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In the 15-years I have served in the United States Army, the focal point of my tactical and academic study has been almost entirely centered on the Middle East and its unique cultural complexities. As an Infantryman, I was embroiled in the early efforts to prevent a Sunni-Shia civil war in post-invasion Iraq, while also hunting down al-Qaeda operatives under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. A year later, during General Patraeus's troop surge, I was in the urban sprawl of Northwest Baghdad fighting not only a Sunni insurgency, but also the Iranian-backed Jaysh al-Mahdi, comprised of local Shia militia groups. In 2010, I led a battalion reconnaissance team in the Arghandab River Valley of Afghanistan against the Taliban near the very birthplace of their Salafi-jihadist movement. In subsequent years, following my graduation from the Special Forces Qualification Course, I served in the 5th Special Forces Group (SFG) on a variety of missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve in Turkey and Syria. As a fluent Arabic speaker, I was heavily involved in early efforts to train and equip the Free Syrian Army for its fight against the Islamic State. Following this deployment, I served as a liaison officer to the United States Embassy and Turkish General Staff in Ankara, having daily interaction with foreign dignitaries, defense attachés, and military officials in strategic level planning and coordination efforts. I culminated my time with 5th SFG as the assistant operations sergeant of a detachment fighting the Islamic State in Syria. My understanding of the culture of jihad, the various jihadist groups operating throughout the Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility, and the intricacy of Middle Eastern problem sets as a whole, has come from years of dedicated cultural analysis, in-depth study of Sunni and Shia Islam, and field experience from the strategic to the tactical level. It is because of this experience that I am compelled to discuss the culture of jihad in the 21st Century. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Degree Completion category. ; 1 The Culture of Jihad in the 21st Century Michael J. Bearden Norwich University SOCI401: Cultural and Anthropology Studies Dr. Timothy Maynard April 30, 2020 2 The Culture of Jihad in the 21st Century In the 15-years I have served in the United States Army, the focal point of my tactical and academic study has been almost entirely centered on the Middle East and its unique cultural complexities. As an Infantryman, I was embroiled in the early efforts to prevent a Sunni-Shia civil war in post-invasion Iraq, while also hunting down al-Qaeda operatives under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. A year later, during General Patraeus's troop surge, I was in the urban sprawl of Northwest Baghdad fighting not only a Sunni insurgency, but also the Iranian-backed Jaysh al-Mahdi, comprised of local Shia militia groups. In 2010, I led a battalion reconnaissance team in the Arghandab River Valley of Afghanistan against the Taliban near the very birthplace of their Salafi-jihadist movement. In subsequent years, following my graduation from the Special Forces Qualification Course, I served in the 5th Special Forces Group (SFG) on a variety of missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve in Turkey and Syria. As a fluent Arabic speaker, I was heavily involved in early efforts to train and equip the Free Syrian Army for its fight against the Islamic State. Following this deployment, I served as a liaison officer to the United States Embassy and Turkish General Staff in Ankara, having daily interaction with foreign dignitaries, defense attachés, and military officials in strategic level planning and coordination efforts. I culminated my time with 5th SFG as the assistant operations sergeant of a detachment fighting the Islamic State in Syria. My understanding of the culture of jihad, the various jihadist groups operating throughout the Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility, and the intricacy of Middle Eastern problem sets as a whole, has come from years of dedicated cultural analysis, in-depth study of Sunni and Shia Islam, and field experience from the strategic to the tactical level. It is because of this experience that I am compelled to discuss the culture of jihad in the 21st Century. 