Suchergebnisse

As a contribution to the 'History of Language Learning and Teaching' as a subdiscipline of the historiography of linguistics, this thesis aims to fill a gap in research in the history of teaching German as a foreign language in Portugal by undertaking a first systematic academic study on the manuals of German as a foreign language (as such), published between 1863 and 1926 in Portugal or in Europe and intended for the teaching of the German language to a mainly Portuguese public (that is, predominantly to speakers of European Portuguese). As a result, a perspective mainly devoted to the history of ideas is related to the separately analyzed perspective of the history of institutions. Taking into account the corpus of 11 works in 12 volumes, of which 35 editions can be documented, the thesis examines whether the individual works of the corpus can be classified or not in the method of a grammatically oriented teaching of foreign languages, which was disseminated all over the world since the nineteenth century and today is known as the 'grammar Translation Method' (GTM). The year 1863 is considered as the starting point when the first textbook of German was published in Portugal. Grammatica pratica da lingua allemã of the grammarian and Alsatian language teacher Johann Philipp Anstett was approved by the Portuguese Conselho Superior de Instrução Pública, thus establishing the undeniable main reference to a Portuguese-speaking European target public. The final point is May 28, 1926, when the military coup led by General Gomes da Costa initiated the dictatorial fascist regime of the Portuguese Estado Novo that led to a general increase in interest in the language of Germany, where at the same time National Socialism became increasingly dominant in the political scene. Along with the introduction in chapter 1, this work consists of a total of seven chapters. The second chapter consists of an introductory presentation on the methodology, concluding with brief observations on the textual criticism, the illustrations and the tables used in the work. The third chapter is devoted to the theoretical framework of the thesis. After a terminological clarification on the relationship between the notion of 'method' and that of 'didactic concept', the most important didactic concepts for modern foreign languages that were part of the MGT are presented from a point of view of the history of ideas. After a presentation of the MGT from a synchronic point of view, a catalog of criteria is elaborated, which will allow a contextualization of the works of the corpus at the end of the conclusions. The chapter concludes with the discussion and presentation of some problematic areas of the representation of German grammar for a foreign language audience, highlighting those that seem to be most suitable for a diachronic and comparative examination based on the corpus of the thesis. Chapter 4 describes the beginnings of teaching German in the Portuguese education system. In addition to the evaluation of the relevant specialized literature, in particular the contents of historical legal texts not yet taken into account in previous research are presented and discussed. In chapter 5, firstly a proposal for a specific classification of historical metalinguistic manuals is offered an applied to the elements of the text corpus. Then, from 5.2 to 5.11, we undertake a detailed serial description of the corpus of the Portuguese manuals of German in chronological order. Finally, in Chapter 6, the manuals of our text corpus are examined from a point of view of linguistics and didactics of German as a foreign language, taking into account a selection of problematic areas for Portuguese target public that are no German native speakers. ; Como contribución a la 'Historia del Aprendizaje y Enseñanza de Lenguas' como subdisciplina de la historiografía lingüística, este trabajo pretende cubrir una laguna de la investigación en la historia de la enseñanza del alemán como lengua extranjera en Portugal al hacerse un primer trabajo académico sistemático sobre los manuales de alemán como lengua extranjera, publicados entre 1863 y 1926 en Portugal y en Europa y destinados a la enseñanza de la lengua alemana para un público principalmente portugués (es decir, predominantemente de habla portuguesa europea). Teniendo en cuenta el corpus de 11 obras en 12 volúmenes, de las que se pueden documentar 35 ediciones, la tesis examina si las obras individuales del corpus se pueden clasificar o no dentro del método conocido hoy como 'método de gramática y traducción' (MGT), focalizado en la enseñanza gramatical de las lenguas extranjeras y difundido en todo el mundo principalmente en el siglo XIX. Se considera como terminus a quo el año 1863, cuando se publicó el primer manual de alemán en Portugal: la Grammatica pratica da lingua allemã del gramático y profesor alsaciano de lengua Johann Philipp Anstett. Fue aprobada por el Conselho Superior de Instrução Pública de Portugal, por lo que resulta innegable que su orientación principal a un público objetivo de habla portuguesa europea. Sirve como terminus ad quem el 28 de mayo de 1926, fecha del golpe militar liderado por el general Gomes da Costa, que dio inicio al régimen fascista dictatorial del Estado Novo portugués. Este hecho trajo consigo el aumento general del interés por la lengua de Alemania, al mismo tiempo que en este país el nacionalsocialismo se hacía cada vez más dominante en la escena política. Para cumplir con los objetos establecidos, estructuramos el trabajo en un total de siete capítulos. Al primero, que se corresponde con la introducción, le sigue un segundo capítulo consistente en la presentación de la metodología, el cual concluye con unas breves observaciones sobre la crítica textual, las ilustraciones y las tablas utilizadas en el trabajo. El tercer capítulo está dedicado al marco teórico de la tesis. Después de una aclaración terminológica sobre la relación entre las nociones de 'método y 'concepto didáctico', se presentan los conceptos didácticos más importantes para las lenguas extranjeras modernas integrantes del MGT desde un punto de vista de la historia de las ideas lingüísticas. Después de una presentación del MGT desde un punto de vista sincrónico, se elabora un catálogo de criterios que permitirá determinar si los manuales de nuestro corpus se inscriben en este método o no y, con ello, evaluar los trabajos del corpus en las conclusiones. El capítulo concluye con la discusión y presentación de algunas áreas problemáticas de la representación de la gramática alemana para un público de lengua extranjera, destacándose aquellas que parecen ser más adecuadas para un examen diacrónico y comparativo sobre la base del corpus de la tesis. El capítulo 4 se centra en los comienzos de la enseñanza del alemán en el sistema educativo portugués desde una perspectiva de la historia de las instituciones. Además de la evaluación de la literatura especializada relevante, en particular, se realiza una presentación y discusión de los contenidos de textos legales históricos no tenidos en cuenta en investigaciones previas. En el capítulo 5, se elabora primero una propuesta para una clasificación específica de los manuales metalingüísticos históricos, siendo aplicada a las obras del corpus. A esto le sigue el estudio descriptivo detallado del corpus, incluyendo los manuales portugueses de alemán en orden cronológico. En el capítulo 6 se examinan los manuales de nuestro corpus desde el punto de vista de la didáctica del alemán como lengua extranjera, teniendo en cuenta una selección de áreas problemáticas para un público destinatario portugués de lengua alemana no materna. ; En canto contribución para a 'Historia da aprendizaxe e do ensino de linguas', subdisciplina relativamente nova da historiografía lingüística, este traballo pretende encher unha lagoa na investigación da historia do ensino do alemá como lingua estranxeira en Portugal, facendo un primeiro traballo académico sistemático sobre os manuais de alemá como lingua estranxeira, publicados entre 1863 e 1926, en Portugal e na Europa e destinados ao ensino da lingua alemá para un público maioritariamente portugués (ou séa, no que predomina a lingua portuguesa europea). Tendo en conta o corpus de 11 obras en 12 volumes, das cales 35 edicións poden ser documentadas, a tese pretende analizar e confirmar se as obras individuais do corpus poden ou non ser integradas no método de ensino gramaticalmente orientado de linguas estranxeiras, que se espallou polo mundo especialmente desde o século XIX e que é hoxe coñecido como 'método gramática-tradución' (MGT). O ano de 1863 é considerado como terminus a quo, con a publicación do primeiro manual de alemá en Portugal, a Grammatica pratica da lingua allemã de Johann Philipp Anstett. Tendo en conta que este manual foi aprobado polo Conselho Superior de Instrução Pública, é innegable que se destinaba a un público-obxectivo de lingua portuguesa europea. Como terminus ad quem, escolemos o dia 28 de maio de 1926, por razoes históricas e en conformidade con outras publicacións dedicadas a aspectos da historia do ensino do alemá como lingua estranxeira en Portugal. Foi neste dia que o golpe militar liderado polo xeneral Gomes da Costa pon fin à primeira República Portuguesa e deu inicio ao réxime fascista ditatorial do Estado Novo portugués. Esta reorientación política do país pode estar relacionada con un aumento xeral do interese pola lingua da Alemaña, onde, ao mesmo tempo, o nacional-socialismo se tornou cada vez mais dominante no escenario político. Así, para cumprir os obxectivos establecidos, estruturamos o traballo nun total de sete capítulos, correspondendo o capítulo 1 à introdución. O capítulo 2 consiste nunha presentación introdutoria sobre a metodoloxía e termina con breves observacións sobre a crítica textual, as ilustracións e as táboas utilizadas no traballo. O capítulo 3 é dedicado ao cadro teórico da tese. Despois un esclarecemento terminolóxico sobre a relación entre a noción de 'método' e o 'concepto didáctico', se presentan os conceptos didácticos mais importantes para as linguas estranxeiras modernas que fixeran parte do MGT só o punto de vista da historia das ideais lingüísticas. Segue unha presentación do MGT dende un punto de vista sincrónico, elaborándose un catálogo de criterios que permitirá determinar se os manuais do noso corpus inscríbense neste método ou non e, con iso, evaluar os traballos do corpus nas conclusións. O capítulo 3 termina con a discusión e presentación de algunhas áreas problemáticas da representación da gramática alemá para un público de lingua estranxeira, destacándose aquelas que parecen ser mais axeitadas para un exame diacrónico e comparativo con base no corpus da tese. O capítulo 4 céntrase nas orixes do ensino do alemá no sistema educativo portugués a partir de unha perspectiva da historia das institucións. Ademais da avaliación da literatura especializada relevante, en particular, é realizada unha presentación e discusión do contido de textos xurídicos históricos que non foran levados en consideración en investigacións anteriores. No capítulo 5, en primeiro lugar, desenvolvese unha proposta para unha clasificación específica de manuais metalingüísticos históricos, sendo aplicada as obras do corpus. Seguidamente, procedemos a unha descrición seriada e detallada do corpus dos manuais portugueses de alemá por orde cronolóxica. No capítulo 6 examínanse os manuais do noso corpus do ponto de vista da didática do alemão como lingua estranxeira, tendo en conta unha escolma de áreas problemáticas para un público-obxectivo portugués, non materno de lingua alemá.

Tese de doutoramento em Sistemas de Transporte, apresentada ao Departamento de Engenharia Civil da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; Public transit systems are not only essential for urban mobility but are also advantageous from the fuel consumption, pollutant emissions and traffic congestion standpoints. In addition to this, transit also provides an alternative with acceptable levels of mobility to people who cannot own or drive a car. In fact, the main goal of having a transit system is to offer good quality service, where users travel easily at a low fare while reducing pollution and traffic congestion. This goal often results in serious financial problems for the transit operators, as their revenues are rarely enough to cover their expenses, requiring subsidies funded by local governments. In this context, we propose the integration of transit and parking systems as an option to decrease the subsidies of transit systems. This integration is developed considering two different views. A physical integration of the two systems; and an integration through prices (transit fares and parking fees), where two different standpoints are considered. One that assumes a regulated market, where the parking operator revenues will be used to fund the transit operator deficits; and another that assumes a fully deregulated market, where both transit operators and parking operators have a profit maximization goal. The physical integration of the two systems was illustrated through an optimization-based study carried out for Coimbra (Portugal), with the goal of selecting the best locations for park-and-ride facilities so that car use inside the city is minimized. Park-and-ride facilities are parking lots located in the periphery of cities to intercept car trips coming from the suburbs, and divert them to transit. In this study, the transport mode choices were assumed to be dependent on the generalized travel costs of car, transit and park-and-ride according to a logit function. The main result was that the introduction of a park-and-ride network could reduce car use in Coimbra's city center by 19%. The integration of transit and parking systems through prices in a regulated market was approached with an optimization model, where transit and parking are managed together to minimize the joint deficit of the respective operators, considering transit fares and parking fees as decision variables. The context of application of this model is a city divided into zones, where trips between each pair of zones can be made either by car or by bus, or not made if (generalized) travel costs are considered too high by the traveler. Modal choice in the city is described by a logit model of the generalized travel costs of both modes. In the case of car, these costs consist of vehicle depreciation, fuel, maintenance, travel time and parking fees, while time costs, discomfort costs and transit fares are the costs included in the transit generalized travel cost. This model was applied to a case study in Coimbra, where both transit and parking systems become clearly profitable due to a substantial increase of prices. However, the relationship between demand and speed is not addressed in this model, as it is assumed that speed values remain unchanged even when modal choices change. This shortcoming was handled by embedding on the optimization model a network level aggregate traffic model based on the macroscopic fundamental diagram (MFD), which determines the speeds and cruising-for-parking costs considering car travel demand. Due to the complexity of the optimization model, a solution method based on a traffic-equilibrium algorithm and a greedy algorithm was developed. Through the application of a case study inspired by the city of Coimbra, it was possible to verify that the joint operating deficits were decreased, leading to a profitable transit system. An alternative SA algorithm was also developed in view of its future application to solve the previous model. If properly designed, algorithms of this type show good global optimum convergence properties. Otherwise, the quality of the best solution they return may be low or the computation time they require may be excessively long. The reason for this to happen may be because SA algorithms spend too much effort evaluating poor quality solutions. To avoid this, we hybridize a cross-entropy algorithm with a SA algorithm, in order to decrease the probability that a low-quality candidate solution is selected in each iteration. The results of a computational study developed for a facility location problem indicate that the hybrid algorithm clearly improves the classic SA algorithm. The integration of transit and parking systems under a deregulated market was handled through a two-stage game-theoretic approach, assuming transit and parking operator as profit maximizers. The first stage decisions are parking capacity, transit frequencies and fleet size, whereas pricing decisions are made in the second stage, assuming the first-stage decisions known and fixed. The concept of subgame-perfect pure strategy Nash equilibrium was used to solve this game. By analyzing several hypothetical case studies (inspired by real-world situations), it was shown how the decisions of the operators are expected to interact. In general, the proposed models and their applications contribute what we believe to be a significant addition to the literature. These integrated transit-parking planning models provide a better understanding of how park-and-ride networks and pricing schemes affect the city's mobility dynamics and modal choices, and insight into the impact of the decisions of transit and parking operators on their financial performance. ; Os sistemas de transportes públicos são não só essenciais à mobilidade urbana, mas também vantajosos em relação ao automóvel quanto ao consumo de combustível, emissão de poluentes e congestionamento do tráfego. Adicionalmente, os transportes públicos são uma opção que garante níveis aceitáveis de mobilidade a quem não conduz ou não tem automóvel. De facto, o principal objetivo de um sistema de transportes públicos é providenciar um serviço de qualidade através do qual os seus utilizadores possam viajar a custo relativamente baixo e, simultaneamente, contribuir para a diminuição da poluição e do congestionamento. A prossecução deste objetivo origina geralmente sérios problemas financeiros para os operadores de transportes públicos, uma vez que as receitas não são, em regra, suficientes para cobrir os custos do sistema, o que requer a subsidiação por entidades públicas. É neste contexto que analisamos a integração de sistemas de transportes públicos e de estacionamento como uma possibilidade para diminuir os subsídios dos transportes públicos. Esta integração dos dois sistemas é estudada de duas perspetivas distintas – integração física e integração através dos preços (dos bilhetes de transporte público e de tarifas de estacionamento) – e segundo dois pontos de vista diferentes: um que assume um mercado regulado, no qual as receitas do estacionamento são utilizadas para financiar os défices dos transportes públicos; e outro que assume um mercado totalmente desregulado, em que tanto o operador de transportes públicos como o operador do estacionamento têm como objetivo a maximização do lucro. A integração física dos dois sistemas é analisada tendo por referência um estudo de otimização desenvolvido para Coimbra (Portugal), com o objetivo de selecionar localizações para estacionamentos park-and-ride que minimizem a utilização de automóveis no centro das cidades. Os estacionamentos park-and-ride localizam-se na periferia das cidades com o objetivo de intercetar as viagens de automóvel que vêm dos subúrbios. Neste estudo, assume-se que as escolhas modais dependem dos custos generalizados de viagem por automóvel, por transportes públicos ou pelos dois modos através de um parque de estacionamento periférico, de acordo com uma função logit. O principal resultado que obtivemos com a introdução de estacionamentos park-and-ride foi a redução do uso do automóvel no centro de Coimbra em 19%. A integração de transportes públicos e estacionamento através de preços num mercado regulado foi analisada com base em um modelo de otimização no qual os transportes públicos e o estacionamento são geridos em conjunto, a fim de diminuir o seu défice global, considerando os preços dos bilhetes e as tarifas de estacionamento como variáveis de decisão. O contexto para a aplicação deste modelo é uma cidade dividida em zonas, onde as viagens correspondentes a cada par origem-destino podem ser feitas ou de automóvel ou de transportes públicos, ou não ser realizadas caso o seu custo generalizado seja considerado muito elevado. A escolha do modo de transportes é descrita por um modelo logit dos custos generalizados dos vários modos. No caso do automóvel, estes custos contemplam a depreciação do veículo, o combustível, a manutenção, o tempo de viagem e a tarifa de estacionamento, enquanto o tempo de viagem, o desconforto e o preço do bilhete são contabilizados nos custos generalizados de uma viagem em transportes públicos. Este modelo foi aplicado ao estudo de caso de Coimbra, concluindo-se que ambos os sistemas se poderiam tornar bastante lucrativos como resultado de um aumento substancial de preços. Contudo, a relação entre volumes de tráfego e velocidades de circulação não foi tratada de forma apropriada neste modelo, pois que se considerou que aquelas velocidades permaneceriam constantes independentemente das escolhas modais. Esta lacuna foi ultrapassada através da inclusão, no modelo de otimização, de um modelo de tráfego agregado a nível de rede baseado no denominado diagrama fundamental, que determina as velocidades de circulação e os níveis de cruising-for-parking tendo em conta a procura de viagens de automóvel. Dada a complexidade do modelo, foi desenvolvido um método para o resolver baseado na combinação de um algoritmo de equilíbrio de tráfego com uma heurística de tipo greedy. A respetiva aplicação ao caso de Coimbra permitiu concluir que seria possível tornar o sistema de transportes públicos lucrativo. Uma heurística alternativa baseada num algoritmo de simulated annealing (SA) foi também desenvolvida para futura resolução do modelo anteriormente apresentado. Os algoritmos SA apresentam boas propriedades de convergência para um ótimo global, mas podem tornar-se muito lentos se se quiser garantir soluções de boa qualidade. Essa lentidão decorre do facto do algoritmo passar muito tempo a analisar soluções de baixa qualidade. Para contornar este problema, hibridizámos um algoritmo de cross entropy com um algoritmo SA. Os resultados obtidos através de um estudo computacional desenvolvido para um problema de localização de equipamentos indicam que o algoritmo híbrido melhora claramente a performance do algoritmo SA clássico. A integração de transportes públicos e estacionamento num mercado totalmente desregulado foi analisada através de uma abordagem por teoria dos jogos com dois estádios. O primeiro estádio tem como decisões a capacidade de estacionamento, a frequência dos transportes públicos e a dimensão da frota, ao passo que as decisões referentes aos preços são tomadas num segundo estádio, onde são assumidas como conhecidas e fixas as decisões tomadas no primeiro estádio. Cada estádio do jogo foi resolvido tendo em conta o conceito de equilíbrio de Nash. Em diversos estudos de caso hipotéticos (inspirados em situações reais) é examinada a forma como se dá a interação entre as decisões do operador de transporte público e do operador de estacionamento. Em geral, acreditamos que os modelos propostos e as suas aplicações contribuem de forma significativa para a literatura. Os modelos em causa permitem apoiar as entidades responsáveis pelo planeamento de transportes públicos e do estacionamento, contribuindo para que as decisões que tomem sejam mais eficientes.

