This study was carried out to isolate opportunistic hydrocarbons oil-degrading bacteria and develop a consortium or a mixture of bacteria with high biodegradation capabilities which can be used in biological treatment units of the contaminated water before release. The biological processes in general are environmentally friendly and cost effective, as they are easy to design and apply; as such they are more appropriate to the public.
The location of the study was in Al-Dora refinery sludge holes area. The samples were collected for three seasons (winter, spring and summer) each consisted of three months. The sludge samples were analyzed for various physical and chemical parameters. Temperature values of the sludge were at maximum in summer season, reaching 32˚C, whereas they were at minimum in winter (24 ˚C). The values of sludge pH were at maximum in summer (9.70) and minimum in winter (9.20). Turbidity levels were 382 NTU in spring and 353 NUT in winter. Biological oxygen demand (BOD5) was at maximum in summer (760) and (690 mg/l) in winter. The maximum dissolved oxygen (DO) value of 5.20 mg/l was recorded in winter, while the minimum was 3.80 mg/l recorded in summer. The maximum electrical conductivity (EC) was 17130 μs/cm recorded in summer, while the minimum was 16150 μs/cm recorded in winter. The maximum total dissolved solids (TDS) values were 10335 mg/l recorded in summer, while the minimum (10015 mg/l) was recorded in winter. The maximum total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) value (431 mg/l) was recorded in summer, while the minimum (367 mg/l) was recorded in spring. Finally, the maximum salinity value (9.90%) was recorded in spring, while the minimum (9.30%) was recorded in winter. Also, hydrocarbon compounds in sludge samples were measured using Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and the result showed that they were composed of 31 hydrocarbon compounds.In the present work, nineteen sludge degrading bacterial strains were isolated from the soil near Al-Dora refinery hole by primary and secondary screenings using a modified mineral salt medium supplemented with 1% (v/v) sludge as a carbon source. The most efficient two sludge degraded isolates identified by VITIK 2 compact were Kocuria rosea and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. The tow isolates and there mixture showed best growth at 30°C for 12 days, as shown by the measurement of the optical density of the liquid culture and the final oil concentration by spectrophotometer.
The bacterial isolates in liquid media with 2% (v/v) sludge showed best growth and the maximum biodegradation percentage after 12-day incubation period, as determined by gas chromatographic (GC). The degradation values were 68.9, 93.8 and 95.5% for Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Kocuria rosea and the mixture of the tow isolates, respectively. In optimum conditions of pH 7, 40°C, 12 days incubation, the mixed bacterial consortium showed maximum sludge degradation.
Author's introductionThe media landscape has changed dramatically in recent decades, from one predominated by traditional mass communication formats to today's more personalized communications environment. Mobile telephony plays a central role in this transition, with adoption rates that surpass even those of the Internet. This article attempts to situate the role of mobile communication technology in the changing media environment by examining key areas of social change associated with its widespread diffusion and use. These areas include symbolic meaning of technology, new forms of coordination and social networking, personalization of public spaces, and the mobile youth culture. Drawing from these areas of change, we advance the argument that mobile telephony is iconic of a larger socio‐technological shift toward a new 'personal communication society.'Author recommendsRheingold, Howard 2002. Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.From Tokyo to Helsinki, Manhattan to Manila, Howard Rheingold takes us on a journey around the world for a preview of the next techno‐cultural shift – a shift he predicts will be as dramatic as the widespread adoption of the PC in the 1980s and the Internet in the 1990s. The coming wave, says Rheingold, is the result of super‐efficient mobile communications – cellular phones, personal digital assistants, and wireless‐paging and Internet‐access devices that will allow us to connect with anyone, anywhere, anytime. From the amusing ('Lovegetty' devices in Japan that light up when a person with the right date‐potential characteristics appears in the vicinity) to the extraordinary (the overthrow of a repressive regime in the Philippines by political activists who mobilized by forwarding text messages via cell phones), Rheingold gives examples of the fundamentally new ways in which people are already engaging in group or collective action. He also considers the dark side of this phenomenon, such as the coordination of terrorist cells, threats to privacy, and the ability to incite violent behavior. Applying insights from sociology, artificial intelligence, engineering, and anthropology, Rheingold offers a penetrating perspective on the brave new convergence of pop culture, cutting‐edge technology, and social activism. At the same time, he reminds us that, as with other technological revolutions, the real impact of mobile communications will come not from the technology itself but from how people use it, resist it, adapt to it, and ultimately use it to transform themselves, their communities, and their institutions.Katz, James E. and Mark A. Aakhus (eds.) 2002. Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.This edited volume contains a landmark collection of chapters from researchers all over the world. The book offers a multi‐national perspective on some of the key themes that were identified at the outset of the emergent new field of mobile communication studies, ranging from the private sphere of interpersonal relations to the public performance of social groups and structures. In their conclusion, the editors advance the theoretical orientation of Apparatgeist (translation: 'spirit of the machine') to explain cross‐cultural consistencies in how people conceptualize and use personal communication technologies such as the mobile phone.Ling, Rich 2004. The Mobile Connection: The Cell Phone's Impact on Society. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.This book, based on worldwide research involving tens of thousands of interviews and contextual observations, looks into the impact of the mobile communication on our daily lives. Areas of impact include accessibility, safety and security, coordination of social and business activities, use of public places, and the social emancipation of youth.Ito, Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe, and Misa Matsuda (eds.) 2005. Personal, Portable, Pedestrian: Mobile Phones in Japanese Life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This edited volume explores how Japan's enthusiastic engagement with mobile technology has become part of its trendsetting popular culture. The chapters document the emergence, incorporation, and domestication of mobile communications in a wide range of social practices and institutions. The book first considers the social, cultural, and historical context of keitai (i.e., mobile phone) development in Japan, including its beginnings in youth pager use in the early 1990s. It then discusses the virtually seamless integration of keitai use into everyday life, contrasting it to the more escapist character of Internet use on the PC. Other essays suggest that the use of mobile communication reinforces ties between close friends and family, producing 'tele‐cocooning' by tight‐knit social groups. The book also discusses mobile phone manners and examines keitai use by copier technicians, multitasking housewives, and school children.Castells, Manuel, Mireia Fernandez‐Ardevol, Jack Linchuan Qiu and Araba Sey 2007. Mobile Communication and Society: A Global Perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This book looks at how the possibility of multimodal communication from anywhere to anywhere at any time affects everyday life at home, at work, and at school, and raises broader concerns about politics and culture both global and local. Drawing on data gathered from around the world, the authors explore who has access to wireless technology, and why, and analyze the patterns of social differentiation seen in unequal access. They explore the social effects of wireless communication – what it means for family life, for example, when everyone is constantly in touch, or for the idea of an office when workers can work anywhere. The authors consider the rise of a mobile youth culture based on peer‐to‐peer networks, with its own language of texting, and its own values. They examine the phenomenon of flash mobs, and the possible political implications. And they look at the relationship between communication and development and the possibility that developing countries could 'leapfrog' directly to wireless and satellite technology. Drawing from a global body of research, the book helps answer the key questions about our transformation into a 'mobile network society'.Ling, Rich 2008. New Tech, New Ties: How Mobile Communication Reshapes Social Cohesion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.In New Tech, New Ties, Rich Ling examines how the mobile telephone affects both mobile‐mediated and face to face interactions. Ling finds that through the use of various social rituals the mobile telephone strengthens social ties within the circle of friends and family – sometimes at the expense of interaction with those who are physically present – and creates what he calls 'bounded solidarity'. Ling argues that mobile communication helps to engender and develop social cohesion within the family and the peer group. Drawing on the work of Emile Durkheim, Erving Goffman, and Randall Collins, Ling shows that ritual interaction is a catalyst for the development of social bonding. From this perspective, he examines how mobile communication affects face‐to‐face ritual situations and how ritual is used in interaction mediated by mobile communication. He looks at the evidence, including interviews and observations from around the world, which documents the effect of mobile communication on social bonding and also examines some of the other possibly problematic issues raised by tighter social cohesion in small groups.Katz, James E. (ed.) 2008. Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This edited volume offers a comprehensive view of the cultural, family, and interpersonal consequences of mobile communication across the globe. Leading scholars analyze the effect of mobile communication on all parts of life, from the relationship between literacy and the textual features of mobile phones to the use of ringtones as a form of social exchange, from the 'aspirational consumption' of middle class families in India to the belief in parts of Africa and Asia that mobile phones can communicate with the dead. The contributors explore the ways mobile communication profoundly affects the tempo, structure, and process of daily life around the world. They discuss the impact of mobile communication on social networks, other communication strategies, traditional forms of social organization, and political activities. They consider how quickly miraculous technologies come to seem ordinary and even necessary – and how ordinary technology comes to seem mysterious and even miraculous. The chapters cut across social issues and geographical regions; they highlight use by the elite and the masses, utilitarian and expressive functions, and political and operational consequences. Taken together, the chapters demonstrate how mobile communication has affected the quality of life in both exotic and humdrum settings, and how it increasingly occupies center stage in people's lives around the world.Ling, Rich and Scott W. Campbell (eds.) Forthcoming in Fall/Winter 2008. The Reconstruction of Space and Time: Mobile Communication Practices. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Mobile communication enables us to call specific individuals, not general places. This advancement had changed, and continues to change, human interaction. It also alters the ways people experience both space and time. This edited volume explores these changes through a collection of studies from some of the top mobile communication researchers from around the world. Collectively, the contributions highlight nuanced changes in coordination and cohesion across space and time, the ways people manage mobile communication and mobility in new spatio‐temporal realms, and how individuals relate to their co‐present surroundings while using mobile communication technology.Online materials Resource Center for Mobile Communication Studies http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/ci/cmcs/ The Center for Mobile Communication Studies is the world's first academic unit to focus solely on social aspects of mobile communication. Established in June 2004 at Rutgers University's School of Communication, Information and Library Studies, the Center has become an international focal point for research, teaching, and service on the social, psychological, and organizational consequences of the burgeoning mobile communication revolution. International Journal of Mobile Communication Studies https://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=40 The International Journal of Mobile Communication (IJMC), a fully refereed journal, publishes articles that present current practice and theory of mobile communications, mobile technology, and mobile commerce applications. The objectives of the IJMC are to develop, promote, and coordinate the development and practice of mobile communications. The IJMC aims to help professionals working in the field, academic educators, and policy makers to contribute, to disseminate knowledge, and to learn from each other's work. The international dimension is emphasised in order to overcome cultural and national barriers and to meet the needs of accelerating technological change and changes in the global economy. IJMC is an outstanding outlet that can shape a significant body of research in the field of mobile communications and in which results can be shared across institutions, governments, researchers, and students, and also industry. Wi: The Journal of Mobile Media http://wi‐not.ca/ Wi publishes the latest in Canadian mobilities research, encompassing disciplines such as design, engineering, computer science, communications, and media studies. MobileActive.org http://mobileactive.org/ MobileActive.org is an all‐volunteer community of people and organizations using mobile phones for social impact. They are committed to increasing the effectiveness of NGOs around the world who recognize that the 3.5 billion mobile phones provide unprecedented opportunities for organizing, communications, and service and information delivery. They work together to create the resources NGOs need to effectively use mobile phones in their work: locally relevant content and services, support and learning opportunities, and networks that help MobileActives connect to each other. With these things on hand, tens of thousands of NGOs will be in a better position to enrich and serve their communities. The MobileActive.org community includes grassroots activists, NGO staff, intermediary organizations, content and service providers, and organizations who fund mobile technology projects. Mobile Society http://www.mobilesociety.net/ Mobile Society is an academic research website focusing on social aspects of the mobile phone. The site includes links and information about news, events, publications, and other related sites pertaining to the social consequences of mobile communication. SmartMobs: The Next Social Revolution http://www.smartmobs.com/ A Website and Weblog about topics and issues discussed in the book 'Smart Mobs' by Howard Rheingold.Select sample syllabus topics and readings for course on 'the social consequences of mobile communication' History and adoption of the mobile phone
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 1: Introduction. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 1: The Diffusion of Wireless Communication in the World.
Theoretical perspectives on the relationship between technology and society: Part 1, social and technological determinism
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 2: Making Sense of Mobile Telephone Adoption. Campbell, Scott W. and Tracy C. Russo 2003. The Social Construction of Mobile Telephony. Communication Monographs 70: 317–34.
Theoretical perspectives on the relationship between technology and society: Part 2, the 'network' perspective
Castells, Manuel. 2000. 'The Rise of Network Society' Opening Chapter: The Network is the Message. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 5: The Space of Flows, Timeless Time, and Mobile Networks.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 1, safety and security
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 3: Safety and Security.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 2: new forms of coordination
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 4: The Coordination of Everyday Life.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 3: new social networking practices
Ling, Rich and Birgitte Yttri. 2002. 'Hyper‐coordination via Mobile Phones in Norway' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact. Licoppe, Christian. 2003. 'Two Modes of Maintaining Interpersonal Relations through Telephone: From the Domestic to the Mobile Phone' in J. Katz (ed.) Machines that Become Us. Campbell, Scott. W. and Michael Kelley. 2006. Mobile phone use in AA networks: An exploratory study. Journal of Applied Communication Research 34: 191–208.
Apparatgeist: 'Spirit of the machine' and the fashion and function of the mobile phone
Katz, James E. and Mark Aakhus. 2002. 'Conclusion: Making meaning of mobiles – a theory of Apparatgeist' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact. Campbell, Scott W. 2008. 'Mobile Technology and the Body: Apparatgeist, Fashion and Function' in J. Katz (eds.) Handbook of Mobile Communication.
SMS and the language of wireless communication
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 7: Texting and the Growth of Asynchronous Discourse. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society, Chapter 6: The Language of Wireless Communication.
Use of mobile technology in public settings
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 6: The Intrusive Nature of Mobile Technology. Okabe, Daisuke and Ito, Mizuko. 2005. 'Keitai in public transportation' in Ito, Okabe, & Matsuda (eds.) Personal, Portable, Pedestrian. Ito, Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe and Ken Anderson 2008. 'Portable Objects in Three Global Cities: The Personalization of Urban Places' in Ling & Campbell (eds.) Reconstruction of Space and Time: Mobile Communication Practices. Campbell, Scott W. 2006. Perceptions of mobile phones in college classrooms: Ringing, cheating, and classroom policies. Communication Education 55: 280–294.
M 10/22 Use of the technology around co‐present others and the challenge of 'absent presence'
Cumiskey, Kathleen. 2007. 'Hidden meanings: Understanding the social‐psychological impact of mobile phone use through storytelling' in Goggin & Hjorth (eds.) Mobile Media Proceedings. Gergen, Kenneth. 2002. 'The challenge of absent presence' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact.