3 Since its beginning in circa 610 CE, when the prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah was visited by the angel Gabriel in a cave near Mecca, Islam has shaken the foundations of the Middle East and remained in a state of near-perpetual conflict with the Western world. Islam is an Arabic term most closely relating to the English words submission or surrender. Mujahedeen, or holy warriors, spread this new religion by the sword throughout Asia, forcing the "submission" of thousands, and have hardly been at peace with their neighbors since. Centuries later, in the two decades following the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in the United States, radical Islam's stance against the West has altered the diplomatic landscape between the world's great powers, fundamentally changed the United States' national strategic direction, and caused youth from all walks of life to sacrifice the best years of their lives in holy war to protect the supra-national community of Islam. From the invasion of Afghanistan to the subsequent invasions of Iraq and Syria to the ongoing peace talks with the Taliban, diplomatic and military efforts to eradicate jihadists from the Middle East have to-date been nearly ineffectual. Not only have these efforts failed to contain or defeat jihad, but at times have served to strengthen Islamic extremists' resolve in their call to arms against the West. Because jihad is such a fundamental part of the Islamic faith, it can never be "defeated" in the sense of traditional military eradication of an enemy force, but it can be confronted, contained, or refocused, as this paper will address. I argue that enabling local solutions and promoting education, alongside tailored surgical strike and security cooperation operations where necessary, are the keys to confronting, containing, and countering jihad. 4 Background Defining Jihad and Salafism Jihad is a transliterated form of the Arabic word meaning to struggle or to strive. In the traditional teachings of the Islamic faith, jihad is broken into two distinct categories: Greater jihad and lesser jihad. Greater jihad includes the personal struggle against selfish desires, emphasizing discipline and morality, as well as the struggle against Satan and the forces of evil. It includes jihad of the heart, jihad of the mind, and jihad of the tongue, involving praise for those who follow the will of Allah and correction for those who have gone astray (Gorka, 2016). The second category, lesser jihad, is viewed as the struggle against the enemies of Islam and the defense of its people. Lesser jihad is commonly referred to as Jihad of the Sword. Gorka (p. 60) reveals that, over time, this category of jihad has been used as justification for at least seven different subsets of holy war: 1. Using holy war to build an empire 2. Going after apostate regimes or individuals 3. Revolting against non-pious Muslim leaders 4. Fighting against the forces of imperialism in Muslim lands 5. Countering the West's pagan influence 6. Guerrilla warfare against a foreign invader 7. Using jihad as justification for terrorist attacks against civilian targets In a broad sense, lesser jihad can be viewed as offensive or defensive martial action. On the offensive side, jihadists use religion to justify building an empire, such as the Islamic State, attack apostate regimes, like those of the Taliban against Afghan government forces, and use terrorism against civilians, like the attacks on the World Trade Center. This offensive action 5 often takes jihadists beyond the borders of the ummah, or the people of Islam, striking fear into hearts of unbelievers around the globe. The defensive variety, especially in recent history, has most often correlated directly with the use of guerrilla warfare against foreign invaders, such as al-Qaeda's attacks on the international military coalitions that invaded Afghanistan and Iraq. This radical view of Islam is mostly practiced by those who follow the way of the Salafi, or the pious predecessors from the time of Muhammad, who experienced Islam in its purest form. It is believed that the first three generations who practiced the teachings of the prophet Muhammad are the ones who all Muslims thereafter should try to emulate. Themes of Salafism focus on complete adherence to sharia law, the fight against apostate Muslim regimes, and the spread and protection of Islam and its followers. At its core, Salafism is a very traditionalist view of Islam and has been practiced by multiple 21st Century terrorist organizations. The terms jihad and Salafi have shared such a close relationship in the last few decades that they have become nearly synonymous, at times described as Salafi-Jihadism or Jihadi-Salafism (Gorka, 2016; Nilsson, 2019) What Cultural Influences Lead One to the Path of Jihad? Before the attacks on 9/11, the largest call to jihad answered by the international Muslim community was in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Stopping the spread of communism and defending the ummah against the atrocities of Russian ground forces was seen as a noble and just cause for young Muslim men, and not just among Muslims (Gorka, 2016; Nilsson, 2019). Many nations, including the United States, funded, equipped, and trained the Afghan mujahedeen (those who conduct jihad) for the fight against the Soviet empire. Jihad in the 21st Century has been viewed in a much different light, as it is most closely associated with acts of extreme violence against Western nations. While the piles of rubble that used to be the 6 World Trade Center smoldered, and a gaping hole scarred the wall of the Pentagon, people of the world were forced to ask themselves, "How could a person do this? Why would someone take their own lives and thousands of others in the name of Allah?" Religious Justification for Jihad. Though jihad has become almost entirely associated with Islamic holy war, the term itself is still simply