This issue of the RPPP begins with two studies on the role of these informal communities and their influence in other public policy areas. The article by Lujan Menazzi traces the functioning of this public-private articulation during the last military dictatorship in the field of public works. The author identifies the existence of a professional and business community linked to the development of public works and its articulation with the government areas that define budgets and assign works, with a frequent transit of public officials and private entrepreneurs who move from one side to another of the institutional differentiation, it defines a convergence of symbolic and material interests and legitimizes the characterization of this stage as a civic-military dictatorship. The same as in other capitalist societies, business efficiency (cost matrix, productivity, environmental impact, etc.) and proximity, through a variety of formal and informal practices, to the places in the institutional framework where decisions are made of politics, have helped to configure one of the strategic areas of political-corporate power, the rapid growth of business assets and the social prestige of its owners, with diffuse boundaries between public and private interests.Elsa Pereyra presents the case of a group of officials and professionals who, from a community of ideas, technical training and political will, faced the challenges posed by a deep fiscal mess and reduced its impact on the most vulnerable population. His article analyzes the experience of the team that led the Ministry of Economy of the province of Buenos Aires between 1987 and 2007 from the point of view of the construction of analytical, political and technical capacities. To do this, it reconstructs the process that led to the creation of the quasi-currency known as "Patacón", as an example of the type of productions that characterized the performance of this group of officials. The analysis of the ways in which politics and technique were combined in the interventions of the provincial economic team allows the author to compose profiles of state actors more complex than those stylized in the predominant literature in the field of public policies.The following three articles are studies on the policies of care, an issue that in recent years has entered the arena of public policy. Gisela Cánovas Herrera focuses on the debates about the social organization of care, within the framework of welfare studies and the contributions of feminism. Universal Assignment by Child is taken as a case that allows the author to investigate the assumptions related to the role implicitly assigned to women in this social policy and its effects on their participation in the labor market. Erika Van Rompaey examines the concept of quality home care for people in situations of dependency and their different approaches, to reflect on the impact of the material and technical conditions of care offered by the State in the protection of the right to care ; takes as a reference the recent experience of Uruguay, where a new care policy has been designed and implemented, with a provision specifically oriented towards home care. The text of Javier Moro analyzes the performance of the new municipal areas of attention to children and adolescents in the suburbs of Buenos Aires. The author argues that the emphasis on the focus of attention in the domestic-family sphere in detriment of the expansion of a programmatic offer of promotion and access to rights poses a limited and restrictive scope of the transformation stated in the regulations. The article proposes the adoption of a "new architecture" that contemplates the scope of the politics of childhood and adolescence at the local level, the definition of the problem with which these areas work and a territorial view of social policies.Assistance actions aimed at vulnerable population groups (emergency employment plans, conditional transfers of income, specific subsidies) integrated an important part of the social policies of recent years. In addition to the discussion regarding the effectiveness of these actions to address the problems they are aiming at, there were debates about the objective and subjective conditions effectively met by the recipients of the assistance, frequently dyed with discriminatory tonalities. The article by Malena Hopp and Eliana Lijterman reconstructs the arguments and controversies raised about these programs in the target subjects and in workers integrated into labor markets.Juan Pablo Hudson discusses the change in the institutional focus recorded since the change of government in 2015 regarding employment policies aimed at unemployed or precarious employment sectors, highlighting the emphasis on entrepreneurship and individualism, as well as free associativism contrast with the promotion of cooperative formation and the wide-ranging stimulus programs for the popular economy and its most dynamic government actors that took place between 2002 and 2015. Finally Graciela Mingo and Elisa Sarrot focus on the interactions between the State and a variety of actors social and labor issues in the Pro.Cre.Ar plan (2012-2015) in a municipality in the province of Entre Ríos, as an active policy to facilitate access by the middle sectors of society to their own homes; a program that has also suffered cuts and reorientations in recent years. ; El presente número de la RPPP se inicia con dos estudios sobre el papel de estas comunidades informales y su gravitación en otras tantas áreas de política pública. El artículo de Luján Menazzi rastrea el funcionamiento de esta articulación público-privada durante la última dictadura militar en el terreno de la obra pública. La autora identifica la existencia de una comunidad profesional y empresarial vinculada al desarrollo de obras públicas y su articulación con las áreas del gobierno que definen los presupuestos y asignan las obras, con un frecuente tránsito de funcionarios públicos y empresarios privados que se mueven de un lado a otro de la diferenciación institucional, define una convergencia de intereses simbólicos y materiales y legitima la caracterización de esta etapa como dictadura cívico-militar. Lo mismo que en otras sociedades capitalistas, la eficiencia empresarial (matriz de costos, productividad, impacto ambiental, etc.) y la proximidad, a través de una variedad de prácticas formales e informales, a los lugares del entramado institucional donde se toman las decisiones de política, han contribuido a configurar uno de los ámbitos estratégicos del poder político-corporativo, al vertiginoso crecimiento de patrimonios empresariales y al prestigio social de sus titulares, con fronteras difusas entre el interés público y el privado.Elsa Pereyra presenta el caso de un grupo de funcionarios y profesionales que, a partir de una comunidad de ideas, formación técnica y voluntad política enfrentó los desafíos planteados por un profundo desbarajuste fiscal y a reducir su impacto sobre la población más vulnerable. Su artículo analiza la experiencia del equipo que condujo el Ministerio de Economía de la provincia de Buenos Aires entre 1987 y 2007 desde el punto de vista de la construcción de capacidades analíticas, políticas y técnicas. Para ello, reconstruye el proceso que condujo a la creación de la cuasi-moneda conocida como "Patacón", como ejemplo del tipo de producciones que caracterizaron la actuación de ese colectivo de funcionarios. El análisis de los modos en que se combinaron política y técnica en las intervenciones del equipo económico provincial, permite a la autora componer perfiles de actores estatales más complejos que los estilizados en la literatura predominante en el campo de las políticas públicas.Los tres artículos siguientes son estudios sobre las políticas del cuidado, un asunto que en años recientes ha ingresado a la arena de las políticas públicas. Gisela Cánovas Herrera pone el foco en los debates acerca de la organización social del cuidado, en el marco de los estudios del bienestar y los aportes del feminismo. La Asignación Universal por Hijo es tomada como caso que permite a la autora indagar los supuestos relacionados con el rol implícitamente asignado a las mujeres en esta política social y sus efectos sobre su participación en el mercado de trabajo. Erika Van Rompaey examina el concepto de calidad del cuidado en domicilio de personas en situación de dependencia y sus distintos abordajes, para reflexionar sobre el impacto que tienen las condiciones materiales y técnicas de la atención ofrecida por el Estado en la protección del derecho a ser cuidado; toma como referencia la experiencia reciente de Uruguay, donde se ha diseñado e implementado una nueva política de cuidados que cuenta con una prestación orientada específicamente hacia los cuidados en domicilio. El texto de Javier Moro analiza el desempeño de las nuevas áreas municipales de atención a la niñez y adolescencia en el conurbano bonaerense. Sostiene el autor que el énfasis en el eje de atención en el ámbito doméstico-familiar en desmedro de la expansión de una oferta programática de promoción y acceso a derechos plantea un alcance limitado y restrictivo de la transformación declamada en la normativa. El artículo postula la adopción de una "nueva arquitectura" institucional que contemple los alcances de la política de niñez y adolescencia en el nivel local, la definición del problema con la que trabajan estas áreas y una mirada territorial de las políticas sociales.Las acciones de asistencia dirigidas a grupos vulnerables de población (planes de empleo de emergencia, transferencias condicionadas de ingreso, subsidios específicos) integraron una parte importante de las políticas sociales de los años recientes. Además de la discusión respecto de la eficacia de esas acciones para enfrentar las problemáticas a las que apuntan, se registraron debates acerca de las condiciones objetivas y subjetivas efectivamente reunidas por los receptores de la asistencia, frecuentemente teñidos de tonalidades discriminatorias. El artículo de Malena Hopp y Eliana Lijterman reconstruye los argumentos y controversias suscitadas en torno a estos programas en los sujetos destinatarios y en trabajadores integrados a mercados de trabajo.Juan Pablo Hudson discute el cambio del enfoque institucional registrado a partir del cambio de gobierno de 2015 respecto de las políticas de empleo dirigidas a sectores desempleados o de empleo precario, destacando el énfasis en el emprendedorismo y el individualismo, así como en el asociativismo libre por contraste con la promoción de formación de cooperativas y los amplios programas de estímulo a la economía popular y a sus más dinámicos actores de los gobiernos que se sucedieron entre 2002 y 2015. Finalmente Graciela Mingo y Elisa Sarrot enfocan las interacciones entre Estado y una variedad de actores sociales y laborales en el plan Pro.Cre.Ar (2012-2015) en un municipio de la provincia de Entre Ríos, como política activa para facilitar el acceso de sectores medios de la sociedad a la vivienda propia; un programa que también ha sufrido recortes y reorientaciones en los años recientes.