The mobile youth culture
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 5: The Mobile Telephone and Teens. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 4: The Mobile Youth Culture.
Mobile communication in the socio‐political sphere
Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society Chapter 7: The Mobile Civil Society: Social Movements, Political Power, and Communication Networks. Rheingold, Howard. 2002. 'Smart Mobs' Chapter 7: Smart Mobs – The Power of the Mobile Many. Campbell, Scott W. and Nojin Kwak. 2008, May. Mobile communication and the public sphere: Linking patterns of use to civic and political engagement. Paper presented at the ICA pre‐conference, The Global and Globalizing Dimensions of Mobile Communication: Developing or Developed?, Montreal.
W 11/7 Mobile communication in the developing world
Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 8: Wireless Communication and Global Development: New Issues, New Strategies. Donner, Jonathan. 2008. Research approaches to mobile use in the developing world: A review of the literature. The Information Society 24: 140–159. Donner, Jonathan. 2008. The rules of beeping: Exchanging messages via intentional 'missed calls' on mobile phones. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 13(1). Available: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/donner.html.
M 11/12 Mobile communication and work
Andriessen, Erick and Mattai Vartianen. 2006. Emerging Mobile Virtual Work in Andriessen & Vartianen (eds.) Mobile Virtual Work: A New Paradigm? Perry, Mark and Jackie Brodie. 2006. Virtually Connected, Practically Mobile in Andriessen & Vartianen (eds.) Mobile Virtual Work: A New Paradigm? Chesley, Noelle. 2005. Blurring boundaries? Linking technology use, spillover, individual distress, and family satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family 67: 1237–1248.
OptionalFocus questions
To what extent does mobile communication lead to changes in family dynamics? On the one hand, mobile communication empowers youth to carry out their social relations 'under the radar' of parental supervision. In the 'old days', kids had to share a domestic landline phone and had less privacy, or had to shut themselves up in their room when on the phone to get privacy. The mobile phone is anytime/anywhere and it a personal object (not shared), so users have much more control over their private relations. Text messaging is an especially effective way of having private communication. Because of all this, young people have more autonomy to live out their social lives as they see fit. On the other hand, the mobile phone also gives parents more control by being able to better keep tabs on their kids and their kids' whereabouts. In some respects, it can actually be considered as an 'umbilical cord' keeping kids accountable to their parents. This is an interesting dichotomy for discussion. To what extent and how does the mobile phone support 'perpetual contact' among social ties? There seems to be a continual flow of communication now, which some refer to as 'perpetual contact'. Follow‐up questions could be: how is this a good thing? Are there negative aspects of perpetual contact? How is the mobile phone used for boundary management (i.e., demarcating in‐group members from out‐group members)? This can be seen in names kept in contact lists, who people text with, whose calls they screen, and even the style or brand of a phone ... some groups of friends get the same types of phones. What are the effects of taking/placing a phone call when interacting with physically co‐present others? What are norms for doing this? How can people mitigate the intrusion? On a related note to the questions above ... to what extent does the mobile phone lead to 'absent presence?' The notion of absent presence refers to being physically present, but socially absent. To what extent is this problematic? To what extent might mobile communication lead to 'tele‐cocooning?' Some are concerned that people are getting so wrapped up in their tight little social networks now, that they are less engaged with others who are weak social ties. If this is true, then it begs the question about whether there are benefits to having weak social ties. Most feel there are benefits, like being exposed to a diversity of perspectives and ideas. With regard to the changing media landscape, where else do we see increased 'personalization' in our uses of traditional mass media? In this sense, 'personalization' can refer to personalized content, interactivity, control, etc.
Research project idea (note this approach can be taken with any of the topics recommended above)Description of the paperMobile communication technology has become a common artifact in public settings, offering a means for social connection for its users and unsolicited melodies, chirps, and half conversations for co‐present others. Because social norms for behavior around others often conflict with those for phone conversations, mobile communication can present as many challenges as it does opportunities for maintaining social order. In class, we will discuss numerous perspectives on this topic, such as absent presence, symbolic fences, front stage‐back‐stage dynamics, and cocooning through mobile media. The purpose of this paper is to conduct an original investigation of the use of mobile communication technology around others. Each student will select a particular aspect of this phenomenon to explore in depth by collecting data first‐hand, analyzing those data, and drawing conclusions to shed new light on this topic. Students may choose to examine mobile communication in a particular setting, compare mobile communication in different social contexts or across different users, examine or compare the use of certain types of mobile technologies, observe reactions of and effects on non‐users of the technology, or select some other such 'angle' for the project that sheds light on this topic.Paper guidelinesYour paper should contain the following sections: (1) An introduction that justifies the importance of your topic and provides a clear explanation of the purpose of the paper, (2) a review of relevant literature/theory/key concepts to frame your particular project followed by specific research questions, (3) a method section explaining how you collected data (observation, interviews, questionnaires, and/or otherwise) and how you analyzed your data, and (4) a discussion section that develops conclusions based on the findings. Each paper should have at least 10 scholarly citations, of which at least half should come from readings other than those assigned for class. Use American Psychological Association (5th edition) to format citations and reference list. Papers should be about 10 pages in length, double‐spaced. In addition to meeting these guidelines, the writing should be clearly organized within each section and (of course) well‐written. Students will present their papers in class at the end of the semester.