the Arabic word for striving. Struggling against one's selfish desires, striving to maintain traditional values, and defending a community against a common enemy are not just Islamic concepts, they are universal to most tightly-knit cultures. Similarly, Christians and Jews are taught self-discipline, adherence to moral codes, and defending their belief against enemies of their faith. So, why has the Islamic flavor of this common cultural theme become so violent, causing deep unrest around the world in our modern era? Verses from the Qur'an can begin to unpack why horrific public executions, suicide bombings, and advocating for generalized violence against non-Muslims may be justifiable in jihadist culture. The Qur'an (2015) lays out the following decree in chapter 9, verse 29: Fight those from among the People of the Book who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor hold as unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have declared to be unlawful, nor follow the true religion, until they pay the tax with their own hand and acknowledge their subjection (p. 208). My personal study of Islam and conversations with Muslims in the field revealed that this bit of prose has been used as motivation and justification for jihad by groups like al-Qaeda, the Taliban, the Islamic State, and Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham of our modern age. Some of the following themes are evident in the translation: 7 • Jews and Christians are recognized as People of the Book, but are required to accept the following—Allah as the one true god, sharia as the acceptable law, and Islam as the one true religion. • If Jews and Christians refuse to accept these statutes, they must pay a tax called the jizyah to show their subjugation. • If they refuse to do either of these, they are to be put to the sword (p. 208). Salafi-jihadist groups such as the Taliban and Islamic State have tried to revive the jizyah tax in areas under their control. Likewise, hundreds of Christians, Jews, and even Muslims who refuse to adhere to strict sharia law have been publicly executed. This vehement enforcement of arcane Islamic law is seen as a return to the purest form of Islam, as pious as the first few generations who followed the Prophet Muhammad. Another common religious cultural theme that ties these jihadist organizations together is a message of religious oppression. They preach to young Muslims that the Islamic world is under siege by the West and that their god, their value systems, and their way of life are being threatened by the evils of capitalism and democracy (Venhaus, 2010). In joining organizations like al-Qaeda or the Islamic State, young men from across the globe find a sense of purpose and direction in their cause to protect the ummah. This theme is manifested in the teachings of Anwar al-Awlaki, the spiritual leader of al-Qaeda and the father of home-grown terrorism in the United States. He calls on Muslims living among those in the West: How can your conscience allow you to live in peaceful coexistence with a nation that is responsible for the tyranny and crimes committed against your own brothers and sisters? How can you have your loyalty to a government that is leading the war against Islam and Muslims? Hence, my advice to you is this, you have two choices: either hijra [migration 8 to an Islamic land] or jihad. You either leave or you fight. You leave and live among Muslims or you stay behind and fight with your hand, your wealth, and your word. I specifically invite the youth to either fight in the West or join their brothers on the fronts of jihad: Afghanistan, Iraq, and Somalia (as cited in Gorka, 2016). This way of thinking is also captured in chapter 9, verse 5 of the Qur'an (2015): Kill the idolaters wherever you find them and take them prisoners, and beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they repent and observe Prayer and pay the Zakat, then leave their way free (p. 204). When taken literally, as they are by followers of Salafi-jihad, scriptures such as these leave no choice. To these men who have committed themselves fully to the ways of the pious ones, they are compelled to become shahid, or martyrs in the protection of the ummah. The Qur'an promises paradise for those who do: Surely, Allah has purchased of the believers their persons and their property in return for the Garden they shall have; they fight in the cause of Allah, and they slay and are slain—a promise the He has made incumbent on Himself in the Torah, and the Gospel, and the Qur'an. And who is more faithful to his promise than Allah? Rejoice, then, in your bargain which you have made with Him; and that it is which is the supreme triumph (p. 222). The concept of becoming a martyr in the struggle for Islam is romanticized by jihadist groups, like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, and even state governments in local programming. In Lebanon, Mothers of Martyrs are interviewed to share the stories of their sons' glorious end while fighting abroad against the infidels (Venhaus, 2010). The Qur'an itself calls this sacrifice the supreme triumph for a jihadist, striving for the glory of Allah. 