Moving back to the land is, from different perspectives, a fascinating topic that has been on stage since the sixties. Since then, new forms of rurality have become an upcoming phenomenon on the media, still today we often hear of unexpected success of rural entrepreneurs who reinvented their life, they represent their triumph as reaction to market failure and city-life depression. From a sociological point of view, it is an exciting counter-cultural subject. How to study neo-rurality nowadays? Speaking in contemporary terms, we can talk about changes in rurality, taking Rural Social Innovation as our approach. As we'll see, social innovation is as appropriate as ambiguous when it comes to the research implementation, lacking in the specificity of the definition. Therefore, I decided to integrate the conceptual framework with two more solid theoretical approaches: social capital and moral market, which may analytically help understand and investigate the topic. From that, a research question rises, followed by an intense fieldwork. Let's go step by step, starting by introducing the study. a) The topic: Neo-rurality In the first chapter I explain the topic. Rurality studies connect different disciplines: sociology (marginality, mobility, market dynamics); geography (distance and periphery); policies and normative discourse (inner areas and rurality). 'Back-to-the-land' generally refers to the adoption of agriculture as a full-time vocation by people who have come from non-agricultural lifestyles or education. Originated in the 1960s, it situates back-to-the-landers as part of broader counterculture practices (Belasco, 2006). The back-to-the-land movement of the 1960s and 70s is often framed in relation to general cultural currents that encouraged "dropping out" of mainstream society in search of alternatives. "Multiplying fivefold between 1965 and 1970" writes Belasco (1989: 76) of communal back-to-the-land projects, "3,500 or so country communes put the counterculture into group practice". During the 1970s, the "protestant neo-ruralism" (neoruralismo protestatario, Merlo, 2006) conceives rural areas as the place where an alternative way of life can be experienced through the creation of an alternative agricultural production process. That approach refuses completely the Green Revolution (GR) paradigm (Shiva, 2016). Later, the development of alternative agricultural production was embedded in the agro-ecological paradigm, then absorbed by the global industrial system through the creation of organic certifications. Such a process of integration has developed a new critical reflection on food production and market relations. Neo-rurality is the frame that collects different approaches which are changing rural areas on different levels. It calls for attention to the relation between environmental issues, rural crisis and territorial issues (Ferraresi, 2013). Neo-rural farmers try a new model that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, protects biodiversity and promotes local quality food. In fact, production of quality food is key for the activation of practices and community relationships within the horizon of agro-ecological values. In Italy, pioneers of the alternative movements came from different backgrounds: the radical left, the ecologist movement and the anti-conformist or alternative movements. Also, a pioneering phase was characterized by a multiplicity of regional-level and often unconnected initiatives (Fonte, Cucchi, 2015). Ferraresi (2013) describes 'Neo-rurality' as a new, social and complex economy. Born partly in response to expansion of industrial food and partly due to the survival of some systems that resisted to conversion, we see emerging new or resurgent forms of production, trade and consumption, latterly conceptualised by academics as 'Alternative Agro-Food Networks' (AAFNs) or 'Alternative Food Networks' (AFNs). Movements become key players in the definition of new market places (Friedmann, 2005). Food movements act as an engine of awareness in consumption, and address issues that are core for social and media consensus, for instance health, environment, quality of life (Goodman, 1999), and also social justice and fair trade (Elzen et al., 2010). A second important effect of AAFNs is the empowerment of consumers, a leverage on citizenship action for the transformation of consumption behaviours into political action (Goodman, DuPuis, 2002). Exponents of neo-rural economy, as part of AAFNs, have promoted participation in alternative infrastructures contrasting the conventional market system, developing specific organisational forms, negotiating new forms of collaborative economy (Kostakis, Bauwens, 2014). They thus blur the distinction between public sphere and private sphere (Tormey, 2007). The AAFNs, as shown in the article by Murano and Forno (2017), has three main drivers shaping the form of development of this type of collective action: 1. Greater citizen awareness around economic, social and environmental sustainability issues; 2. The loss of purchasing power within important portions of the middle class, due to the increasing unemployment rates following the recession which started in 2007-2008; 3. General loss of meaning, due to the consumerism and the depletion of social relations, along with the decoupling of GDP growth and happiness (as suggested by the paradox Easterlin, 1974), people's search for a meaning in their life (Castells, Caraça, Cardoso, 2012) which seems to have been lost in a consumer society threatened by an economic, environmental and social crisis (D'Alisa et al., 2015). Tradition of local governance studies focuses on central areas, hi-tech districts, city-regions, overlooking the role of less industrialized areas, that actually represent two thirds of Italy. Northern Italy has been considered as a cluster of industrial development. Given current globalization forces, taking for granted recent government interest in undeveloped areas, inner areas have a stake in getting involved in wider market dynamics and renewed resources. An important contribution to the EU debate on territorial marginalisation has been provided by the Italian government's innovative approach to 'Inner Areas' (DPS, 2014). The government mapped all municipalities and categorized them according to their degree of remoteness from services, consistently with criteria that the debate on Foundational Economy indicates as key factors of spatial (in)justice. The emerging picture offers a polycentric connotation of the Italian territory. The geography of the inner peripheries includes mountain and coastal areas, as well as hilly and lowland areas, but provides no conclusive evidence to establish correlations between morphological conditions and degree of remoteness. The second chapter is dedicated to theoretical approaches: Rural Social Innovation, Social Capital and Sociology of Markets. b) Rural Social Innovation The neo-rurality phenomenon is strictly connected to Rural Social Innovation. Social innovation is a term on everyone's lips, indicating change and development, including social effects. Social Innovation is not specifically mentioned in literature on regional development, but in the more nuanced models we find that most important features are trust among actors, informal ties and untraded interdependencies between actors, which are key factors determining positive differentials in economic performance. Rural Social Innovation is helpfully used in many studies (Bock, 2012). Still, even though it is currently a very relevant phenomenon, Social Innovation itself is a critic concept, it is both one of the most common and ant the most unclear concepts nowadays. Because of its credits to local development, social networks and economic outcomes, I decided to use two more analytical sociological concepts to understand the phenomenon: social capital and sociology of markets. c) Social Capital Individuals generally pursue major life events—marriage, occupational choice—as part of a social network or group. As an exemplum, engaging in the creation of a new firm is generally done in a network of social relationships (Aldrich, 2005; Reynolds, 1991; Thornton, 1999); in that sense entrepreneurship can be considered a social phenomenon, rather than solely one of individual career choice. Social capital is a conscious use of embeddedness, the use of relations and resources for a purpose. According to Coleman (1988), social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities, with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspects of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors within the structure. Coleman refers to the social structure that enables access to resources. Additionally, we can also recall Bourdieu, who sees social capital as the aggregate of actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition. And Putnam pointing at three components: moral obligation and norms; social values (trust); and social networks (voluntary association). d) Sociology of Markets The structure of markets can be reduced to its minimal components, that are a buyer and two sellers which compete according to some defined rules (Aspers, 2006b). Relations among actors can be of exchange, as between buyers and sellers, or of competition, as between producers. In the structure of markets, people also mobilize beliefs, ethics, values and views of the common good to talk about the effects of market processes (Boltanski, Thevenot, 2006). As pointed in the recent book published by Granovetter "Society and Economy" (2017:28) The fact that people seek simultaneously economic and non-economic goals is an unprecedented challenge for that economic analysis that focuses only on one of the two horns, as for sociology that focuses only on the other. Current theories of action in social sciences offer little knowledge of how individuals mix these goals. We can therefore recall Zelizer (2007) highlighting that economists and sociologists face a common presumption: the twinned stories of separate spheres and hostile worlds. Separate spheres indicate a distinction between two arenas, one for rational economic activity, a sphere of calculation and efficiency, and one for personal relations, a sphere of sentiment and solidarity. The companion doctrine of hostile worlds affirms that contact between the spheres generates contamination and disorder: economic rationality degrades intimacy, and close relationships obstruct efficiency. Moral economy is based on this attack on the common presumption. According to these considerations on ways that shape relationships and market, the main question that rises is: "Are values and social relationship separate from the market?". e) The Research During my PhD studies I worked on an answer to this question. In the third chapter I present the case of alternative agro-food movements and neo-rurality in urban and inner areas in the region of Campania (southern Italy). The study is based on qualitative research design, composed of fieldwork and interviews, undertaken in Campania during 2014-2016, where inner and central areas are the scenery of innovative development processes, founded on structural and territorial resources, as well as on individual and social capitals. Here I present you with a quote from an Italian journalist, Alessandro Leogrande, recalling the most important anthropologist of southern Italy, Ernesto Demartino: In a complex society, old elements and new elements continue to coexist, traits of modernity and traits of archaisms, pre-Christian segments and post-Christian segments, or entirely de-Christianised ones. It seems to me that the [Italian] South of these years, precisely in the light of a Demartino's analysis, fully returns the overlapping of these various layers. (Leogrande, 2016) I wish you a pleasant journey throughout my pages, at the discovery of neo-rural dynamics in southern Italy, a special place for meeting contradictions, traces of ancient and futuristic art, holy and desacralized behaviours, traditional and innovative practices.

Background and aims of the research The research for this report was commissioned by the Historical Child Abuse Team of HM Prison & Probation Service (HMPPS), to inform its response to the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse (IICSA). Their aim was to enhance HMPPS's institutional memory, and to suggest avenues for improved practice in safeguarding children in custody. The research set out to review the operation of past safeguarding frameworks within what is now known as 'the secure estate for young people'. Research methods The initial research strategy was twofold: to conduct an orienting review of risk factors for institutional abuse using existing research and the reports of child abuse inquiries; and to review which kinds of establishment held children sentenced to custody for criminal offences by the courts, and under what policy and legal frameworks they did so. These reviews framed our consideration of inspection reports, archival records, and other primary records concerning institutions of interest. The latter were selected according to where known allegations of sexual abuse have been made. All were male-only; to ensure that female custody was included in our analysis, we added the small number known to have held girls to the list. Systematic catalogue searches were then carried out to identify relevant records in the two principal repositories used for the study (the Radzinowicz Library in Cambridge and The National Archives). The results of these searches were uneven. Archival records for the earlier period (1960 to the 1990s) were sparse, and some issues and institutions of interest were not well-covered. We therefore adopted a more pragmatic strategy, pursuing 'leads' by browsing the archive catalogues, following cross-references in archival records, drawing inferences about institutions for children using available information (for example, by reviewing how complaints were handled in adult prisons where information was lacking for complaints by children) and turning to academic literature where archival sources lacked information relevant to certain issues. Freedom of Information (FOI) requests were also made to access relevant closed archival records but no files of interest were opened in time for inclusion in the report. The review of records covering the later period (1990s onwards) faced a contrasting challenge: the volume of documents published on secure institutions for children is enormous. Due to the three-month time limit for the whole project, it was not possible to comprehensively review the available material on specific institutions, and we therefore focused on published reviews of the children's secure estate overall, and on overviews of the running of all establishments (such as annual reports and thematic inspection reports). References to specific institutions were then chased up in inspection reports. Summary of key developments in safeguarding in the secure estate Safeguards against abuse from 1960 to the 1990s Changes in the nature and scope of the secure estate (and the youth justice system more generally) during this period were highly complex. Between 1960 and 1998, there was particular turbulence; since 1998 things have stabilised somewhat. The period as a whole, however, remains one in which there have been frequent revisions of institutional aims, management problems, resourcing pressures and cycles of expansion, reorganisation and decline. This turbulence is part of the context for historical abuse; it has not been uncommon, at different times, for institutions to become detached from their original aims, and instead to 'drift', sometimes with the result that the duty of care was diluted or suspended. In general, from 1960 until at least the 1980s, policies of all kinds were ill-developed, and often poorly implemented. Responses to abuse were reactive and often failed to recognise or counteract the potential harms which custody might inflict on children. It was common for staff to use their power in irregular ways, and penal institutions often featured violent cultures, in which victimisation of some inmates by others was routine, and sometimes carried out with the tacit consent of staff. Systems aiming to balance children's interests against those of staff (for example, by enabling them to complain) were often ineffective because they failed to correct the disparities in power that were inherent to institutional life. In penal institutions, complaints could be dangerous to raise: there were significant formal and informal barriers to raising a complaint, and significant risks of formal or informal reprisal from staff members. Investigative procedures were also weak, usually relying on investigation within the institution, or (rarely) external investigation by Boards of Visitors. The independence of Boards from prison authorities was not guaranteed. Arrangements to protect the 'welfare' of children were also hampered by resourcing, and by the narrow definition of the issue: Welfare Officers were, for the majority of this period, probation officers mostly responsible for heavy resettlement caseloads, and with limited time for other tasks. In the care system, checks and balances against abuse were often weak, left the same people and organisations responsible for the administration and oversight of institutions, and led to serious conflicts of interest. By the 1970s and 1980s, secure custody within the care system was developing along different lines to that in penal institutions. New justifications for custody were being advanced: that it was not a deterrent, or a training opportunity, but a form of treatment. These ideals were not always achieved in practice, but they led to a shift in official thinking whereby secure conditions were reframed as a way of meeting children's needs, rather than compelling their compliance. One result was to increase awareness of the risks that could be posed by inadequate safeguards. Catalysts for change, 1990-2000 New discourses and practices regarding child protection emerged in the care system during the 1980s and 90s, most particularly as the result of a series of public inquiries which exposed abuses in residential homes. Increasingly, it was recognised that residential institutions possessed their own risks and were particularly vulnerable to certain characteristic risks of abuse. The new practices were formalised into a single legislative framework by the Children Act 1989, which transformed the regulation of the care system. However, its applicability to children in YOIs was legally uncertain until a High Court ruling in 2002. Legal ambiguity did not prevent observers of the prison system making strong criticisms of YOIs (and later, STCs) a major plank in their prison reform agenda. These criticisms were powerful because they drew on the general rights and protections which the 1989 Act had created for children and which, it could be argued, they were denied in custody. These calls for reform applied the 1989 Act to child imprisonment in novel ways, leading to a 'new orthodoxy' in safeguarding. The implementation of a 'new orthodoxy', 2000-2016 Since 2000, there have been further developments in the policy framework for the secure estate, but also new indications that policies have not been perfectly implemented. Imbalances of supply and demand for places in the secure estate, and a gradual shift towards a more vulnerable and damaged population, have been among the factors making implementation challenging. Even so, some safeguards are undoubtedly more effective than previously. For example, greater controls are applied through staff vetting, and several custodial practices such as restraint and strip-searching have been reassessed in light of children's lived experience of these forms of power. Yet these new policies have also been circumvented in new ways. Abuses have come to light which possess both new features and others familiar from past inquiries. Most fundamentally, the arrival of new safeguarding policies has led to the recognition of forms of abuse which went unrecognised before. This has had an unforeseen effect: it has expanded the boundaries of what can potentially be considered abusive. The outcome of this shift remains unclear. Conclusions The safeguarding of children in secure institutions can only be evaluated fully through close attention to organisational culture, as well as the actions and motivations of 'bad' individuals. Cultural beliefs affect day-to-day decision-making and are not always congruent with what is laid down formally in policy; indeed, in some circumstances culture is used to justify the circumvention or relaxation of standards which are officially sanctioned. This is particularly likely in residential institutions for children, which feature inherent disparities of power. Race and learning difficulties added to vulnerability, though it is unclear whether this resulted in an increased likelihood of sexual abuse. The apparent absence of allegations of sexual abuse in establishments for girls is difficult to explain using the evidence we have reviewed, but does not appear to be because girls in custody were less vulnerable. New safeguarding policies implemented since the 1990s contain their own vulnerabilities and have generated their own forms of illegitimacy. It is difficult for institutions to recognise these. It is a consistent pattern, throughout the history we have reviewed, that abusive practices had often seemed unlikely or unthinkable, but later became visible. Thus while preventive safeguards are, in themselves, important, it is also important that institutions do everything possible to promote trusting, positive relationships between staff members and the children in their care, and to ensure that both staff and children are able to make meaningful challenges to aspects of custodial practice. The size of institutions appears relevant here, as do structures of accountability which avoid excessive formality. It is also important that institutions are open to outside scrutiny. This is not merely a question of regular inspection: it is clear from the historical record that those responsible for scrutinising the secure estate could become acculturated, so that their ideas about what is 'normal' and acceptable began to reflect those of the culture around them. Contemporary arrangements for inspection and oversight need to retain awareness of this risk. Abusive cultures develop largely because it is relatively easy for staff, in the context of organisations with steep power differentials, to present certain practices as justifiable means to legitimate ends. Over the long term, the operational context for the secure estate is always likely to be characterised by fluctuations in resourcing, and imbalances between supply and demand. Shifting priorities (of the sort which have been associated with the development of abusive cultures) are likely always to affect provision. In consequence, cultural blind spots will always be possible, and identifying them will always impinge on the interests of those who hold power. This makes protections for whistleblowers a key measure to protect children against abuse. In short, despite safeguarding policies and frameworks and inspection regimes, the potential for abusive practices to develop must be viewed as evolving, and thus always possible. This points to three final reflections: • the use of custody for children should be limited as far as possible, because of the inherent tensions in residential institutions where there is a marked disparity of power and an element of coercion in the allocation of residents; • there are distinct benefits to historical research in this area, because it enables a long view to be taken on present-day safeguards and abuses, and reveals continuities in the kinds of risks affecting the implementation of safeguards; • child safeguarding must be understood as an ongoing, iterative process, rather than as the attainment of a defined standard of practice. ; The report was commissioned by HM Prison & Probation Service and funding for the project came from them. Their aim was to improve their institutional memory and prepare their evidence to the Independent Inquiry on Child Sexual Abuse. Further details of the research questions agreed with them can be found in the appendices of the report at page 69.