In: The journal of popular culture: the official publication of the Popular Culture Association, Band 27, Heft 1, S. 205-239
ISSN: 1540-5931
Serling: The Rise and Twilight of Television's Last Angry Man. Gordon F. Sander. Discovering Men. David H. J. Morgan. The Hysterical Male: New Feminist Theory. Arthur and Marilouise Kroker, eds. Child‐Loving: The Erotic Child and Victorian Culture. James R. Kincaid. Centuries of Solace: Expressions of Maternal Grief in Popular Literature. Wendy Simonds and Barbara Katz Rothman. Women and Self‐help Culture: Reading between the Lines. Wendy Simonds. The Best Man‐Selections from the First Three Years of MAN! Magazine. Sharon Adams, ed. Men in the Public Eye—The Construction and Deconstruction of Public Men and Public Patriarchies. Jeff Heam. To All Appearances: Ideology and Performance. Harbert Blau. Hollywood East. James Ponti. Classics and Trash: Traditions and Taboos in High Literature and Popular Modern Genres. Harriett Hawkins. Cradle And All: A Cultural and Psychoanalytic Reading of Nursery Rhymes. Lucy Rollin. Bio/Pics: How Hollywood Constructed Public History. George F. Custen. Mae West: She Who Laughs, Lasts. June Sochen. Friends, Brothers, and Informants: Fieldwork Memoirs of Banaras. Nita Kumar. Women Under the Knife: A History of Surgery. Ann Dally. Hitchcock: The Making of a Reputation. Robert E. Kapsis. Feminism and the Women's Movement: Dynamics of Change in Social Movement, Ideology and Activism. Barbara Ryan. Creativity and Tradition in Folklore: New Directions. Simon J. Bronner, ed. Performance, Culture, and Identity. Elizabeth C. Fine and Jean Haskell Speer, eds. The History of Vanity. John Woodforde. Gender Relations in Australia: Donation and Negotiation. Kay Saunders and Raymond Evans, eds. Between the Wars, 1919–1939: The Cartoonists' Vision. Roy Douglas. Cajun Music and Zydeco. Philip Gould, photo. Barry Jean Ancelet Bundling: Its Origin, Progress and Decline in America. Henry Reed Stiles The Story of the Carol. Edmondstoune Duncan The History of the Christmas Card. George Buday. Christmas Traditions. William Muir Auld Heraldry and Floral Forms as Used in Decoration. Herbert Cole Jewish Ceremonial Institutions. William Rosenau. A Dictionary of Miracles. E. Cobham Brewer. Quilts: Their Story and How to Make Them. Marie D. Webster Rest Days: The Christian Sunday, The Jewish Sabbath, and Their Historical and Anthropological Prototypes. Hutton Webster Folklore of Women: As Illustrated by Legendary and Traditional Tales, Folk‐Rhymes, Proverbial Sayings, Superstitions, Etc. T.F. Thistelton‐Dyer Not Just for Children: The Mexican Comic Book in the Late 1960s and 1970s. Harold E. Hinds, Jr. and Charles M. Tatum. American Popular Culture. John Dean. Death in the Dining Room & Other Tales of Victorian Culture. Kenneth L. Ames. Popular Entertainment Research: How to Do it and How to Use It. Barbara J. Pruett. White on Black: Images of Africa and Black in Western Popular Culture. Jan Nederveen Pieterse. Media Performance: Mass Communication and the Public Interest. Denis McQuail. Jack the Ripper A to Z. Paul Begg, Martin Fido and Keith Skinner. Roadside Delights; Roadside Architecture of Yesterday and Today in New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Will Anderson. Hidden in Plain Sight: An Examination of the American Arts. Martin Williams. Melville's Complaint: Doctors and Medicine in the Art of Herman Melville. Kichard Dean Smith. William Cobbett and Rural Popular Culture. Ian Dyck. Images of American Life: A History of Ideological Management in Schools, Movies, Rdio and Television. Joel Spring.
AbstractThis chapter examines material published in the field of digital humanities in 2019. Key work published this year has grappled with longstanding conflicts at the heart of the field, on whether and how computational methods should be applied to humanities data, and who should validate such methodologies. The chapter begins with new work by Ted Underwood, who makes the case for hypothesis-driven methods and the modelling of humanities data. It discusses how recent work in computational literary studies had appeared to resist the trap into which much previous work had fallen, that is, work that was perceived to fall into the binaries of distant vs. close reading, computation vs. engagement, objectivity vs. subjectivity. The continued friction over the appropriateness of certain computational methodological approaches was amplified by new work that called into question the statistical methods of a number of key works in the field over past years. Nan Z. Da's critique of computational literary studies through the lens of statistical rigour imploded the uneasy truce between computational methods and the more traditional questions and methods at the heart of literary studies. Da's article reopens the debate about how digital humanities scholars use statistical methods, and how greater reliance on such methods may demand greater cross-disciplinary oversight to ensure that they are used in a way that is both robust and appropriate. Her contribution is examined alongside the rash of responses to it from key scholars in the field which produced an important snapshot of the fractures and fundamentals of data-driven literary studies. I then turn to new and timely work by James E. Dobson, which argues for a third way, a Critical Digital Humanities that engages critically with computational as well as humanistic scholarship.I survey important contributions on the impact of mass digitization, historicism and the archive, and how to study history in the age of digital archives and the historic web. Ian Milligan's work provides a much-needed introduction to the potentials and pitfalls of studying recent history through the digital traces left behind. It self-consciously identifies areas in which greater cross-disciplinary scholarship and critical engagement will be needed as this area of study matures. Discussion then turns to work by Nanna Bonde Thylstrup on digital waste, which shows how connecting new media theory to waste studies can provide an important frame through which to examine issues of data toxicity and pollution. This work sets the stage for two landmark books on sex and race which implore us to take a more careful look at the toxic technologies we build and the questions we ask of them. Both Caroline Criado Perez and Ruha Benjamin examine the damage done by the reliance of data systems on the 'default', frequently a white male, forcing us to see anything that departs from this norm as deviant. These works make a powerful case for reinventing the systems we increasingly rely on, questioning the underlying prejudice that created them, and rethinking the modes of meaning-making ascribed to them, especially when that narrative so often assumes a benign neutrality. Finally, I examine these works alongside a new volume of essays on digital humanities and intersectionality edited by Barbara Bordalejo and Roopika Risam, which serves to amplify and contextualize the need for the approaches taken by Criado Perez and Benjamin, showing how deeply enmeshed within the field these power structures are.
El diseño se desarrolla de forma práctica con fines comunicativos en la sociedad, éste se ha consolidado dentro de los aspectos comerciales más importantes de las organizaciones, debido a los requerimientos del mundo globalizado y a la gran demanda de diseño. El diseño involucra métodos y soluciones a problemas específicos de comunicación partiendo desde la identificación a través de procesos técnicos, la utilización de elementos diversos que finalmente componen un proyecto visual, generador de rentabilidad
El auge comunicacional ha impulsado la aplicación de la disciplina por su versatilidad para resolver problemas, situándolo en un punto de reflexión y análisis desde diferentes áreas. "Nunca se había hablado tanto del diseño hasta que los mass-media1 se apropiaron de él como si de un producto más, vendible en páginas y pantallas, se tratara". (Zimmermann, 2002, p. 55)
Para Chaves N. (2009) hace algunos años todavía no se consideraba cosa seria el analizar problemáticas de índole visual y mucho menos dar retribución por un trabajo que a la vista de todos no era más que habilidad plástica heredada2 . El diseño es una práctica heterogénea en la que se unifican variantes técnicas, metodológicas, culturales y estilísticas, estas acciones colaboran al desarrollo de un ambiente económico en el mercado
En este contexto, la globalización y el incremento de la comunicación han favorecido los procesos por los que atraviesa el diseño, brindando a las organizaciones elementos que favorecen su aplicación. El diseño en las organizaciones creativas favorece el cumplimiento de los objetivos, aportando diferenciación e innovación que resultan en una comunicación eficaz y en una mejor organización, además colabora en la solución de hábitos y rutinas comunicacionales que generan problemas.
