSc) Risk and Protection a)Environmental Protection (EP) 12 1 Environmental Engineer 17 1 Unemployed EP and catastrophism 6 1 Lecturer Ecology EM 32 1 Teacher 51 1 Postgraduate Student b) Of cultural diversity 31 1 Postgraduate Student IR as ineffective 10 1 Student 24 1 Student Integration of concepts or the need for it 7 1 Student 11 1 Consultant RD 18 1 Student 26 1 Student 34 1 PhD Student Env. Mgment. Difficulties for integration a) Incompatibility of interests 10 1 Student 40 1 Project co-ordinator (SD) b) Financial economic effectiveness' imperative 25 1 PhD St. Agriculture Devent. 30 1 Postgraduate Student 33 1 PhD Student c) Political manipulation 44 1 Post. St. Environment 46 1 Lecturer 38 47 1 PhD Student 48 1 Anthropologist d) Semiotic blur 24 1 Student 50 1 PhD Student Education: Dynamism of the concepts 37 1 Postgraduate Student 45 1 Environmental Manager 47 1 PhD Student 39 Table 4 Q4 - Should or should not environmental managers (EM) get involved in territorial ordering process in Amazon? RESPONSE - ARGUMENT SURVEY No. NVA VA Profession Yes 4 1 PhD St. Evolutionary Genetics In fact they are 22 1 Anthropologist Unsure 52 1 Lecturer: IT & Development 32 1 Teacher Question into Question 6 1 Lecturer Ecology EM 31 1 Postgraduate St Indigenous Peoples as EM 27 1 Anthropologist Yes, for Env. protection (catastrophism) 32 1 Teacher 33 1 PhD Student 42 1 Biologist Yes, EM are the ones (better able that IP) 12 1 Environmental Engineer 18 1 Student 21 1 Taxation 28 1 Lecturer 34 1 PhD student 36 1 Research Engineer 46 1 Lecturer 53 1 Journalist EM provide solutions/ take decisions 23 1 Designer 35 1 Lecturer 38 1 Gardener Yes but listening to others 5 1 Civil Servant 53 1 Journalist If Indigenous Peoples direct EM or projects 1 1 Lecturer: Env. Sociology 10 1 Student 14 1 Economist 41 1 PhD Student EM have equal rights to other stakeholders 2 1 PhD St. Biology 6 1 Lecturer Ecology EM 7 1 Student 29 1 Anthropologist 44 1 Post. 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The youth unemployment rate is exceptionally high in developing countries. Because the quality of education is arguably one of the most important determinants of youth's labor force participation, governments worldwide have responded by creating job training and placement services programs. Despite the rapid expansion of skill-enhancement employment programs across the world and the long history of training program evaluations, debates about the causal impact of training-based labor market policies on employment outcomes still persist. Using a quasi-experimental approach, this report presents the short-run effects of skills training and employment placement services in Nepal. Launched in 2009, the intervention provided skills training and employment placement services for more than 40,000 Nepalese youth over a three-year period, including a specialized adolescent girls' initiative that reached 4,410 women ages 16 to 24. The report finds that after three years of the program, the Employment Fund intervention positively improved employment outcomes. Participation in the Employment Fund training program generated an increase in non-farm employment of 15 to 16 percentage points for an overall gain of about 50 percent. The program also generated an average monthly earnings gain of about 72 percent. The report finds significantly larger employment impacts for women than for men, but younger women ages 16 to 24 experienced the same improvements as older females. These employment estimates are comparable, although somewhat higher, than other recent experimental interventions in developing countries.

The youth unemployment rate is exceptionally high in the developing world. Because quality of education is arguably one of the most important determinants of youth's labor force participation, governments worldwide have responded by creating job training and placement services programs. Despite the rapid expansion of skill-enhancement employment programs across the world and the long history of training program evaluations, debates about the causal impact of training based labor market policies on employment outcomes still persist. Using a quasi-experimental approach, this report presents the short-run effects of skills training and employment placement services in Nepal. Launched in 2009, the intervention provided skills training and employment placement services for over 40,000 Nepalese youth over a three-year period, including a specialized adolescent girls' initiative that reached 4,410 women aged 16 to 24. The authors find, after three years of the program, the EF intervention positively improved employment outcomes. EF training program participation generated an increase in non-farm employment of 15 to 16 percentage points for an overall gain of about 50 percent. The program also generated an average monthly earnings gain by about 72 percent. The authors find significantly larger employment impacts for women than for men, but younger women aged 16 to 24 experienced the same improvements as older females. These employment estimates are comparable, though somewhat higher, than other recent experimental interventions in developing countries.

Sammelrezension von: 1. Inci Dirim / Paul Mecheril (Hrsg.): Migration und Bildung. Soziologische und erziehungswissenschaftliche Schlaglichter. Münster u.a.: Waxmann 2009 (292 S.; ISBN 978-3-8309-2109-7; 29,90 EUR); 2. Inci Dirim / Mechtild Gomolla / Sabine Hornberg / Paul Mecheril / Krassimir Stojanov (Hrsg.): Spannungsverhältnisse. Assimilationsdiskurse und interkulturell-pädagogische Forschung. Münster u.a.: Waxmann 2010. (212 S.; ISBN 978-3-8309-2130-1; 24,90 EUR).