RIASSUNTO TESI Il concetto della performance, della sua misurazione, gestione e controllo, accanto a quelli di efficienza, trasparenza, accountability e responsabilità, rappresentano gli elementi fondanti la dottrina del New Public Management e in quanto tali sono stato oggetto di studi accademici e analisi da parte dei professionisti del settore pubblico. La crisi economica dei primi anni '90, le sue implicazioni e le conseguenti tensioni politiche hanno aumentato l'interesse dei governi e parlamenti italiani, che si sono susseguiti, sulle problematiche dell'aumento incontrollato della spesa e del debito pubblico. La conseguenza immediata di questa nuova attenzione, anche per le nuove esigenze di bilancio derivanti dal processo di adesione all'Unione Europea, è stata un incremento della produzione legislativa. In questo contesto gli interventi legislativi, a partire in primo luogo dalla legge n. 142 del 1990, hanno avuto tutti il medesimo filo conduttore, ovvero l'obiettivo di realizzare in concreto il disegno costituzionale di articolazione del governo centrale nei suoi livelli territoriali, quali Comuni, Province e Regioni (queste ultime previste successivamente nel 1970, operative con il d.P.R. n 616/77). I governi e i parlamenti hanno incentrato la loro azione legislativa su interventi finalizzati a favorire il decentramento amministrativo e l'autonomia locale, dapprima solo statutaria e regolamentare, poi anche impositiva, finanziaria e gestionale. L'attenzione nei confronti della programmazione dell'attività amministrativa locale, e successivamente anche sulle prestazioni pubbliche, è aumentato contestualmente al crescere delle esigenze informative dei cittadini sulle modalità di utilizzo delle scarse risorse pubbliche (derivanti in grande parte dal gettito fiscale), al fine di poter garantire i servizi essenziali alla collettività. Gli organi di indirizzo politico – amministrativo orientano la gestione tramite il complesso di decisioni ed azioni organizzative che seguono le linee di indirizzo generali (D.Lgs 165/2001), la definizione di piani, programmi e direttive generali. L'oggetto della Legge n. 150 del 2009 (c.d. riforma Brunetta) è la performance della pubblica amministrazione, la performance organizzativa ed individuale dei dipendenti pubblici. Quest'ultima in particolare è un tema sensibile nel dibattito pubblico, spesso con un'accezione negativa nell'opinione pubblica. A seguito dei più recenti interventi in materia di armonizzazione contabile, si è ritenuto fosse necessario e interessante avviare una riflessione sul complessivo sistema di programmazione e controllo della performance negli enti locali allo scopo di sviluppare un modello della performance integrato. In questo senso, la presente tesi di dottorato si è concentrata sugli strumenti a disposizione degli enti locali italiani per la programmazione, la misurazione e la gestione della performance, partendo dai primi dettati legislativi in materia di programmazione e controllo, analizzando successivamente quanto introdotto dal D.Lgs 150/09 e più recentemente dal D.Lgs 118/2011, al fine di giungere allo sviluppo di uno strumento che rispondesse alle principali esigenze informative in materia di performance della PA locale. A questo scopo, inizialmente è stata effettuata un'analisi della letteratura, il più completa possibile, sul concetto della performance e della sua misurazione, sottolineando i benefici e gli effetti inaspettati delle misure di performance, i limiti e la differenze esistenti tra misurazione e gestione della performance. La trattazione successivamente si concentrerà sull'illustrazione dei concetti di indicatori e misure di performance, dal punto di vista delle caratteristiche e differente principali, oltre che dell'utilità, dei possibili usi ed utilizzatori dell'informazione di performance (ad esempio: decision-makers, politici e cittadini). L'analisi del background teorico sarà finalizzata alla descrizione del complessivo contesto del tema della performance tramite i) il contesto internazionale del settore pubblico e ii) le dinamiche della performance delle pubbliche amministrazione. Il contesto specifico di rifermento è quello degli enti locali italiani, 1) descritto nei suoi aspetti normativi e dottrinali in termini di programmazione, performance, pianificazione e gestione della performance nonché di armonizzazione contabile e di controllo, con particolare riferimento ai controlli interni, e 2) analizzato con riferimento a principi, criteri, obiettivi e strumenti pluriennali ed annuali che ogni ente è tenuto e può utilizzare per poter al meglio pianificare, programmazione e controllare le proprie prestazioni di breve, medio e lungo termine. Una volta delineato il background teorico si procederà alla descrizione di un'ipotesi di piano integrato della performance, sotto il punto di vista del processo di sviluppo e degli strumenti, con l'evidenziazione di punti di forza, possibili benefici, ma anche dei limiti e delle questioni non affrontate o che rimangono senza una risposta efficace. A titolo di approfondimento verrà presentato un caso di studio per evidenziare come un sistema integrato di performance possa essere considerato un sistema di governance amministrativa. La definizione del modello è stato guidata da due principi guida: i) semplificazione del contesto e ii) riduzione della complessità degli strumenti. Il tutto, in una prospettiva di possibile futura applicazione pratica all'interno degli enti locali italiani di piccole dimensioni. Tali enti sono caratterizzati da strutture organizzative con un minor grado di complessità, minori risorse economiche, finanziarie, strumentali ed umane, rispetto ad enti di maggiori dimensioni. Per queste ragioni, questi enti rappresentano un miglior contesto in cui adottare uno strumento di pianificazione e programmazione semplice e chiaro che possa aggiungersi agli altri adempimenti previsti per legge, senza appesantire troppo la gestione amministrativa. Se da un lato il modello proposto ha il vantaggio di riunire in un unico documento gli elementi di pianificazione e programmazione della performance strategica con collegamenti chiari e diretti ai documenti di programmazione pluriennali dell'intera attività amministrativa degli enti (DUP) e a quelli di gestione amministrativa e di bilancio (PEG), dall'altro potrebbe incorrere nel rischio di recepimento dello stesso come mero elemento formale, senza un'utilità sostanziale. Lo strumento ipotizzato permette, da un lato, di rispondere a quanto previsto dalla riforma del 2009 e con i dettati derivanti dal processo di armonizzazione contabile, ma, dall'altro, potrebbe contribuire a creare confusione, soprattutto all'interno di quegli enti locali con competenze limitate e risorse inadeguate all'utilizzo di strumenti innovativi per la gestione strategica e dell'intero ciclo di programmazione e controllo A questi punti possono e devono essere aggiunte riflessioni in merito alle modalità di trasmissione, gestione e comunicazione dell'informazione di performance oltre che di conciliazione e sintesi con i processi di decentramento amministrativo, di sviluppo ed affermazione dell'autonomia locale, nel nuovo quadro dei vincoli finanziaria, economici ed istituzionali nazionali e comunitari. THESIS SUMMARY Performance, performance measurement, management and control, alongside the concepts of efficiency, transparency, accountability and responsibility are considered the basis of New Public Management by both scholars and practioners of public sector. The economic crisis at the beginning of the 90's, its implications and political tensions have increased the concern of Italian governments and parliaments (over the years) on uncontrolled growth of public expenses and public debt. An increasing legislative provision on local government dynamics and principles was a consequence of this concerning, amplifying also by the new European Union's budget procedures and needs. The State organization in different levels of government as stated by the constitutional prevision was the focus of main legislative measures (starting form the law no. 142/1990) . In particular Italian local governments are articled in three different levels: Municipality, Provinces and Regions (last are stated in 1970 but became operating with the republican president decree no. 616/77). Moreover governments and parliaments focused their attention on the promotion of administrative decentralization and local statutory, regulative, fiscal, financial and management autonomy. The focus on local government planning activity and performance increased as well as the attention on citizens' informative needs about the use of scarce public resources in order to guarantee the public services. Decisions and actions of the political and administrative bodies followed the general guidelines (legislative decree 165/2001), plans and programs. The object of the Law no. 150 of 2009 (Brunetta Law) is public administration performance, organizational and individual performance of public employees. The public performance is often a sensitive issue in the public debate and generates negative point of views. The last regulation on accounting harmonization generates i) a rethinking process about the overall local governments performance programming and control systems ii) to develop an integrated system to satisfy informative needs on local public administration performance. The present PhD thesis's focused on Italian local governments tools and procedures to i) program, ii) measure and iii) manage the performance by the analysis of the legislative provisions until the last legislative decree 150/09 and the legislative decree 118/2011. First, a full literature review about performance meanings and performance measurement has been carried out. This work highlighted the benefits and the unexpected effects of the performance measures, their limitations and the existing differences between performance measurement and management. Then, concepts of indicators and performance measures are introduced, their principal features and differences, utility and possible uses and the users of performance information (e.g. decision makers, politicians, citizens). The presentation of the theoretical background will be aimed to describe the overall context of performance issue through, i) the international context of public sector and ii) the local public administration performance dynamics. The specific context of this dissertation will be the Italian local government focusing on 1) the description of legislation and doctrine for the programming, planning and management of performance, as well as the accounting harmonization and internal controls and 2) the analysis of local governments' principles, criteria, aims and tools for long and short term performance planning, programming and controls. The next section will be dedicated to describe an hypothesis of integrated performance plan, its development process and tools, its strengths and weaknesses, and the non-addressed and unresolved issues. Further a case study is presented in order to highlight how an integrated performance system can be considered as an administrative governance system. The overall analysis is guided by two principles: i) context simplification and ii) tools' complexity reduction. The future perspective of its practical application is represented by small local governments, characterized by lower complexity and economic, financial, instrumental and human resources than larger ones. For these reasons small governments are better context to apply a new simple tool in addition to the traditional legislative fulfillments without increasing the administrative complexity. Elements of performance planning and programming and their connections with the others multiannual programming, budgeting and management documents (Single Programming Document: DUP, Executive Management Plan: PEG) are included in one single document. However, this system can be seen as another mere formality, without substantial benefits. It meets the aims of the 2009 reform and the principles of the accounting harmonization but it can also create confusion, in particular for local governments with limited skills and inadequate resources to use innovative tools of strategic governance, programming and control. Finally, it will be presented a reflection about systems of performance information transmission, management and communication and the settlement between decentralization processes, development and statement of local autonomy, national and European economic-financial constraints.

Abstract ; The main intellectual and translation center in the Iberian Peninsula in the twelfth and thirteenth century, without a doubt, was the School of Toledo, or also called School of Translators of Toledo. Jourdain was one of the first to realize the importance of it, and he gave an account in the preliminary results of his research in 1819. Since then, references to the Toledo School, and, especially, disputes over its significance, existence and importance have not ceased, and so, there are no agreements on certain basic aspects, due above all to a mixture of intellectual, political, social and identity interests. Naturally, in this work I do not intend to solve these controversies, but only to offer some historical and semantic precisions regarding the meaning of the School of Toledo notion. So, first, I will contextualize the origin of the denomination School of Translators of Toledo; for this, I will analyze the germinal contributions of Jourdain and Rose; then, I will describe the reception of these notions in Renan and Menéndez Pelayo, and finally, I will offer some notes for the understanding of the notion of Toledo School, which will be focused on examining: (1) the importance of Toledo; (2) the existence of a formal school; and (3) the activity carried out in Toledo. ; Other ; {"references": ["Daniel de Morley (ca. 1175/1839). \u00abPrefatio ad librum de Naturis inferiorum et superiorum. Bib. Arundel. Mus. Brit. 377. Philosophia magistri Danielis de Merlai ad Iohannem Norwicensem episcopum\u00bb. En: Rara Mathematica; or, A Collection of Treatises on the Mathematics and Subjects Connected with Them, from ancient inedited manuscripts, editado por James Orchard Halliwell. Londres: J. 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Concept of semiotics by Theodor Adorno is comprehended in two main areas: the discovery of philosophical correlations and significance for the assessment of educational processes in modern Ukraine. The essential link of criticism of Adorno "half-education" with an understanding of goals and means of proper education is pointed out. Proper education is analyzed as effective education, which is countered by imitations of education, which appears as half-life. If secondary education is a substitute for education by its ersatzes in the form of numerous its reifications in a mass society, then half-life also appears as a substitute for effective action by accentuation on its means, which is imperceptibly, but invariably, substituting its goals. In the field of education, such half-dwellers are provided with educational services that are supposedly intended to ensure the unbreakable functioning of educational institutions, but in practice displaced from education its orientation towards the education of a person. Setting up education, constantly overcoming the existing and directing to positive as counter-faculty in the semester is replaced by the systematic implementation of the norms of consumption of educational services. In the field of legislative support of the educational sphere of Ukraine, there is a return to the definition of its tasks in terms of "educational services" and the reduction of educational tasks of the individual and the orientation of educational institutions to meet the educational needs of the learner. These negative changes became noticeable in comparison with the progressive Law of Ukraine "On Higher Education" in 2014 compared to the ambiguous Law of Ukraine "On Education" in 2017. The necessity of corresponding corrections of educational strategies, which should orient the person to effective education as the education of higher achievements rather than the fulfillment of norms, is grounded on the return of the elitist essence of education in opposition to its egalitarian character, which is taking place during the last decade. ; Концепт напівосвіти Теодора Адорно осмисле­но у двох основних площинах: виявлення філософ­ських кореляцій та значущості для оцінки освітніх процесів у сучасній Україні. Зазначено сутнісний зв'язок критики Адорно напівосвіти з осмисленням цілей і засобів здійснення належної освіти. Належна освіта проаналізована як освіта дієва, яка протистоїть імітаціям освіти, які постають як напівдії. Якщо на­півосвіта є заміною освіти її ерзацами у вигляді численних її реїфікацій у масо­вому суспільстві, то напівдія також постає як заміщення ефективної дії ак­центуацією на її засобах, які непомітно, але стійко заміщують її цілі. У сфері освіти такими напівдіями постають освітні послуги, які нібито покликані за­безпечувати незбитковість функціонування освітніх закладів, однак на прак­тиці витісняють з освіти її націленість на виховання (Bildung) особистості. Налаштування на здобуття освіти, на постійне подолання наявного і спряму­вання до позитивного як контрфактичного у напівосвіти заміщується систе­матичним виконанням нормативів споживання освітніх послуг. У сфері зако­нодавчого забезпечення освітньої сфери України спостерігається повернення до визначення її завдань у термінах «освітніх послуг» та редукції освітніх завдань особистості та орієнтації освітніх закладів на задоволення освітніх потреб того, хто навчається. Ці негативні зміни стали відчутними у порівнянні пере­важно прогресивного Закону України «Про вищу освіту» 2014 року з неодноз­начним Законом України «Про освіту» 2017 року. 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(2015) Philosophy of Transformative Adult Education: University Strategies and Practices: Monograph / L.Gorbunova. - Sumy: University book. - 710 p. [In Ukrainian]. URL: http://ihed.org.ua/ua/rekomend-dzerela-r.html 8. Зінченко В. Модель інструменталізму у філософії освіти прагматизму та нео¬прагматизму /В.