Por naturaleza, el diseño exige la búsqueda de soluciones. A finales de la década de los noventa e inicios del siglo XXI Argentina sufrió una importante crisis política y económica; la que se vio sucedida por cambios en los gobiernos de turno, manifestaciones continuas, crisis financiera, la desaparición de la convertibilidad, la retención de los depósitos bancarios fueron entre otros, los principales elementos de la crisis. Esta etapa provocó grandes tasas de desempleo en diferentes áreas de negocios, los diseñadores por su parte, los que trabajaban en relación de dependencia, fueron destituidos de sus cargos en agencias y estudios de diseño, quedando expuestos a abandonar la profesión o buscar alternativas ocupacionales. En este punto de crisis donde los empleos se veían cada vez más reducidos, el diseñador buscó la manera de continuar ejerciendo su profesión de manera más propia al margen de los acontecimientos que sucedían en el país. La manera de solventar los gastos y de generar trabajo se vio concretada en el desarrollo de emprendimientos, constituyéndose como FreeLancer3 o estableciendo estudios de diseño desde sus propios hogares. Según el Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial (INTI), la crisis del 2001 estimuló a que Argentina se situara entre los diez países más emprendedores a nivel mundial y que el rubro del diseño tomará un papel más relevante sobre todo en la ciudad de Buenos Aires
Con la crisis surgieron gran cantidad de estudios de diseño dirigidos por profesionales que perdieron su trabajo o aquellos que empezaban su vida laboral. En la actualidad la creación de estudios de diseño se encuentra en aumento permanente gracias al fortalecimiento de los conocimientos sobre gestión que posee el diseñador. Esto ha significado una sociedad generadora de empleo y estudios innovadores, que son organizaciones que llevan un proceso firme de actualización comercial, organizacional y comunicacional
En los últimos años la ciudad de Buenos Aires ha experimentado la rápida evolución de las disciplinas de comunicación, la cultura de diseño representa un objeto de estudio importante por la gran cantidad de espacios publicitarios que se permiten emitir, y por el incremento de estudios de diseño que se ven en la necesidad de planificar o gestionar sus organizaciones para mejorar el desempeño, gestionar de mejor manera los procesos, identificar correctamente los problemas y ofrecer soluciones concretas
El correcto direccionamiento de los estudios creativos como del diseño mismo, genera información que permite a los diseñadores mejorar su desempeño y adoptar beneficios tanto empresariales como económicos. La gestión del diseño4 se encuentra definida como el conjunto de actividades, metodologías y técnicas que maximiza el uso de los recursos disponibles y que permite además, obtener los objetivos del proyecto en el que se encuentra involucrado el diseñador como el encargado de realizar dichas actividades
De la misma manera la gestión del estudio de diseño permite mantener y desarrollar un conjunto de atributos y valores intangibles en un servicio, una marca, un proyecto o un producto, que se establezcan muy alto en la mente del cliente, de tal manera que se crea mucho prestigio y un gran valor de los productos o servicios que están asociados al nombre del estudio. La presente Tesis se centra en el análisis de los resultados obtenidos de los estudios de dise- ño de la ciudad de buenos Aires, concretamente desde una perspectiva que vincula al dise- ñador, su empresa y la gestión, tratando de integrar un modelo que adopte los principales aspectos por los que se destacaron a partir de situaciones de coyunturas económicas, sociales y culturales del país que obligaron a los diseñadores a organizar su propia empresa.
Según la encuesta elaborada por la consultora Grant Thorton, de la ciudad de Chicago en el año 2011, Buenos Aires se encuentra en el quinto puesto del ranking mundial de optimismo empresarial, en donde se hace tangible un mercado viable para la comunicación y el diseño por el alto índice empresarial que en esta existe y por la gran demanda de sectores anunciantes para el desarrollo del rubro gráfico particularmente.
Orden y Justificación del trabajo
La investigación plantea el siguiente orden de trabajo, basándose en el análisis de los temas expuestos, realiza un recorrido que justifica la hipótesis planteada en el que se aborda los diferentes conceptos, teorías y metodologías que se emplean en la gestión y el correcto direccionamiento tanto de los estudios de diseño como de los procesos que le son propios. El orden se detalla de la siguiente manera
El capítulo uno aborda la importancia del diseño en Argentina, particularmente en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, la generalización de los estudios de diseño, el crecimiento y la viabilidad para formar un emprendimiento que pueda llegar a ser exitoso mediante el diseño y la gestión tanto de las estrategias utilizadas como de la elección correcta por parte del diseñador y de las acciones que le permitieron consolidar su estudio de diseño
En el capítulo dos se trata sobre los aspectos comerciales del diseño, la exposición de autores y su posición frente a este fenómeno y las cualidades que posee el diseñador, su visión y análisis hacia el mercado local. Además, del abordaje y la inclusión del diseñador en la gestión y dirección del estudio
El tercer capítulo está dedicado al análisis y la observación del diseñador en los nuevos mercados, ya que son estos los que generan nuevos retos para el profesional, así también la implementación de estrategia y gestión en los modelos empresariales de los estudios de diseño que en un primer acercamiento fueron concebidos de manera empírica por otra parte se realiza un análisis sobre la reconversión en los nuevos mercados sobre el diseño. El cuarto capítulo está dedicado al análisis e interpretación de las entrevistas a profesionales del diseño, así como el relevamiento de información en las dimensiones de crecimiento, consolidación y éxito y como enfrentaron los momentos de crisis en sus estudios. Además identificar los momentos claves de los estudios de diseño dentro de la concepción, el posicionamiento y la diferenciación de los mismos
Por último se presenta la metodología utilizada, las bases que la sustentan por medio del análisis y la comparación en contexto con el objeto de estudio. Se plantea el modelo teó- rico que sirve de base para contrastar la hipótesis y describir la metodología utilizada en la presente investigación. Finalizando con los conclusiones del autor a criterio personal.
Objetivo General
Como objetivo general plantea analizar la gestión implementada en los estudios de diseño, Gorricho, Tricota, Lipina y Krill, juntamente con la implementación de planes y políticas que se ejecutaron para consolidar el estudio de diseño como organización en la ciudad de Buenos Aires.
Objetivos Específicos
Sus objetivos específicos son determinar las estrategias competitivas y de crecimiento utilizadas por los estudios de diseño para sostener su rentabilidad; explorar los problemas que tuvieron los diseñadores en las distintas etapas del crecimiento de su organización y los factores que lo desencadenaron; analizar la gestión de los estudios, identificando los riesgos y factores de resistencia que han enfrentado y las medidas propuestas para superarlos; identificar las herramientas de Gestión Empresarial que permitieron construir y desarrollar la competitividad y el posicionamiento de su empresa; y analizar las estrategias de costo que se utilizaron como consecuencia de factores económicos y frente a sus competidores.
Hipótesis
Por otro lado, sostiene la hipótesis que la gestión implementada en los estudios de dise- ño: Gorricho, Tricota, Lipina y Krill, favorecieron su consolidación como organizaciones estructuradas, contribuyendo al desarrollo profesional del diseñador y su estudio en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, en el período 2002-2012.
Pertinencia a líneas temáticas planteadas en la maestría
El presente trabajo de investigación se encuentra dentro la línea temática que estudia empresas y marcas, la relación que existe entre el diseño, la gestión y las economías que son generadas a partir de los nexos que existen entre ellos. Esta investigación se acerca a este fenómeno a través del análisis, el enfoque y los factores que contribuyen a explicar el éxito en los estudios de diseño y particularmente en facilitar el esfuerzo de dichas organizaciones a través de la innovación y el conocimiento que posee el diseñador
Los estudios de diseño son organismos que ha aportado gran valor comercial y económico en la ciudad, y han formado expectativas para el avance del conocimiento sobre el diseño y la gestión de los mismos estudios así como del diseño en particular.
Notas
1. Mass-media: Según la Real academia de la lengua, es el conjunto de los medios de comunicación
2. Norberto Chaves realiza un análisis sobre el diseño y su concepción en la actualidad
3. FreeLancer: Se denomina trabajador freelance o freelancer o consultor a la persona cuya actividad consiste en realizar trabajos propios de su ocupación, oficio o profesión, de forma autónoma
4. Gestión del Diseño: Es una disciplina empresarial que utiliza la gestión de proyectos, el diseño, la estrategia y las técnicas de la cadena de suministro para el control de un proceso creativo, el apoyo a una cultura de la creatividad y la construcción de una estructura y organización para el diseño.
In: Visnyk Charkivsʹkoi͏̈ deržavnoi͏̈ akademii͏̈ kulʹtury: zbirnyk naukovych prac' = Visnyk of Kharkiv State Academy of Culture : scientific journal, Heft 64, S. 61-75
The relevance of the article. Today is characterized by great attention to the communicative component in all areas of society, because it is communication that plays an important role in the establishment of a new socio-cultural order and in the reproduction of its structures. Such challenges place rather high demands on both personal and professional qualities of future communication specialists. Therefore, the training of mobile, creative, competent, successful, competitive communication specialists in the conditions of socio-economic changes in Ukraine is the main task facing higher education. It is possible to ensure the proper quality of training of domestic communication specialists based on the creative use of pedagogical experience accumulated throughout the history of the development of education in Ukraine and foreign countries. Despite the large number of studies devoted to the actual issues of training specialists, the experience of innovative approaches to the provision of educational services in the USA has not yet been sufficiently studied. Meanwhile, the rapid application of innovation in the organization of the educational process, in particular in the field of training mobile, creative, competent, successful, competitive communication specialists, is a necessary condition for the development of Ukrainian society.
The purpose of the article — study of the experience of the USA regarding the organization of professional training of bachelors in communications, research of the content and features of the curricula of leading American educational institutions that offer education at the educational level "Bachelor of Communications" with the aim of using such approaches in the practice of Ukrainian universities.
The methodology. Analytical method, methods of description, comparison and generalization were applied for the research.
The results. The issue of training communication specialists in the leading universities of the United States of America in the bachelor's program was considered. Data on the popularity and demand of specialists who have completed a bachelor's degree in communications in the USA are presented. A review of the content of bachelor's training programs in communications at more than 20 US universities was carried out. The peculiarities of bachelor's training in communications at the University of Miami (The University of Miami) and Florida International University (Florida International University, FIU) are analyzed. Emphasis is placed on the need to study, adapt and implement the positive experience of US universities regarding the training of communication specialists in Ukrainian universities.
The scientific novelty. This study offers an analysis of the content of bachelor's programs of leading American educational institutions that offer studies at the educational level "Bachelor of Communications" in 2023.
The practical significance. Research materials and conclusions can be used to adapt and implement the experience of US universities in training communication specialists in Ukrainian universities, in particular, to improve the content of educational programs.
Conclusions. Effective development of modern communications is impossible without improving the quality of training bachelors in communications in higher educational institutions of various types and forms of ownership in Ukraine. To solve this problem, it is necessary to take into account the experience accumulated throughout the history of the development of education in Ukraine and foreign countries. Currently, the USA is one of the most popular places to get a bachelor's degree in communications. The US universities offer a wide selection of bachelor's programs in communications, among which the most popular are: Bachelor of Arts in Communications; Bachelor of Arts in Organizational and Strategic Communication; Bachelor of Business and Communications; Bachelor of Digital Media and Communications; Bachelor of Science in Interpersonal Communication; Bachelor of Science in Corporate Communications. The curriculum emphasizes students' understanding of communication in a variety of contexts (interpersonal, intercultural, organizational, political, and mass communications) and prepares future professionals to be effective and well-rounded communicators. Such specialized skills will allow students to choose from a wide range of career opportunities after completing the program in a variety of industries.
Purpose – There is an increasing interest in using information and communication technologies to support health services. But the adoption and development of even basic ICT communications services in many health services is limited, leaving enormous gaps in the broad understanding of its role in health care delivery. The purpose of this paper is to address a specific (intercultural) area of healthcare communications consumer disadvantage; and it examines the potential for ICT exploitation through the lens of a conceptual framework. The opportunity to pursue a new solutions pathway has been amplified in recent times through the development of computer-based ontologies and the resultant knowledge from ontologist activity and consequential research publishing.
Design/methodology/approach – A specific intercultural area of patient disadvantage arises from variations in meaning and understanding of patient and clinician words, phrases and non-verbal expression. Collection and localization of data concepts, their attributes and individual instances were gathered from an Aboriginal trainee nurse focus group and from a qualitative gap analysis (QGA) of 130 criteria-selected sources of literature. These concepts, their relationships and semantic interpretations populate the computer ontology. The ontology mapping involves two domains, namely, Aboriginal English (AE) and Type II diabetes care guidelines. This is preparatory to development of the Patient Practitioner Assistive Communications (PPAC) system for Aboriginal rural and remote patient primary care.
Findings – The combined QGA and focus group output reported has served to illustrate the call for three important drivers of change. First, there is no evidence to contradict the hypothesis that patient-practitioner interview encounters for many Australian Aboriginal patients and wellbeing outcomes are unsatisfactory at best. Second, there is a potent need for cultural competence knowledge and practice uptake on the part of health care providers; and third, the key contributory component to determine success or failures within healthcare for ethnic minorities is communication. Communication, however, can only be of value in health care if in practice it supports shared cognition; and mutual cognition is rarely achievable when biopsychosocial and other cultural worldview differences go unchallenged.
Research limitations/implications – There has been no direct engagement with remote Aboriginal communities in this work to date. The authors have initially been able to rely upon a cohort of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous people with relevant cultural expertise and extended family relationships. Among these advisers are health care practitioners, academics, trainers, Aboriginal education researchers and workshop attendees. It must therefore be acknowledged that as is the case with the QGA, the majority of the concept data is from third parties. The authors have also discovered that urban influences and cultural sensitivities tend to reduce the extent of, and opportunity to, witness AE usage, thereby limiting the ability to capture more examples of code-switching. Although the PPAC system concept is qualitatively well developed, pending future work planned for rural and remote community engagement the authors presently regard the work as mostly allied to a hypothesis on ontology-driven communications. The concept data population of the AE home talk/health talk ontology has not yet reached a quantitative critical mass to justify application design model engineering and real-world testing.
Originality/value – Computer ontologies avail us of the opportunity to use assistive communications technology applications as a dynamic support system to elevate the pragmatic experience of health care consultations for both patients and practitioners. The human-machine interactive development and use of such applications is required just to keep pace with increasing demand for healthcare and the growing health knowledge transfer environment. In an age when the worldwide web, communications devices and social media avail us of opportunities to confront the barriers described the authors have begun the first construction of a merged schema for two domains that already have a seemingly intractable negative connection. Through the ontology discipline of building syntactically and semantically robust and accessible concepts; explicit conceptual relationships; and annotative context-oriented guidance; the authors are working towards addressing health literacy and wellbeing outcome deficiencies of benefit to the broader communities of disadvantage patients.
O texto tem por objetivo analisar as especificidades e novidades presentes nas manifestações de Junho de 2013 no Brasil, por meio de algumas questões-chave, a saber: como eram compostas, as identidades, o pertencimento, os valores e as ideologias que tinham; o que demandavam, como se articulavam no plano interno e internacional; quais as relações com estado, partidos e outros movimentos sociais; como surge a violência nas manifestações; qual a concepção de democracia dos ativistas; como foi pautada a ideia de reformas etc. Uma questão central é colocada: por que uma grande massa da população aderiu aos protestos em Junho de 2013? Inicialmente, faz-se a reconstrução dos momentos iniciais das manifestações, especialmente em São Paulo, analisando-as a seguir segundo seus impactos na sociedade e na política. As fontes dos dados advêm de arquivos sistematizados via diferentes mídias, entrevistas, pesquisas de opinião pública, e publicações recentes.