Зінченко // Філософія освіти.Philosophy of Education – 2017. – № 1 (20). – С.269-279. URL: www.philosopheducation.com Zinchenko V. Model of instrumentalism in the philosophy of education of pragmatism and neopramatism / V. Zinchenko in: Філософія освіти. Philosophy of Education. - 2017 - No. 1 (20). - P. 269-279 [In Ukrainian]. URL: www.philosopheducation.com 9. Ионеско Э. (1991) Носороги. Пьесы и рассказы (Волшебный фонарь) /Э.Ионеско пер. Л. Завьяловой. – М.: Текст. – 271 с. Ionesco, Eugene (1991 [1959]) Rhinoceros [In Russian]. 10. Про вищу освіту (2014): Закон України від 1 липня 2014 року № 1556-VII // Уря¬довий кур'єр. – № 146 (5275), від 13 серпня 2014 року. – С. 7-18. On Higher Education (2014): Law of Ukraine dated July 1, 2014 No. 1556-VII in: Gov¬ernment Courier. - No. 146 (5275), dated August 13, 2014. - P. 7-18 [In Ukrainian]. 11. Про вищу освіту (2017): Закон України від 1 липня 2014 року № 1556-VII (станом на 31.10.2017) URL: http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1556-18/page.On Higher Education (2017): Law of Ukraine dated July 1, 2014 No. 1556-VII (as of 31.10.2017)/ URL: http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1556-18/page 12. Про вищу освіту (2002): Закон України від 17 січня 2002 року № 2984-ІІІ (станом на 31.10.2017) URL: http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1060-12/page On Higher Education (2002): Law of Ukraine of January 17, 2002 No. 2984-ІІІ (as of 31.10.2017) URL: http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1060-12/page 13. Про освіту (2017): Закон України від 5 вересня 2017 р. № 2145-VIII // Голос Укра¬їни. – Київ, 2017. – 27 верес. (№ 178/179). – С. 10-22. On Education (2017): Law of Ukraine dated September 5, 2017 No. 2145-VIII in: Voice of Ukraine. - Kyiv, 2017 - 27 September. (No. 178/179). - P. 10-22. 14. Про освіту (1991): Закон України від 23 травня 1991 року № 1060-XII (станом на 31.10.2017) URL: http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1060-12/ed19990813 On Education (1991): Law of Ukraine of May 23, 1991 No. 1060-XII (as of October 31, 2017) URL: http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1060-12/ed19990813 15. Кант И. (1964) Критика способности суждения / И. Кант; [пер. с нем.] // Кант И. Сочинения: в 6 т. – М. : Мысль. – Т. 5. – 564 с. Kant Immanuel (1964 [1790]) Kritik der Urteilskraft [In Russian]. 16. Култаєва М. (2017) Освіта та її деформації у сучасній культурі: до актуальності те¬орії напівосвіти Т.Адорно у сучасних соціокультурних контекстах /М.Култаєва // Філософія освіти.Philosophy of Education – 2017. – № 1 (20). – С. 153-195. URL: www.philosopheducation.com Kultaieva M. (2017) The Education and its Deformations in Contemporary Culture: a Contribution to the actuality Theodor W. Adorno's Theory of Half-education / M.Kultaieva in: Філософія освіти. Philosophy of Education. - 2017 - No. 1 (20). - P. 153-195 [In Ukrainian]. URL: www.philosopheducation.com 17. Маркс К. (1933) Капітал. Процес продукції капіталу. Том I. Книга I. /К.Маркс; переклад з нім Д. Рабінович та С. Трикоза. – К.: Партвидав ЦК КП(б)У. – 840 с. Marx, Karl (1933 [1867]) Kapital. Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie [In Ukrainian]. 18. Лукач Д. (1987) Что означает «позитивность» у молодого Гегеля? /Д.Лукач [пер. с нем.] // Лукач Д. Молодой Гегель и проблемы капиталистического общества. – М.: Наука. – 616 с. Lukacs, Georg (1987 [1967]) Der junge Hegel und die Probleme der kapitalistischen Gesellschaft [In Russian]. 19. Луман Н. (2007) Введение в системную теорию / Н. Луман ; [под ред. Дирка Беккера, пер. с нем. К.Тимофеева]. – М.: Логос. – 360 с. Luhmann, Nicklas (2007 [2002]) Einführung in die Systemtheorie. Hrsg. v. Dirk Becker [In Russian]. 20. Луман Н. (2009) Общество общества / Н. Луман ; [пер. с нем. А. Антонов¬ский, Б. Скуратов, К. Тимофеева]. – М.: Логос, ИТДГК «Гнозис». – Часть V.Самоописания. – 320 с. Luhmann, Nicklas (2009 [1998]) Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft [In Russian].21. Парсонс Т. (1998) Система современных обществ / Т. Парсонс ; [пер. с англ. Л. А. Седова, А. Д. Ковалева; под ред. М. С. Ковалевой]. – М. : Аспект пресс. – 270 с. Parsons T. (1998) System of Modern Societies / T. Parsons; [trans. from English by L.A. Sedov, A. D. Kovalev; ed. M.S.Kovalev]. - M.: Aspect press. - 270 p. [In Russian]. 22. Фукуяма Ф. (2004) Наше постчеловеческое будущее. Последствия биотехноло¬гической революции /Ф. Фукуяма ; [пер. с англ. М. Б. Левина]. – М. : АСТ, Люкс. – 352 с. Fukuyama, Francis (2004 [2002]) Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnological Revolution [In Russian]. 23. Ясперс К. (1994) Духовная ситуация времени / К. Ясперс; пер. М. И. Левиной // Ясперс К. Смысл и назначение истории. Изд. второе. – М.: Республика. – С. 287-418. Jaspers, Karl (1994 [1931]) Die geistige Situation der Zeit [In Russian]. 24. Heidegger M. (2000) Frage nach Technik / M. Heidegger in: Heidegger M. Gesamtausgabe I. Abteilung: Vero#ffentlichte Schriften 1910-1976. – Band. 7. Vortra#ge und Aufsa#tze. – Frankfurt-am-Mein: Vittorio Klostermann. – S. 5-37. 25. Heidegger M. (1981) Ho#lderlin und das Wesen der Dichtung / M. Heidegger in: Heidegger M. Gesamtausgabe I. Abteilung: Vero#ffentlichte Schriften 1910-1976. – Band. 4. Erla#uterungen zu Ho#lderlins Dichtung. – Frankfurt-am-Mein: Vittorio Klostermann. – S. 33-48. 26. Heidegger M. (1967) Sein und Zeit /M.Heidegger. – Tu#bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag (Elfte, unvera#nderte Auflage). – 449 S. 27. Nietzsche F. (1999) Sa#mtliche Werke. Kritische Studienausgabe in 15 Ba#nden. Hrsg. Giorgio Colli und Mazzino Montinari. – Mu#nchen-Berlin/New York: DTV-de Gruyter. 28. Sorg B. (2002) Denkspuren. Zum Verha#ltnis von Philosophie und Literatur (II.): Martin Heidegger, Theodor W. Adorno [Electronic resource]. Unvera#nderter Text einer im Wintersemester 2001/2002 an der Universita#t Bonn gehaltenen Vorlesung / Bernhard Sorg – Access mode: https://www.germanistik.uni-bonn.de/institut/abteilungen/ abteilung-fuer-neuere-deutsche-literaturwissenschaft/abteilung/personal/sorg_ bernhard/lehrmaterialien/denkspuren-ii.pdf

У статті розглянуто розвиток вітчизняного законодавства у сфері економічних відносин, що викликає змістовні та структурні трансформації в системі права, а отже, і право, і законодавство є органічно пов'язаними. Як наслідок, виникають структурні новоутворення в системі законодавства. Установлено, що саме з урахуванням системності у визначенні основних та другорядних аспектів нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування економічної системи можна вести мову про високу ефективність правового регулювання світової економічної системи. Обґрунтовано, що незважаючи на складний ієрархічний характер відносин в економічній системі, що тяжіє до безперервної спеціалізації її складових, забезпечення взаємодії усіх елементів структури та вихід її функціонування на задані загальні параметри вимагає створення цілісної, взаємопов'язаної системи законодавчого та правового забезпечення в адекватному для такого масштабу проблеми форматі ; В статье проанализированы динамичное развитие законодательства в сфере экономических отношений, что вызывает содержательные и структурные трансформации в системе права, а, следовательно, и право, и законодательство являються органически связанными. Как следствие, возникают структурные новообразования в системе законодательства. Установлено, что именно с учетом системности в определении основных и второстепенных аспектов нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования экономической системы можно говорить о высокой эффективности правового регулирования мировой экономической системы. Обосновано, что несмотря на сложный иерархический характер отношений в экономической системе, которая тяготеет к непрерывной специализации ее составляющих, обеспечение взаимодействия всех элементов структуры и выход ее функционирования на заданные параметры требует создания целостной, взаимосвязанной структурной системы законодательного и правового обеспечения в адекватном для нее масштабе.// o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t="",o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "plaw.nlu.edu.ua"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e ; The article analyzes the dynamic development of legislation in the field of economic relations is matched to structural transformation in the law, and therefore the law, and legislation is organically linked. Аs a consequence, become structurally tumors in the legal system as a key emerging trend of improving its evolyutsinuvannya. In this sense, the normative legal provision of economic relations – is a complete standalone system, it is appropriate to determine as the only legal complex object. It is established that it is considering systematic in identifying major and minor aspects of the legal functioning of the economic system we can talk about high efficiency of legal regulation of the global economic system. Proved that despite the complex hierarchical nature of relations in the economic system that tends to continuing specialization of its components, ensuring the interaction of all elements of the structure and output of its operation to set general parameters requires an integrative, holistic, coherent with the legal system and legal support in adequate to the problem of this magnitude format.Now the scientific legal literature began to explore some categorical concepts, some substantive mechanisms for the enhancement of the conceptual level that can be regarded as approval beliefs and understanding of the separation of such jurisprudence as Economic Law of Ukraine [1–11]. The rich have paid attention to this issue and scientists of Kharkiv Donetsk schools of law, namely:, D. V. Zadyhaylo, D. D. Zadyhaylo, V. S. Milash, V. A. Ustymenko and others. Also, this perspective was a range of scientific interests of Kiev and Odessa schools, namely A. M. Vinnik, O. P. Podtserkovnyy, V. S. Shcherbina and others. In the former Soviet Union it examined: A. Alpatov, G. Velyanovskyy, G. Balsevich, M. Odintsov, V. Tambovtsev and others. However, scientists have not paid sufficient attention, and the very conceptual analysis of the category of «economic rights» as a separate legal phenomenon, that conceptual device was left outside the research, also identified and place of the term «economic law» in the legal space as required result Sociodynamics the mechanism legislation. However, usually focuses on individual fragments relationship functioning economic system creating categorical apparatus required for each. It should be added that often because of certain circumstances their views do not correspond to modern realities, because the dynamics of economic relations for ten years - big time. In view of the above it can be stated that the question of integrative processes of legislation on economic issues, the impact of international standards on the process of modernization of national economic legislation and determine their role in it as a whole are not defined.Consideration of this issue is caused by lack of conceptual apparatus legislation Ukraine of terms such as «economic system» and «economic law». In addition, the domestic legislation is not developed a mechanism to ensure the development of the latter, which operates successfully operates a modern legal systems of the world. Given this, we can state that the need to adapt Ukrainian legal doctrine to the European legal system is in the legal functioning of the economic system of our country, because the design of economic law as a science and discipline will solve the problem of mismatch economic and legal point of view, a holistic concept relations state of law and Economics. Emphasize that while this gap is not eliminated, that remain unsettled some legal aspects of the existing conceptual mechanism of legal support economic system is inadequate. In addition, should agree on the basic provisions of legislation on regulation of relevant relations with foreign countries, to achieve the level of economic indicators sought legal opinion and national general our country.The article is the rationale for the legislative and legal consolidation of the concept of «economic law» as a structural system neoplasms legislation and establishing a comprehensive nature of the institution as a whole legal complex object in the legal system and functional state's influence on him.Axiomatic is provision for a close dialectical relationship between economic and legal systems. Even in the XVIII century, Adam Smith (author of «The Wealth of Nations» and the phrase «life, liberty and property») pondered the economic consequences of the establishment «of mercantile laws». Along with Smith and other philosophers saw the relationship between economics and law. On this occasion expressed their thoughts and «father of communism» – Karl Marx. However, in today's issue of legal compliance to ensure economic relations existing forms of their implementation is complex and multifaceted and has a corresponding character. First of all, this is due to globalization of economic processes, the growing role and importance of public international economic law and private international law in the establishment and regulation of foreign economic relations, which play a large share in the global and national GDP. Thus, the emerging global economic right, which may be partly represented the concept LEX mercantoria. However, in internal legislation of the update is kompleknyh a number of industries that are designed to overcome industry barriers to legal provision of economic relations.The fact is of course that the relationships that are part of the category of «economic system» extremely ambitious and go beyond their own business, tax, natural resource and other sectors zakonodastva. An important factor marker while solving the problem of inter-sectoral barriers is the need for clear and understandable state of economic, including industrial or agricultural policy. Clearly, implementation of this policy occurs within the array of relations in the economic system, and therefore includes a comprehensive, systemic use of state-legal means of influencing the behavior of economic relations, in particular economic entities, local communities, employees, investors, consumers etc.Thus it is necessary a certain legal unification of the whole arsenal of different-legal instruments. Yes, this formulation of questions, answers attempt to form such a category as an economic right - the integrative result of independent development of its industry components.1. The economic system is a complex set of social relations of production that ensure economic activities on certain principles of coordination between the participants and subjects of economy in the dominant way to distribute the results of its operations, determining the degree of efficiency of the national economy. Thus, the economic system as a whole set of economic relations should be represented as a single object of legal regulation, because it is a sign of «whole nature» of the latter, which is inherent in any system, its operation logically implies the interaction of all elements by « self-regulation «of all systemically important ties between these elements and therefore obligatory to talk about the development of a single legal model for organizing economic relations in general.2. In modern terms of structuring the legal system and legislation are distributed between the individual sectors. Some of them are homogeneous by private law or public-legal nature, such as the civil law or the finance law, the while law others are complex the hospodarske law, the agricultural law, the environmental (natural resource) law. However, the structure of the said areas of the economic law as a separate category is not saying.3. The need for the formation of just such regulatory structural macro grounded weight increasing economic sphere as integral object of social management-for: 1) implementation of a unified economic policy; 2) the macroeconomic state regulation; 3) external influences on the national economy due to the implementation of the economic policy of other states, international economic organizations, the impact kon'yuktury foreign markets; 4) the need to implement (incentives) universal properties of the national economy as such. For example – providing innovative character of economic development, the introduction of alternative energy as the dominant source of energy, the implementation of restructuring the national economy, overcoming depression and economic degradation regions and so on.4. The possibility and feasibility of forming such superkompleksu the right to an economic right may also grounded bute legal and technical aspects of constitutional and legal support: 1) although fragmented, but overall the nature of the constitutional and legal regulation of economic relations; 2) fixation general legal economic values - objects of constitutional and legal regulation (economic security, constitutional economic order, economic diversity, etc.); 3) if the text of the Basic Law and the common values of the components overall, defining of competence load state authorities, in particular: a) the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on objects of legal regulation referred to in Article 92 of the Constitution of Ukraine, namely the use of natural resources, the exclusive ( maritime) economic zone and the continental shelf, the space exploration organization and operation of energy, transportation and communications, the legal regime of property rights, legal principles and guarantees of entrepreneurship, rules of competition and antitrust rules, principles of foreign relations, foreign trade, customs, etc. ; b) The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine - the functions of the Government to ensure the functioning of the economic system listed in Article 116 of the Constitution of Ukraine, for example, develops and implements national programs of economic, scientific, technical, social and cultural development of Ukraine, ensures equal conditions of development of all forms of ownership; carries out management of state property in accordance with law; c) general economic content and nature of the competence of certain public authorities such as the NBU, AMC and others.