In: Asia Pacific journal of marketing and logistics, Band 9, Heft 1/2, S. 160-172
ISSN: 1758-4248
IT is accorded a central role in Malaysian Industrial Master Plan 2 (IMP2), not only as the foundation for the future development of the manufacturing sector, but also, as the engine of development and growth of other sectors of the economy. To fulfill this central role, what should be the value of IT Products and IT Services? We have computed the necessary capital stock of IT Products at RM21.556 billion in 1978 prices, each unit of which is to produce five times its value in output in the year 2005, for a start. The targeted output of IT Services would be another RM 21.556 billion in 1978 prices, for a total of RM43.112 billion for IT industry in 2005. Bill Gates, Chairman and CEO of Microsoft Corporation, holds that Broadband Network Technology (BNT) indispensable to implement the Information Highway would not be available to most US homes for at least a decade. No matter when BNT arrives, an overriding question is: what will be the UTILIZATION of the exploding multimedia content of the Information Superskyway. How will people USE 1,000 times the current content, arriving 1,000 times as fast? The raison d'etre of the Information Superskyway is the Matrix of Learning, with Content as the rows, Context as the columns, and Learning as the Cells. The user has to identify his (her) context of use (entertain‐ment, education, enlightenment, edification). Investment in input (con‐tent) will depend on the answer to the question: By how much will the context be impaired by delay or deficiency of the content (data)? As the capacity of chips increases exponentially, the price drops dramatically — already it is down to $0.14 per megabyte! In the future, a holographic memory of the size of one's fists could hold the contents of the entire Library of Congress. With fast and furious developments in transfer and transformation of multi‐media content, how should one go about investing in IT to reap the bounty of BNT? We have no guarantee of success; we can increase the probability of success in the long‐run using seven IT investment Considerations/Criteria: (1) Choose the "Long‐run" that is realistic: Consider the odds against surviving one year, let alone 10 years; and choose wisely. (2) Choose Your Segment of the IT Industry: Are you most competent in: communications, computers, or content industries? What is your primary product: information, education, enlightenment, shopping, or e‐mail? (3) Choose Your CONCOL competitor/collaborator in the IT Industry: No matter how powerful you are in your chosen segment of the industry, it is almost mandatory that you collaborate with some other(s) in your own industry, and/or in another of the C3 industries. Bill Gates says: "companies must be able to partner on some projects and compete vigorously in others. Few companies in the computer and communications industries are purely friends or purely foes." (4) Choose the Technology/Territory Area for CONCOL: How will the CONCOLs be formed and dissolved‐in: (1) Technology, (2) Territory? The choice of future technology would depend on the territory: How long would it take for the particular technology to develop a mass market? In IT parlance, should we back advances in: (I) transfer of data, or (2) transformation of data? (5) Choose the Technology Transformation Profile: Visualizing technology say, five generations ahead would indeed be quite hard and hazardous. But we would choose linear extensions of performance characteristics over Quantum jumps. However, PC industry experience suggests that each successive computer generation tended to provide Quantum jumps, little of the earlier models being useable with the new generation. (6) Choose the Technology Transfer Sequence: By establishing a relationship with the techtransferor over the long‐term, and scrupulously observing the mutually‐agreed conditions of techtransfer, the transferee can steadily increase its technical competence. (7) Fiercely Focus on the UTILIZATION of the Exploding Multime‐dia Content: To make IT win in the marketplace, the mere increase in the volume of content or the mere increase in the speed of its transmission is quite inadequate. What will make the difference is the learning that is made possible by the multimedia content and communication.
In seinem Essay zum Authentitätsgebot im Big Brother geht der Autor zunächst der historischen Entwicklung der Grenzen zwischen Privatheit und Öffentlichkeit nach. In seinem historischen Rückblick bezieht er sich auf medienhistorische Literatur und insbesondere auf die 1983 erschienene Studie "Verfall und Ende des öffentlichen Lebens. Die Tyrannei der Intimität" des amerikanischen Kulturkritikers R. Sennet. In einem zweiten historischen Exkurs faßt der Autor die Entwicklung der gesellschaftlichen Bedeutung von Authentizität und Aufrichtigkeit als Modi der Selbstdarstellung. Von Typisierungen, ohne die eine Selbstdarstellung nicht möglich ist, werden die Theatralisierungen unterschieden, die sich gleichzeitig an zwei Adressaten richten, den Menschen gegenüber und das Publikum. Betrachtet man die angeforderten Authentizitätsdarstellungen der Container-Bewohner in Big Brother, werden die medial verbreiteten Masken der Authentizität offensichtlich. Wie der von Sennet beschriebene "Public Man" in den wachsenden Großstädten im 18. Jh. durch Masken und Zeichen des Theaters seine Identität den Fremden gegenüber bekundete, sind die Container-Bewohner hinter medialen Masken verborgen. Die Masken ermöglichen ihnen das öffentliche Sprechen über Emotionen, ohne daß das Innerste preisgegeben wird. Von der Tyrannei der Intimität schützen die Masken. (PT)
In her recent book published after the election of Donald Trump as the US President in 2016, Cynthia Enloe argues that the patriarchy, similar to our smart phones, has updated itself as a reaction against the achievements of the second and third wave feminisms. The updated patriarchy has this time renewed itself through the beliefs and values about the ways the world works (2017). The competing foreign policies representing the hypermasculine hegemonic masculinity of the current world politics and its authoritarian leaders are the outputs of this new updated version of patriarchy. Enloe doubts that having gained sustainability with its updates, the patriarchy could be fought against simply with street demonstrations, as it was before. The patriarchy could be forced to retreat only by incessantly asking "curious" feminist questions that would expose all masculine patterns of life (2017). Continuously asking questions without giving up or giving in would make the patriarchy transparent and vulnerable. In the face of curious, non-stop questions from a gender perspective and the conscious use of the terms supporting gender equality, the patriarchy, albeit updated and sustained, does not stand a chance.
Enloe explains the reason why incorporating gender in International Relations has been considered irrelevant by the power- and security dominated character of the discipline. Also, because the heavy majority of the academics associated with International Relations are male, it is them who choose what is important and worthy of 'serious' investigation (Enloe, 2004, 96). This masculine attitude, however, has been clearly excluding multiple human experiences and hindering their capacity to create new possibilities for peaceful co-existence in international relations (Youngs, 2004).
As a matter of fact, when we look at the emergence of International Relations as a separate discipline, and the political theories that it takes as its first point of reference, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen) – the human rights document at the time of the French Revolution – Machiavelli's The Prince; and Man, the State and War, written in 1959 by Kenneth Waltz, the founder of neo-realism, were the mainstream writings that brought liberal (libertarian) and realist perspectives to the discipline of International Relations, respectively. The fundamental aim of these texts was, in fact, to make an analysis based on history and 'his' problems. Although these texts put forward a desire for rights and freedoms, as well as the achievement of peace, these values are mostly targeted towards men. Thus, over time, the prominent concepts of International Relations, such as security and hegemony, were defined from a masculine and patriarchal perspective. For instance, from the theoretical view of realists, hegemony is attributed to the order established and led by the most powerful state of the international system– both militarily and economically– while sovereignty evokes the Hobbesian Leviathan (the Devil), with its masculine nature and might. Raewyn Connell responds to these masculine conceptualizations by pointing out that hegemony includes organized social domination in all spheres of life, from religious doctrines to mundane practice, from mass media to taxation (1998: 246). As Connell reminds us, "hegemonic masculinity" expresses the domination of men over women intellectually, culturally, socially, or even politically, thus establishing an unequivocal linkage between gender and power (Connell, 1998).