Dottorato di ricerca in Storia d'Europa: società, istituzioni e sistemi politici europei,19.-20. secolo ; Per comprendere appieno come sia nata la proposta francese di una Comunità Europea di Difesa (CED) rivolta ai paesi dell'Europa occidentale, è necessario ricostruire il quadro storico alla fine della seconda guerra mondiale, con particolare riferimento ai rapporti tra le potenze alleate e al nuovo assetto territoriale della Germania. Il primo capitolo analizza le decisioni del secondo dopoguerra (a partire dall'accordo franco-sovietico di Mosca del dicembre 1944 in funzione anti-tedesca) tese a garantire la demilitarizzazione tedesca fino al mutamento strategico conseguente alla contrapposizione tra il blocco occidentale e l'Unione sovietica: lo scopo centrale di questa parte del testo è di analizzarne il punto di svolta, con l'inversione dell'atteggiamento alleato nei riguardi della Germania sconfitta. L'intera ricerca si poggia su un'analisi di tipo storiografico, sia di storia delle istituzioni che delle relazioni internazionali, che vuole mettere alla prova comparata delle fonti d'archivio americane e francesi (con particolare riferimento ai fondi transalpini solo ora disponibili alla consultazione, a 60 anni dalla conclusione della vicenda CED) le principali tesi prodotte dalla letteratura sul riarmo della Germania e sull'esercito europeo. Si descrive quindi il processo decisionale che autorizzò, da parte degli Stati Uniti, della Francia e della Gran Bretagna durante la Conferenza di Londra, l'utilizzo delle risorse economiche e industriali della Germania occidentale occupata per il consolidamento dello sforzo difensivo atlantico; attraverso l'esame di fonti primarie transalpine è stata inoltre analizzata la percezione, da parte francese, del contrasto in atto tra i due dicasteri americani degli Esteri e della Difesa in merito al possibile concorso tedesco alle forze di difesa, con le proposte che filtravano dall'alto commissario statunitense Mc Cloy e dal suo staff. Le proposte lanciate dalla tribuna dell'Assemblea consultiva del Consiglio d'Europa, prima da Bidault e poi da Churchill in merito alla necessità di creare un esercito europeo, mettevano quindi in luce un cambiamento decisivo negli obiettivi strategici delle potenze occidentali: fino allo scoppio della guerra di Corea la preoccupazione maggiore nello scacchiere europeo era d'impedire che la Germania potesse riguadagnare uno status tale da minacciare la pace nel mondo; dopo l'apertura delle ostilità nel lontano continente asiatico, l'attenzione dei governi 2 dell'alleanza atlantica si era focalizzata sulle modalità per accrescere l'apparato difensivo atlantico nell'Europa continentale, per far fronte alla minaccia sovietica. Alcuni Stati, come la Francia e gli altri paesi occidentali che avevano subito in passato le invasioni delle armate tedesche, continuavano però a percepire come maggiormente attuale il pericolo di una rinascita della potenza militare ed economica della Germania, se pur divisa: queste le due visioni destinate a determinare un confronto molto aspro tra i principali alleati atlantici durante l'estate e l'autunno del 1950, che portò alla formulazione di due distinti e contrapposti piani di riarmo della Germania Occidentale. Nel secondo e nel terzo capitolo si descrivono conseguentemente, anche mediante una revisione completa e approfondita della letteratura scientifica al riguardo, i due distinti piani di riarmo, successivi cronologicamente e legati da un rapporto di causa ed effetto: l'evoluzione della posizione dell'amministrazione Truman, a partire dalle due diverse proposte del Pentagono e della Segreteria di Stato sulla politica nei confronti della Germania, per arrivare poi alla decisione finale di presentare un piano denominato "one package" agli alleati francesi e inglesi a New York il 12 settembre 1950; questa proposta del segretario di Stato Acheson ebbe come conseguenza un periodo di profonda riflessione nell'esecutivo francese, che portò alla formulazione del "piano Pleven" per la creazione di un esercito europeo. L'obiettivo di questi due capitoli centrali è quindi di mostrare prima come le mutate condizioni strategiche avessero condotto l'amministrazione Truman a chiedere agli alleati atlantici un poderoso rafforzamento del dispositivo militare in Europa che comprendesse anche forze militari tedesche e poi evidenziare che solo in reazione a questo piano americano, non quindi per un'autonoma volontà politica, il governo francese avesse elaborato una contro-proposta, che sarebbe stata la base da cui elaborare l'esercito europeo e la sovrastruttura istituzionale destinata a garantirne il funzionamento, la Comunità europea di Difesa. Il quarto e ultimo capitolo è dedicato interamente alla ricostruzione delle trattative diplomatiche che portarono alla firma del trattato CED, mediante il confronto sistematico dei principali fondi francesi e americani: partendo dall'analisi dei rigurgiti isolazionisti negli USA, si descrivono prima i lavori della Conferenza di Parigi con la stesura del Rapport Intérimaire e poi le attività della Conferenza per l'organizzazione di una Comunità europea di Difesa fino alla firma del trattato CED del 27 maggio 1952; la stesura del capitolo rende conto anche dell'importanza di alcune figure fondamentali (come i diplomatici McCloy e Bruce o come Eisenhower, nella duplice veste di Comandante supremo atlantico e poi di presidente) o di alcuni snodi determinanti, come la svolta federalista della delegazione italiana alla Conferenza. 3 Questo lavoro di ricerca sulla Comunità europea di Difesa vuole quindi ripercorrere una vicenda fondamentale per la nascita delle istituzioni europee, dalle sue origini radicate al termine del secondo conflitto mondiale e fino alla firma del trattato di Parigi, che sembra di profonda attualità nell'attuale dibattito sulla cessione di sovranità dagli Stati nazionali all'Unione europea, nel campo della Difesa e della politica estera. Il confronto tra i fondi americani e francesi, in particolare quelli di recente apertura alla consultazione dei ricercatori, ha permesso di aggiungere alcuni elementi di originalità alla descrizione del processo di riarmo della Germania e delle trattative tra gli alleati per la nascita dell'esercito europeo. ; The Second World War ended with an onerous legacy for the European Continent: the conflict has brought damage, poverty and the spectre of a new fight between Western countries and the Soviet Union. In that period, the USSR maintained the mobilization of the Armed Forces while the Russian soldiers were settled in Germany. This opposition has divided post-war Europe into two different blocs or coalitions: on the one hand Western Europe countries, which were starting a difficult recovery assisted by American aid, and on the other hand Eastern Europe under Soviet hegemony. In this complex scenario, the German role became increasingly central. Within this historical background, the first important attempt to build a European policy was focused on common defence, through the Treaty instituting the European Defence Community (EDC). In the light of this premise, the EDC affair seems paradigmatic for the analysis of the European dawn: on one side the founding fathers have looked for a solution to the divisions in the continent, but on the other side national self-interests have affected the path for ratifying the EDC Treaty, till the French refusal to ratify, by the French Assembly on 1954, August 30th. The aim of my Doctoral Research Thesis is divided in four different chapters: - in the first one, the object is related to the study and the description of the German role in post-war Europe and its rearmament, from the end of WWII to the mid 1950s, when the United States urged Western allies to use the German industrial and military potential; - secondly, the American proposal called 'one package', presented by Acheson on September 1950, is illustrated with regard to the existing international literature and primary sources; 2 - the third chapter deals with the French proposal to control German rearmament, the 'Pleven Plan', and the Petersberg talks; - finally, the agenda and the deliberations of the Paris Conference regarding the EDC, which started the 15th February 1951 up to 27th May 1952, when the EDC Treaty was signed. I am also researching an original aspect in my thesis, with regard to the state of the art in EDC studies: a synchronic comparison of EDC events in France and the USA based on the original documents preserved in different Archives in the United States and in France: in the recent past, 60 years after the "defeat" of the EDC, other primary sources were declassified, mostly in Paris. The research has focused on the studies that put this issue in the perspective of historiography. Several French works about the EDC could be cited, such as the texts by Clesse A.(Le projet de C.E.D. du Plan Pleven au "crime du 30 août. Histoire d'un malentendu européen, 1989), by Aron R., Lerner D. eds. (La querelle de la C.E.D. essais d'analyse sociologique, 1956), by Moch J. (Histoire du réarmement allemand depuis 1950, 1965), by Fabre-Luce A. (Lettre sur la CED, 1954) and the essays by Vial P. (Redécouvrir la CED, 1992), by Poidevin R. (La France devant le problème de la CED: incidences nationales et internationales - été 1951 à été 1953, 1983), by Guillen P. (Les chefs militaires français, le réarmement de l'Allemagne et la CED 1950-1954, 1983), by Vaïsse M. (Le général de Gaulle et la défense de l'Europe, 1947-1958, 1992), by Rioux J. P. (L'opinion publique française et la CED: querelle partisane ou bataille de la mémoire?, 1994). With regard to Italian works, studies which stand out for their significance are the studies by Preda D. (Storia di una speranza: la battaglia per la CED e la Federazione europea nelle carte della Delegazione italiana 1950-1952, 1990), by Preda D. (Sulla soglia dell'Unione: la vicenda della Comunità Politica Europea 1952-1954, 1994), by Ballini P. L. ed. (La Comunità Europea di Difesa (CED), 2009), by Bertozzi S. (La Comunità Europea di Difesa. Profili storici, istituzionali e giuridici, 2003), by Caviglia D., Gionfrida A. (Un'occasione da perdere. Le Forze Armate italiane e la Comunità Europea di Difesa 1950-54, 2009). Finally, a series of American and British studies concerning the European Defence Community and the "German question" were appraised, such as the works by Fursdon E. (The European Defence Community: a history, 1980), by Ruane K. (The Rise and Fall of the European Defence Community, Anglo-American Relations and the crisis of European Defence 1950-55, 2000), by Lundestad G. (Empire by integration: The U.S. and European Integration, 1945-1997, 1998) by Armitage D. T. jr. (A comparative analysis of U.S. policy toward European defense autonomy. Enduring 3 Dilemmas in Transatlantic Relations, 2008), by Risso L. (Divided we stand: the French and Italian political parties and the rearmament of West Germany 1949-1955, 2007), by Hunter R. E. (The European Security and Defence Policy, NATO's Companion – or Competitor?, 2002), by Hitchcock, W. I. (France restored: Cold War diplomacy and the quest for leadership in Europe, 1944-1954, 1998), by McAllister, J. (No Exit: America and the German problem, 1943-1954, 2002). With regards to the methodology, the research has been conducted following the comparative approach as described by Bloch M. (Pour une histoire comparée des sociétés européennes, 1923), by Braudel F. (Civiltà e imperi del Mediterraneo nell'età di Filippo II, 1976), by Haupt H. G. (European History as Comparative History, 2004 and Comparative History – a Contested Method, 2007).

The present thesis studies the diffusion of energy efficiency (EE from now on) in the residential sector using an economic perspective. The research is concentrated on the analysis of the Energy Efficiency Paradox and on the evaluation of EE policies. The thesis consists of five independent chapters (including this chapter), some of which have been already published in specialized journals. Although increasing EE in the residential sector has been for long time one of the targets of many governments, several reasons have led governments to intensify their efforts in this area. The negative effects generated by climate change, urban pollution and fuel poverty, together with the growing political instability in energy-producer countries, are some of the reasons that are behind this renewed interest both in developed and developing countries. Moreover, engineering studies have identified the residential sector as the one with the largest potential for cost-effective energy-savings. Despite the fact that mathematical models have identified "win-win" situations for households if they adopt EE measures, and the large number of public initiatives to promote EE applied by public institutions, the diffusion rate of EE continues to be lower than expected. Thus, this field of research has gained much attention, not only from policymakers but also from the society and academics. Despite the fact that engineering models have identified "win-win" situations for households if they adopt EE measures, and the large number of public initiatives to promote EE applied by public institutions, the diffusion rate of EE continues to be lower than expected. Thus, this field of research has gained much attention, not only from policymakers but also from academics and other stakeholders. Up to now, most of the interventions were oriented to internalize the negative externalities of energy through the use of price instruments (e.g. through Pigouvian taxes) or codes and standards that ensure a minimum level of energy performance. However, the empirical evidence has shown important limitations associated with such policies. They could be partly given by the general assumptions about perfect information and rationality that these models use. Indeed, much attention has been recently given to the ideas of behavioral economics, which has identified several situations when consumers systematically deviate from the rationality assumptions. The inclusion of behavioral economics approaches in the field of EE has opened the door to new interpretations of the Energy Efficiency Paradox but also to non-price interventions as an important complement to promote EE. Additionally, the development of experimental techniques has allowed researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of non-conventional public interventions. Therefore, the present thesis has the double objective of understanding household decisions regarding EE and of evaluating novel instruments to promote EE. On the one hand, with this research I tried to contribute by providing new academic evidence on the factors driving consumers' choices. This first step is essential to explain the divergence between the level of investment in EE predicted by engineering models and the real level of EE (previously mentioned as the Energy Efficiency Paradox). Besides that, given that EE in the transport sector presents several parallels with dwellings, this thesis also analyses consumer's decisions related with vehicles' energy efficiency. By doing so, I verify whether the results can be applied to other fields of consumer decision related with EE. On the other hand, my research tries to evaluate the results of informational instruments, in particular energy performance certificates or labeling systems, now a widely-used tool to promote EE that has experienced a rapid diffusion in the last few decades. In this sense, Chapter 2 can be seen as an introduction to this thesis. The objective of this chapter was to acquire the necessary knowledge that provided me with a complete overview of the field of EE. This task consisted of the revision of a large number of studies and reports from different research lines: energy demand, fuel poverty, behavioral economics, electricity markets, environmental economics, etc. Furthermore, this chapter works as an introduction and serves as a guideline for the rest of the doctoral thesis. Firstly, it contextualizes the research on EE in the residential sector from an economic point of view. It updates the current debate about the Energy Efficiency Paradox with special attention to the growing role that informational and behavioral failures play in explaining this gap. Secondly, the core of the chapter is a review of the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of the informational instruments that have been rapidly adopted by many governments during the last decade. In particular, the chapter focuses on energy certificates, feedback programs, and energy audits. As far as I know, this is the first study that gathers together the results from economic research in all the existing informational instruments. Results show that energy certificates and feedback programs can be effective, but only if they are carefully designed: yet energy audits seem to have little effect on efficiency. In addition, the chapter points out the large potential for new instruments as well as for combinations of existing ones. Finally, it identifies the experimental techniques implemented in the last few years, highlighting the robust approach that use large and random samples and have a large potential in for future policy evaluation in this field. Chapter 3 empirically evaluates the determinants that drive household decisions regarding EE adoption in Spain. The objective of this chapter is to get insights into EE in Spanish households. Several studies have previously evaluated the factors that determine households' choices. However, Spain presents some specific characteristics that demand for ad hoc analysis: an aged population, a remarkable increase of purchasing power, ownership status or the size and composition of the stock of buildings, among others. Using information from a large and representative official survey, in this chapter I focused on the effects of socio-economic characteristics on the probability to adopt EE measures or energy-saving daily habits. By doing so I was able to identify the barriers that prevent consumers from taking EE measures, and the characteristics that make them favorable to invest. Since EE measures can show different up-front costs, I used information on well-differentiated measures: from energy-saving habits, such as lowering indoor heating temperatures, to low cost measures, such as low consumption bulbs, and higher cost measures, such as energy efficient appliances or double glazing. When dealing with the Energy Efficiency Paradox, there is a general concern with the heterogeneity present among households. In this chapter, I focused on the effects of household environmental attitudes and behavior as a potential explanation for differences in the rate of EE adoption. The chapter shows that households with eco-friendly behaviors are more likely to investment in well-differentiated EE measures as well as to steer daily habits towards energy savings. However, no effects were found for households with environmental attitudes based on stated willingness to pay to protect the environment. In addition to this, households belonging to higher income groups and education levels are more likely to invest in EE but not to adopt energy-saving habits; while households with older members are less likely to invest in EE and show fewer eco-friendly habits. In sum, this chapter provides the first empirical results for Spain on the factors driving household choices regarding EE. Moreover, it contributes to the existing literature by giving insights on pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors. One of the justifications for the use of command-and-control policies is the hypothesis that consumers do not value EE. Hence, the objective of Chapters 4 and 5 was to study consumers' willingness to pay for EE and their valuation for EE labels or certificates in dwellings and light duty vehicles, respectively. This is particularly relevant because EU legislation has introduced the mandate to apply labeling systems to differentiate products based on their level of EE. The objective of those regulations is to help consumers to take efficiency decisions in a market with imperfect information. In Chapter 4 I estimate the implicit price of EE vehicles, measured as those with label A or B. I have used two samples, one with all vehicles on sale in Spain containing official information on attributes and commercial prices of vehicles, and another where a subsample of these vehicles was selected and matched with the price of retailers. For this subsample, the method of "mystery shopping" was carried out by a specialized company. This approach consists in asking directly the retailer about the price of certain vehicles as if this process was part of a real acquisition. A main objective of the chapter was to test the hypothesis of changes in willingness to pay for EE using official prices and retailer prices. Additionally, I used the European labelling system for light vehicles, which classifies automobiles according to their relative fuel consumption levels, as a novel and alternative indicator for EE. The results of this chapter indicate that vehicles labelled A and B are sold at prices 3 to 5.9% higher than those with similar characteristics but lower energy-efficiency labels, using official commercial prices and retailer prices, respectively. By comparing this results with the present value of the energy savings, it can be seen that the use of retailer prices overestimates the value of EE. Although, there is sizeable research on this field, as far as I know this is the first evidence for the Spanish car market. Furthermore, our results fall in the range of magnitudes previously found. Finally, in Chapter 5 I estimate the implicit price of Portuguese dwellings rated as A, B, or C, keeping constant the rest dwelling attributes. Given the lack of official and complete databases for the stock of buildings, I have downloaded the information on dwelling sales from the web page of one of the largest real estate companies in Portugal, and constructed a unique database with complete information of dwelling attributes. This database includes general dwelling attributes but also information on the level of EE of the dwelling and its energy performance certificate. Moreover, since location is one of the most important factors when purchasing a dwelling, I have used spatial economic techniques to control for the exact location of each housing unit. The results show that Portuguese consumers positively value high certified dwellings. Despite the fact that the database used for this study includes information on a larger number of dwelling attributes than in previous studies, reported values are higher. This suggests that the valuation for energy performance certificates is higher in the Portuguese residential sector than that in other European countries. Yet, it can also be the case that our model cannot control for unobservable factors related with energy performance certificates, and this overestimates the results. Indeed, as other researchers have pointed out, there could be effects such as reputation or status that models cannot control. Thus, the chapter highlights the need for further research in this area even though there is an unfortunate lack of official information.

Towards a bio-economy: the role of the forest Biomass has an increasingly important role in replacing fossil and mineral resources, and it is central in environmental impact-reduction strategies in companies and governments, locally, nationally and internationally. The European Union (EU) has recently taken action to strengthen the bio-economy, defined as "…the sustainable production and conversion of biomass into a range of food, health, fibre and industrial products and energy". Two thirds of the land area in Sweden is covered by forests, and forestry has been an important industry for centuries. Increased and/or more efficient use of forest biomass thus has a great potential for replacing the use of fossil and mineral resources in Sweden. There are two main reasons for why forest- and other bio-based products are seen as environmentally beneficial. Biomass is (most often) a renewable resource, in contrast to finite fossil and mineral resources, and there is often a balance between CO2 captured when the biomass grows, and CO2 released when the bio-based product is incinerated. The challenge: calculate carbon footprints Moving towards a bio-economy means replacing non-renewable fuels and materials with bio-based fuels and materials. This is a transition on many levels: technology, business models, infrastructure, political priorities, etc. To guide such a grand transition, there is a need to understand the environmental implications of new bio-based products. This includes assessing their climate impact, so-called carbon footprinting. Carbon footprinting of forest products is not as simple as saying that forest products are carbon and climate neutral by definition. Fossil energy used for producing and transporting the products has a carbon footprint. Also, the carbon balance can differ between forest products, which can influence their carbon footprint. For example, carbon stored in products, while CO2 is captured in the re-growing forest, can mitigate climate change. The modelling of the carbon balance is influenced by the study's geographical system boundaries – national, regional, landscape and single-stand perspectives often yield different results. Forestry can also lead to positive or negative changes in the levels of carbon stored in the soil, the levels of aerosols emitted by the trees (influencing cloud formation), and the albedo (surface reflectivity) of the forest land. An indirect effect of forestry can be increased competition for land, with expanding or intensified land use elsewhere, with positive or negative climate effects. All these factors are potentially important when calculating carbon footprints. There is limited knowledge about how and to which extent the aforementioned factors influence the carbon footprint of forest products. Also, there is a lack of methods for assessing some of these factors. In light of this, can the carbon footprints of today be trusted? And can we ensure that they provide relevant and robust decision support? Our approach: testing three different carbon footprint methods in five case studies In this study, we have: Identified different carbon footprint methods. Used the identified methods to calculate the carbon footprint of different forest products and non-forest benchmarks (using life cycle assessment, LCA). Compared the results to find out how and why they differ. We identified three main categories of carbon footprint methods: (i) the common practice in LCA, (ii) recommendations in standards and directives (we tested the EU sustainability criteria for biofuels and bioliquids and the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) guide), and (iii) more advanced methods proposed in the scientific literature (we tested dynamic LCA). For dynamic LCA, we tested different time horizons (20 and 100 years) and different geographical system boundaries, based on (a) the national level, assuming a net annual growth of biomass (which is the case in Sweden); (b) the landscape level, assuming a balance between the annual harvesting and growth (the level at which forests are often managed); and (c) the stand level, assuming regrowth during a time period of 80 years (a stand is the part of a landscape that is harvested in one year, a level often used by researchers developing new methods for modelling the dynamics of forest carbon flows). These methods were applied to five forest products: two automotive fuels (a lignin-based fuel produced from black liquor and butanol), a textile fibre (viscose), a timber structure building, and a chemical (methanol, used for different end products). Our findings We found that different carbon footprint methods can give different results. The common practice is close to the recommendation in the EU sustainability criteria and the PEF guide. Results from dynamic LCA differ considerably, as it accounts for the timing of (fossil and biogenic) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and CO2 capture, which is ignored by the other methods. The results of dynamic LCA depend primarily on the geographical system boundaries, but also on the time horizon. When applying dynamic LCA with a stand perspective, we assumed that the CO2 uptake occurs after harvest. Alternatively, one could assume that the CO2 uptake occurs before harvest, which would give different (lower) results. When comparing the carbon footprints of the forest products with products they could be expected to replace, we see that the results for the forest products could range from being definitely favourable to worse. More results can be found in the full report. Results were produced to answer the research questions of this study, and should not be used out of context. Conclusions and recommendations Because there is (still) limited knowledge about how forest products influence the climate, and as carbon footprints will always depend on value-based assumptions (e.g. regarding geographical system boundaries), it is not possible to recommend one specific method which is suitable regardless of context. As different carbon footprint methods can give very different results, our key message is that we need to increase consciousness on these matters. It is important to be aware of the assumptions made in the study, the effects of those assumptions on results, and how results can and cannot be used for decision support in a certain context. More specific recommendations for decision makers are listed below. Further details and results can be found in the main report, along with recommendations for LCA practitioners and researchers. Decision makers must be aware that the main methodological choices influencing carbon footprints of Swedish forest products are the choice of geographical system boundaries (e.g. national-, landscape- or stand-level system boundaries) and whether the timing of CO2 capture and GHG emissions is accounted for. This is because Swedish forests are, in general, slow growing. If the aim of the decision is to obtain short-term climate impact reduction – for example, the urgent reduction that is possibly needed for preventing the world average temperature to rise with more than 2°C – the timing of CO2 capture and GHG emissions should be taken into account. Decision makers must be aware that a particular method for capturing timing (such as dynamic LCA) can be combined with different system boundaries, which can yield different results. When conclusions from existing LCA studies are synthesized for decision support, the decision maker must be aware that most existing studies do not account for the timing of CO2 capture and GHG emissions. This is particularly important when the decision concerns the prioritization of forest products with different service lives (e.g., fuels versus buildings). When timing is considered, decision makers must be aware that there are different views on when the CO2 capture occurs, which will influence the carbon footprint. One could either consider the CO2 captured before the harvest (i.e., the capture of the carbon that goes into the product system), or the CO2 captured after the harvest (i.e., the consequence of the harvest operation). In this study, we tested the second alternative when we applied dynamic LCA with a stand perspective – this does not mean we advocate the use of the second alternative over the first alternative. Decision makers must be aware that the location and management practices of the forestry influence the climate impact of a forest product. For example, growth rates, changes in soil carbon storages and fertilisers (a source of GHGs) differ between locations. Based on our results, we cannot say that the carbon footprints of some product categories are more robust than for others, i.e. less influenced by choice of methodology. However, the more forest biomass use in the product system, the higher the influence of the choice of method. As many interactions between the forest and the climate are still not fully understood, it is important to be open to new knowledge gained in methodology development work. Regarding how to use Swedish forests for the most efficient climate impact reduction, it is impossible to draw a general conclusion on the basis of our results. Factors that influence the "optimal" use are:Which fraction of forest biomass that is used. Various products use different fractions (as was the case in our case studies) and do not necessarily compete for the same biomass. However, a production system may be more or less optimised for a specific output. So there may be situations of competition also when feedstocks are not directly interchangeable. Which non-forest product that is assumed to be replaced by the forest product (if any). The carbon footprint of the non-forest product matters, but also how large the substitution effect is (i.e., does the forest product actually replace the non-forest alternative, or merely add products to the market, and what are the rebound effects from increased production?). If all other factors are identical: the longer the service life of the forest product the better, due to the climate benefit of storing carbon and thereby delaying CO2 emissions. This effect is particularly strong if the aim is to obtain short-term climate impact reduction. Moreover, the effect supports so-called cascade use of forest biomass, e.g. first using wood in a building structure, then reusing the wood in a commodity, and at end-of-life, as late as possible, recovering the energy content of the wood for heat or fuel production. Traditional LCA practice and methods required by the EU sustainability criteria and PEF have limitations in the support they can provide for the transition to a bio-economy, as they cannot capture the variations of different forest products in terms of rotation periods and service lives. Thus, decision makers need to consider studies using more advanced methods to be able to distinguish better or worse uses of forest biomass. We have tested one such advanced method (dynamic LCA), that proved applicable in combination with several different geographical perspectives, but also other methods exist (e.g. GWPbio). Climate change is not the only environmental impact category which is relevant in decision making concerned with how to use forests. Other environmental issues, such as loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, are also important. There are also non-environmental sustainability issues of potential importance, e.g. related to indigenous rights and job creation. ; The method's influence on climate impact assessment of biofuels and other uses of forest biomass

La tesis ofrece una nueva base de datos de gasto militar en España desde mediados del siglo diecinueve hasta la actualidad, así como tres análisis de los condicionantes y las consecuencias económicas y políticas del gasto militar en el largo plazo. En concreto, el primer capítulo presenta nuevas estimaciones de los recursos públicos destinados al ámbito militar en España desde 1850 hasta 2009, así como la desagregación económica, administrativa y funcional de dicho gasto. La nueva base de datos ha sido elaborada siguiendo el criterio metodológico de la OTAN, que es uno de los criterios más utilizados por parte de las instituciones internacionales dedicadas a la compilación de datos de gasto militar a nivel mundial. Dicho criterio permite obtener una nueva base de datos homologable a lo largo del tiempo y comparable con otros países del entorno europeo e internacional. El segundo capítulo de la tesis analiza la influencia de los regímenes políticos en la evolución del gasto militar en España desde principios de la Restauración Española hasta la actualidad. En contraste con los análisis cuantitativos anteriores, que generalmente destacan la influencia negativa de los regímenes democráticos en la evolución del gasto militar, el capítulo sugiere que las instituciones democráticas pueden estar asociadas a mayores niveles de gasto militar en determinados contextos históricos. En concreto, el análisis de puntos de ruptura de las series de gasto militar, así como los análisis econométricos subsiguientes y la revisión de la historiografía militar española, muestra que los primeros gobiernos democráticos establecidos después de la dictadura Franquista aumentaron significativamente el gasto militar en relación con las décadas anteriores. Ese aumento, que fue debido a los esfuerzos de dichos gobiernos para reorientar el ejército hacia misiones internacionales y para facilitar su adaptación a las nuevas instituciones democráticas, dio lugar al único punto de ruptura positivo de la serie histórica de gasto militar total que no guarda relación con el inicio o el final de un conflicto bélico. A su vez, el análisis sugiere que la nueva orientación de las políticas militares democráticas conllevó un esfuerzo financiero en pro de un ejército intensivo en capital que pudiera participar en nuevas misiones internacionales. El tercer capítulo analiza más a fondo los condicionantes políticos del gasto militar y su potencial impacto en términos de estabilidad institucional. Como es bien sabido, los ejércitos han intervenido recurrentemente en política mediante golpes de estado. Diversos autores sugieren que los gobiernos autocráticos o parcialmente democráticos han usado eventualmente el gasto militar como estrategia para contentar a las fuerzas armadas y evitar así su insubordinación. Aún así, y a pesar de la solidez del argumento, los análisis cuantitativos recientes basados en amplias bases de datos internacionales no han encontrado una relación significativa y concluyente entre la evolución del gasto militar y la frecuencia y el éxito de los golpes de estado. En ese tercer capítulo sugiero que el gasto militar total – medida comúnmente utilizada por parte de dicha literatura cuantitativa – puede no ser un buen indicador del esfuerzo financiero realizado por parte de los gobiernos para conseguir la lealtad del ejército. Aunque el gasto militar total no refleje ninguna relación con la frecuencia y el éxito de los golpes de estado, puede que los cambios en la composición del gasto sí que guarden una relación significativa con dicho fenómeno. El capítulo pretende abrir esa 'caja negra' del gasto militar estudiando el impacto de la evolución de la remuneración salarial de los oficiales en España desde mediados del siglo diecinueve hasta finales de la Restauración Española. En línea con la hipótesis apuntada, el análisis sugiere que los aumentos en la remuneración de los oficiales durante la segunda mitad del siglo diecinueve y principios del siglo veinte – junto con otras estrategias políticas y militares – están relacionados con una menor frecuencia de golpes de estado, mientras que el gasto militar total no parece mostrar ninguna relación al respecto. Finalmente, el cuarto capítulo examina el impacto de la guerra y el gasto militar en la evolución de los sistemas fiscales de una muestra de trece países europeos y norteamericanos en el largo plazo. La guerra y la competición militar han sido a menudo definidas como fuerzas motoras relevantes de la expansión de la capacidad fiscal de los estados durante la época contemporánea. Aún así, la evidencia empírica no ha sido concluyente, y aún se carece de una narrativa histórica que explique cómo los cambios en la naturaleza de la guerra han afectado a la evolución de los sistemas fiscales contemporáneos. El cuarto capítulo tiene como objetivo rellenar ese vacío mediante el análisis del impacto de la guerra en la evolución de la capacidad fiscal contemporánea a la luz de las llamadas 'Revoluciones de los Asuntos Militares' que tuvieron lugar en occidente desde mediados del siglo diecinueve hasta la actualidad. Los resultados sugieren que la relación entre la guerra y la expansión fiscal ha seguido una curva de U invertida, según la cual los cambios en las tácticas y la tecnología militar presionaron los recursos públicos al alza hasta que la capacidad destructiva de los ejércitos sobrepasó el umbral nuclear. Adicionalmente, los resultados sugieren que los sistemas políticos han sido relevantes para completar esa narrativa histórica, aunque hayan sido en ocasiones olvidados en ese tipo de análisis. ; The thesis offers a new database of military expense in Spain from middle of the century nineteen up to the current importance, as well as three analyses of the determining ones and the economic and political consequences of the military expense in the long term. In I make concrete, the first chapter presents new estimations of the public resources destined for the military area in Spain from 1850 until 2009, as well as the economic, administrative and functional disaggregation of the above mentioned expense. The new database has been elaborated following the methodological criterion of the OTAN, which is one of the criteria most used on the part of the international institutions dedicated to the compilation of information of military expense worldwide. The above mentioned criterion allows to obtain a new database throughout the time and comparably with other countries of the European and international environment. The second chapter of the thesis analyzes the influence of the political rate in the evolution of the military expense in Spain from beginning of the Spanish Restoration up to the current importance. In contrast with the previous quantitative analyses, which generally emphasize the negative influence of the democratic rate in the evolution of the military expense, the chapter suggests that the democratic institutions can be associated with major levels of military expense in certain historical contexts. In I make concrete, the analysis of points of break of the series of military expense, as well as the analyses econometrics subsequent and the review of the military Spanish historiography, it shows that the first democratic governments established after the Pro-Franco dictatorship increased significantly the military expense in relation with the previous decades. This increase, which was due to the efforts of the above mentioned governments to re-orientate the army towards international missions and to facilitate his adjustment to the new democratic institutions, gave place to the only positive point of break of the historical series of military total expense that does not guard relation with the beginning or the end of a warlike conflict. In turn, the analysis suggests that the new orientation of the military democratic policies carried a financial effort in favor of an intensive army in the capital that could take part in new missions international. The third chapter analyzes more thoroughly the determining politicians of the military expense and his potential I affect terms of institutional stability. Since it is known well, the armies have intervened suddenly in politics coups d'état. Diverse authors suggest that the autocratic or partially democratic governments have used eventually the military expense as strategy to satisfy to the armed forces and to avoid this way his insubordination. Nonetheless, and in spite of the solidity of the argument, the quantitative recent analyses based on wide international databases have not found a significant and conclusive relation between the evolution of the military expense and the frequency and the success of the coups d'état. In this third chapter I suggest that the military total expense - measured commonly used on the part of the above mentioned quantitative literature - cannot be a good indicator of the financial effort realized on the part of the governments to obtain the loyalty of the army. Though the military total expense does not reflect any relation with the frequency and the success of the coups d'état, it is possible that the changes in the composition of the expense yes that guard a significant relation with the above mentioned phenomenon. The chapter tries to open this ' black box ' of the military expense studying the impact of the evolution of the wage remuneration of the officials in Spain from middle of the century nineteen until ends of the Spanish Restoration. On line with the pointed hypothesis, the analysis suggests that the increases in the remuneration of the officials during the second half of the century nineteen and beginning of the century twenty - together with other political and military strategies - they are related to a minor frequency of coups d'état, whereas the military total expense does not seem to show any relation in the matter. Finally, the fourth chapter examines the impact of the war and the military expense in the evolution of the fiscal systems of a sample of thirteen European and North American countries in the long term. The war and the military competition have been defined often as forces relevant motorboats of the expansion of the fiscal capacity of the conditions during the contemporary epoch. Nonetheless, the empirical evidence has not been conclusive, and still one lacks a historical narrative that explains how the changes in the nature of the war they have concerned the evolution of the fiscal contemporary systems. The fourth chapter has as aim refill this emptiness by means of the analysis of the impact of the war in the evolution of the fiscal contemporary capacity in the light of so called ' Revolutions of the Military Matters ' that took place in west from middle of the century nineteen up to the current importance. The results suggest that the relation between the war and the fiscal expansion has followed a curve of Or invested, according to which the changes in the tactics and the military technology pressed the public resources to the rise until the destructive capacity of the armies exceeded the nuclear threshold. Additional, the results suggest that the political systems have been relevant to complete this historical narrative, though they have been in occasions forgotten in this type of analysis.