Just as the Western approach to reading and identifying the East and its fiction found an answer in Edward Said's critique of Orientalism, the theory of political realism put forth by Hans Morgenthau was criticized by Ann Tickner for conceptualizing international politics through the lens of an assumed masculine subject (Tür & Koyuncu, 2010: 9). Critical theory and postmodernism, as alternative approaches in International Relations, drew attention to the otherization of different geographies, civilizations and identities. Yet, on the issue of gender equality, the otherization of women has not been sufficiently recognized; the superiority of man and patriarchy is made possible through the othering of women. From this point of view, it would be beneficial to make a holistic reading of the International Relations literature, and to dismantle these masculine concepts by asking "curious" questions of the discipline.
In Terrell Carver's words, "Gendering IR" is...a project; "gendered" IR is an outcome" (Carver, 2003: 289). In order to achieve such outcome, it bears utmost importance for the gender-equality advocates to insist on, institutionally and practically, gender-based approaches and to not agree with the priority list of the masculine agenda. Security, order, control and retaliation increasingly dominate the discourse shaping the world politics. The gender perspective in International Relations develops to create alternative paradigms that would break this vicious circle of (in)security.
Feminist theory in International Relations has demonstrated significant progress since the 1990s and opened pathways in an uncharted territory. Cynthia Enloe, Ann Tickner, Spike V. Peterson and Christine Sylvester, among others, are the most prominent forerunners of this field. Through their works, feminist theory has adopted a perspective critical of the masculinity and the masculine values of international politics by taking not only 'women' but a wider category of gender into its centre. These feminist scholars have deconstructed International Relations theories by posing gender-related questions and displayed the masculine prejudice embedded in the definitions of security, power and sovereignty. The feminist theories of International Relations have thus distinguished themselves from the other theories of the discipline by paying a 'curious' attention to the power hierarchies and relation structures through inclusiveness and self-reflexivity (True, 2017: 3).
As Cynthia Enloe puts it, the gender perspective in International Relations must first be guided by a feminist consciousness (2004: 97). The feminist International Relations, however, although more than a quarter of century has passed since its emergence, are still struggling with the masculine theories to be considered as an equally legitimate way of understanding how the world works. Various epistemological, ontological and ethical debates may have enriched the field (True, 2017: 1), but at the same time, too many as they are, such debates may paradoxically be accusing the spreading-thin of the gender coalition. The capacity of the feminist International Relations' ethical principles to participate in the global politics has been limited to the United Nations Security Council's decision number 1325 and the Swedish feminist foreign policy.
The feminist attempt to facilitate substantial change and interaction by creating a normative agenda has been called 'normative feminism' by Jacqui True (2013: 242). Normative feminism is a project of institutionalising gender in foreign policy by focusing on socio-economic and political changes. The special issue here is our attempt to partake in this project of change in international relations. We have aimed to enhance the visibility of the gender norms of behavior and decision-making with the presupposition that they would pose an alternative to the masculine norms in International Relations by better supporting the human priorities of peace and co-existence.
Adopting Judith Butler's notion of performativity, the feminist existence in international politics has an undeniable connection to engaging in continuous activities. As Rihannan Bury suggests, "what gives a community its substance is the consistent repetition of these 'various acts' by a majority of members." "Being a member of community," therefore, "is not something one is but something one does" (2005: 14). In Turkey, too, in order to challenge the recognition of the 'hyper' version of the hegemonic masculinity as the only viable world view, gender-charged normative discourses, interactions and agendas must be continuously created and multiplied. We hope that the Turkish literature-review and the articles published here will serve this purpose.
As is the situation in all disciplines, the feminist International Relations has nurtured many onto-epistemologies, some in competition with one another. Such multitude, though definitely a richness, has been challenging the feminist stance's capacity to stand united against the hypermasculine hegemonic masculinity. In her latest book, Enloe calls for a continuous struggle of a new and wider feminist coalition against the updated authoritarianism of the patriarchy –inspiring our title "Don't Give Up! Don't Give In!." Such expanded coalition could rise on the common purpose of fighting male dominance and ignore the differences of discourse created by the debate on identity. The gender-guided change and transformation desired in international politics could be achieved more easily in this way (Hemmings, 2012: 148, 155). On this account, in parallel with Enloe's proposal of establishing a wider consensus simply on peace and co-existence (2017), a new era, in which questions of identity will, for some time, not be asked, may be dawning. A grand coalition of consensus has better chance of resisting the authoritarian leaders of hyper hegemonic masculinity.
Our special issue of Gender and International Relations opens with a Turkish literature review with the aim of introducing the topic to Turkish readers. Çiçek Coşkun, against a historical background, presents some of the prominent feminist scholars who have left their footprints in this very masculine area with their fresh gender perspectives. In doing that she offers us a comparative framework in which works by the Turkish and international scholars could be assessed simultaneously. Nezahat Doğan's article seeks to establish the relation between global peace and gender by using the data obtained from the Global Peace Index, Gender Inequality Index and Social Institutions and Gender Index. In this way, adopting a currently trendy approach, Doğan investigates the interaction between gender and International Relations through a quantitative method. Zehra Yılmaz's article discusses the temporary position of Syrian women asylum seekers in Turkey from the perspective of the post-colonial feminist concept of subaltern. The article aims to combine feminist migration studies and post-colonial feminist literature within the context of International Relations. Sinem Bal's article questions whether the EU has designed its gender policies as an aspect of the human-right norms of the European integration or as a way to regulate market economy. Bal pursues such questioning through the reading of the official documents of the EU that prescribes what Europeanization is for Turkey. Thus, all articles constitute a well-rounded understanding of what gendered approaches can achieve in the current practice of international studies.
The co-authored article written by Bezen Balamir-Coşkun and Selin Akyüz examined how the images of women leaders in international politics were presented in the international media. The selected images the three most powerful women political leaders list of Forbes in 2017 –Angela Merkel, Theresa May and Federica Mogherini were analysed in the light of the political masculinities literature from a social visual semiotics perspective. It is believed that such an analysis will contribute to the debates about gendered aspect of international relations as well as the current debates on political masculinities. Gizem Bilgin-Aytaç points out that the global policy that emerged after the Cold War and the emergence of the new way of approaching the IR from a feminist perspective have improved the scope of conceptual analysis in peace theories as well. Bilgin-Aytaç discusses global peace conditions with a gender perspective - in particular, referring to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325, with a focus on exemplary contemporary issues. Fulden İbrahimhakkıoğlu, in her article, discusses the debate between Ukraine-based feminist group FEMEN staged several protests in support of Amina Tyler, a Tunisian FEMEN activist receiving death threats for posting nude photographs of herself online with social messages written on her body and the Muslim Women Against FEMEN who released an open letter criticizing the discourse FEMEN used in these protests, which they found to be white colonialist and Islamophobic. Thus, İbrahimhakkıoğlu aimes to examines the discursive strategies put forth by the two sides of the very debate, and unveiling the shortcomings of liberalism as drawn on by both positions, the author attempts to rethink what "freedom" might mean for international feminist alliances across differences.