Acrylamide is a monomer which has a molecular formula of C3H5NO (CH2=CH-CONH2) and has a molecular weight of 71.08 g, is colorless, odorless and has crystalline form (IARC, 1994).The acrylamide used in the production of polyacrylamide is also extremely used in the treatment of drinking and waste water, paper production, petroleum industry, the production of mine, mineral, asphalt and the treatment of land and soil. Moreover, it is also commonly used as an additive in cosmetic industry, in electrophoresis, the production of photographic film, the manufacturing of adhesive, varnish and dye and in the preparation of some alloys in dentistry European Union Risk Assessment Report (EURAR, 2002).In early 2002, high concentrations of acrylamide were reported in certain fried, baked, and deep-fried foods Swedish National Food Agency (SNFA, 2002). This discovery dramatically increased the interest in no industrial sources of acrylamide exposure to the general public. Subsequent research in many European countries and the United States determined that acrylamide is formed primarily in carbohydrate-rich foods prepared or cooked at high temperatures (i.e., >120°C) (Tareke et al., 2000 and 2002). Acrylamide has neurotoxic and genotoxic properties (Capuano and Fogliano, 2011). The contents of acrylamide vary among different types of food. Fried potato chips, coffee and toasted chicory contain much higher levels of acrylamide than other high temperature-processed foods (Delatour et al., 2004 as well as Capuano and Fogliano, 2011). The levels of acrylamide varies considerably between single foodstuffs within food groups, with crisps and chips generally containing high levels 1000 µg/kg and 500 µg/kg respectively (Kelly, 2003).Factors affecting acrylamide formation and degradation in foods are acrylamide precursors such as free amino acids (mainly asparagine), reducing sugars and processing conditions, (baking time and temperature, moisture content and matrix of product).The obvious toxicological implications of food-borne acrylamide has initiated substantial public and scientific concern (World Health Organization Meeting, 2002 June and United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) meeting, 2002 September) and has significantly increased interest in the toxic effects of acrylamide.The importance of acrylamide in food was mentioned for the first time by Tareke et al. (2002) who showed that feeding rats with fried feed led to a large increase in the level of the haemoglobin adduct, which was concluded to be N-(2-carbamoyl methyl) valine.In human, acrylamide has some mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Hence, it is classified in class 2A of carcinogenic materials as an agent that increases the probability of endometrial, pulmonary, and pancreatic cancers (El-Kholy et al., 2012 as well as LoPachin and Gavin, 2012). Studies indicated that liver, kidney, brain and erythrocyte GST have significant binding capacity with acrylamide, with liver GST is three times more efficient in conjugating acrylamide compared to brain GST in rats (Alturfan et al., 2011).Acrylamide have significant binding capacity to liver, kidney, brain and erythrocyte (Sumner et al., 1997). The other additional toxicological effects reported are depletion of adipose tissues, decreased liver and kidney, mottled lungs, atrophy of skeletal muscle, distension of urinary bladder, thickening of stomach and decrease in red blood cell (RBC) count and packed cell volume (PCV) (Miller et al., 1982), making it an important researchable substance.The neurotoxic effects of acrylamide can be observed at low dose with long exposures (Erkekoglu and Baydar, 2014), suggesting that dietary acrylamide is harmful to humans, especially children. The presence of acrylamide in food remains a health risk. According to WHO, the mean margin of exposure (MOE) value based on the carcinogenic effect of acrylamide in mammary glands is 300 -310 (Pedreschi et al., 2014), which is lower than 10,000, a criterion regarded as low health concern. Moreover, the detected concentrations of acrylamide and glycidamide haemoglobin adducts in Canadian teenagers indicate the need to reduce acrylamide exposure in the population (Brisson et al., 2014).Grape (Vitis vinifera ) leaves have been used in medicine due to various biological activities including stop bleeding, inflammation, and pain (Baytop, 1999), hepatoprotective, spasmolytic, hypoglycemic and vasorelaxant effects, as well as, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antiviral and particularly antioxidant properties (Xia et al., 2010). In addition, Orhan et al. (2009) reported that V. vinifera leaves have role in the formulation of dietary antioxidant supplements.The objective of the present study is to estimate acrylamide levels in some different food samples obtained from Egyptian local market and to determine the levels of acrylamide formation during different processing conditions, in addition, to investigate the effects of pre-frying treatments on acrylamide reduction of acrylamide in some Egyptian foods. Thus an investigation of acrylamide effects on biochemical and pathological effects become vital. In present studies, investigation of the effect of acrylamide formed in fried rice and different concentrations in drinking water. The monitoring of the thyroid hormone levels and hematological values in the plasma collected from the experimental animals. The preventive effect of feeding grape leaves as a source of antioxidant was also studied.b. Material and MethodSurvey of acrylamide levels in some Egyptian foods. Samples were taken from the Egyptian market, prepared and homemade samples, i.e., Potato, Toast, Coffee, Peanut, Fried onion, Falafel, Fried noodles, Fried rice and Cooked Rice .Then evaluation effect of different temperatures and/or times on acrylamide formation in fried rice and fried potatoes. From previous results showed significant increases in the concentrations of acrylamide in rice compared with potatoes. Frying rice is one of the methods used by Egyptians, so we went to study the effect of temperatures and time on the rice in more details. Several treatments were carried out on rice before frying on reduction of acrylamide formation of fried rice at 180 °C for 10 min, i.e., (1) Untreated rice was used as a control. (2) Rice was washed under tap running water for 2 min. (3) Rice was washed and soaking in water for 20 min. (3) Soak rice in citric acid (1%) for 20 min. (4) Soak rice in acetic acid (1%) for 20 min. (5) Soaking rice in water "resulting from grape leaves soaking" for 20 min. (6) Soaking rice in water "resulting from grape leaves boiling" for 20 min. (7) Soaking rice in water "resulting from poached grape leaves soaking" for 20 min. Determination of acrylamide in foods performed using GC /MS technique.SamplesDifferent types of market samples (potato samples, toast samples, coffee samples and peanut sample) were purchased from local markets. Prepared samples were divided into two brands, first brand is used in Egyptian popular prepared meals i.e. "onion in Koushari" and "Falafel", second brand is used in Egyptian homemade meals i.e. fried noodles, fried rice and cooked rice.Determination of acrylamide by GC/MSSamples were allowed to swell adding water in an amount normally corresponding to 3 times the weight of the sample (more for exceptionally dry samples). Taking into consideration homogeneity and availability of the sample, often 25 g of sample and 75 ml of water were combined in a 150 ml beaker glass. After mixing, the homogenate was allowed to swell during 30 min at 70 °C in a water bath (GFL, German). The glass beaker was covered by aluminium foil to prevent evaporation of water.Ten grams of the homogenate was weighed into a 100 ml centrifuge glass with a screw cap and thoroughly mixed with 40 ml of 1-propanol at 4000 rpm for 10 min (Sigma, German). When the solids form lumps, mixing was supported by a blender (Polytron). 10 ml (8.4 g) of the supernatant (possibly after centrifugation of about 12 ml of turbid supernatant) was transferred to a 25 ml pointed flask. Fifteen droplets (about 200 mg) of a vegetable oil were added and the water/propanol removed in a rotary evaporator at about 50 Torr (unit) and 60-70 °C in a water bath. Evaporation was stopped as soon as no liquid was left. The residue from the evaporation, consisting of fat/added oil and often much salt, was extracted with acetonitrile and defatted with hexane. 3 ml acetonitrile and 20 ml hexane were added and mixed with the sample with the help of an ultrasonic bath for 15 min (JEIOTECH, Canada). The acetonitrile (lower) phase was transferred into a 10 ml reagent glass with screw cap by means of a Pasteur pipette, losing acetonitrile rather than carrying along hexane. The acetonitrile phase was extracted by another 5 ml hexane, now transferring 1.5 ml of the acetonitrile phase (assumed to be half) into a 1.5 ml autosampler vial (Biedermann et al., 2002). The samples were analyzed in Organic Pollutants Laboratory, Regional Centre for Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza.Chemical examination of grape leavesGrape leaves and its ethanolic extract preparation The leaves were cleaned and dried in shade at room temperature for 3 days then coarsely powdered with the help of a hand-grinding mill. 20 g dried powder of plant leave was weighed and transferred into a beaker. 100 mL of ethanol 70% was added into the beaker and the mixture was shaken using mechanical shaker (Thermo, Canada) for 12 h at room temperature. The extract was filtered using Whatman No.1 filter paper. The filtrate was collected and the residue was re-extracted twice. Then 0.2 ml of the mixture was diluted with 2 ml of ethanol and injected in the GC/ MS/ MS. The sample was analyzed in Organic Pollutants Laboratory, Regional Centre for Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza.GC/ MS analysis programThe analysis of the grape leaves extract was using preference mention GC/MS above. The carrier gas was helium with the linear velocity of 1ml/min. The oven temperature was set at 55 oC for 3 min and then programmed until 280 oC at a rate of 11 oC/min. The injector and detector temperatures were 220 oC and 220 oC respectively. Injection mode, splitless, volume injected 1 μl. The MS operating parameters were as follows: ionization potential 70 eV, interface temperature 280 oC. Selected ion monitoring (Scan) mode was applied used m/z at start mass 35 and end mass 600.The identification of components was based on a comparison of their mass spectra and retention time with those of the authentic compounds and by computer matching with NIST and WILEY library as well as by comparison of the fragmentation pattern of the mass spectral data with those reported in the literature (Santana et al., 2013).Evaluation of radical scavenging activityThe free radical scavenging effect of grape leaves ethanolic extract was assessed by the decolouration of a methanolic solution of 1, 1 –diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical (violet colour) according to the method of Blois (1958).Various concentration of test solution in 0.1ml was added to 0.9 ml of 0.1 mM solution of DPPH in methanol. Methanol only (0.1ml) was used as experimental control. After 30 minute of incubation at room temperature, the reduction in the number of free radical was measured, reading the absorbance at 517nm. Ascorbic acid was used as reference standard by concentration of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 ppm. The scavenging activity of the samples corresponded and to the intensity of quenching DPPH.Preparation of blood samplesFive blood samples were collected from rats of each group from eye plexus after 28 days in clean dry sterile and labeled centrifuge tubes. Each collected sample was divided in to two parts, one for serum was collected in heparinized tube and the other for plasma was collected in non- heparinized tube .Rats were fasted for 12 h, and then slightly anaesthetized with carbon dioxide gas. Separating serum was done by centrifugation at 1500 r.p.m for 5 min. Organs of rats were weighted and extracted for dissection.

In contrast to many of his contemporaries, A. J. Ayer was an analytic philosopher who had sustained throughout his career some interest in developments in the work of his 'continental' peers. Ayer, who spoke French, held friendships with some important Parisian intellectuals, such as Camus, Bataille, Wahl and Merleau-Ponty. This paper examines the circumstances of a meeting between Ayer, Merleau-Ponty, Wahl, Ambrosino and Bataille, which took place in 1951 at some Parisian bar. The question under discussion during this meeting was whether the sun existed before humans did, over which the various philosophers disagreed. This disagreement is tangled with a variety of issues, such as Ayer's critique of Heidegger and Sartre (inherited from Carnap), Ayer's response to Merleau-Ponty's critique of empiricism, and Bataille's response to Sartre's critique of his notion of 'unknowing', which uncannily resembles Ayer's critique of Sartre. 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