9 Though enforcing the jizyah, publicly executing those who do not follow sharia law, and seeking opportunities to kill infidels through suicide attacks represent a very small, extremist cultural sect of Islam, each of these practices is still justifiable if one looks to the Qur'an. This could be viewed as no different than a rural Pentecostal church in the Deep South who maintains strict standards for how women must dress and act: it all comes down to interpretation and a community's willingness to subjugate themselves to these standards. Spiritual leaders of jihadist groups in the 21st Century have used the Qur'an as continued justification for a variety of cruel, inhumane, and brutal actions that served to shock the West. The holy book of Islam acts as the essential glue, binding together all facets of Arab and Islamic culture. Artistic Inspiration for Jihad. A far cry from the harsh proclamations of the Qur'an, Arabic poetry predates Islam by centuries and serves as a bedrock of Arabic culture across the Middle East. Early desert nomads composed poems mostly in mono-rhyme and in one of sixteen standard canonical measures, which made them easy to commit to memory (Creswell & Haykel, 2015). Naturally, this beautiful form of cultural expression has found a home in the modern jihadist movement, where it has become an inspiration for new recruits to join the cause and crucial in the sustainment of those already fighting infidels abroad. Creswell and Haykel assert that although analysts have generally ignored this facet of jihadist culture, it is woven deeply into the fabric of modern Islamic extremism. Osama bin Laden, most recognized as the former head of al-Qaeda, was also a highly-celebrated jihadist poet. Without question, his lyrical genius inspired young Arabs with stories of a return to the heroic and chivalrous past of Islam. One of his most famous works celebrates the martyrdom of the 9/11 hijackers. This is a theme among modern jihadist poetry, which preserves the tales of suicide bombers, the conquered apostate regimes of Iraq and Syria, and the glories of jihadist heroes (Creswell & Haykel). Likewise, in a 10 group of individuals who have each traveled far from home to defend Islam against the kuffar, these poems help to establish a sense of cultural identity, strengthening their wartime bond and solidifying their resolve. In seeing the videos of the Islamic State as they carved a path of destruction across large swathes of Iraq in early 2014, it may be difficult for one to believe that its members were motivated by the rhythmic lines of jihadist poetry. It is hard to accept that the same young fighter who is willing to behead an infidel for all the free world to see, could also be found passionately reciting lines celebrating the glorious return of an Islamic caliphate. During its rise, the Islamic State capitalized on the lyrical talent of a Damascus-born woman named Ahlam al-Nasr. In her first broadcast, called the Blaze of Truth, she sang each one of her 107 works a cappella, in accordance with the Islamic State's ban on musical instruments. The video was uploaded to Youtube, receiving thousands of views and further shares on multiple social media platforms (Creswell & Haykel, 2015). In the early days of the group's brutal campaign in Iraq, al-Nasr celebrated victory in Mosul as a new dawn for the country: "Ask Mosul, city of Islam, about the lions— how their fierce struggle brought liberation. The land of glory has shed its humiliation and defeat and put on the raiment of splendor" (as cited in Creswell & Haykel, 2015). Her choice of words helps one sense her deep passion for jihad, hidden within the lines. Mujahedeen are called lions and liberators. Mosul is called both a city of Islam and a land of 11 glory that, because of its liberation, has been released from the chains of shame and can now live in the splendor and pride of its former renown. Poetry has succored those serving in times of war for hundreds, even thousands of years. In the same manner, this key element of artistic cultural expression has helped bind together the modern jihadi movement, capturing the heroic deeds of martyrs who would otherwise remain nameless and unrecognized by the outside world. Serving in lands far away from home, young jihadists find inspiration, strength, and a renewed sense of identity in these haunting bits of rhyme. Social Pressure to Join Jihad. Abdullah Anas was an Algerian who served as one of the mujahedeen in Afghanistan in the 1980s and spent several years studying under Abdullah Azzam, the Palestinian "Father of Resistance to the Soviets" (Gall, 2020). Working to help Algerians achieve nonviolent change in their government, Anas, now in his 60s, has spent a life living and working among jihadists. To Anas, jihad is a fundamental principle of Muslim culture through which mujahedeen receive rewards in heaven: "I will never denounce jihad. As a Muslim, I know this to be a noble deed—where man can be the most beastly" (Gall). In a study of three Swedish jihadists, with experiences ranging from 1980s Afghanistan to the modern fight in Syria, Nilsson (2019) suggests that one of the fundamental social justifications for joining jihad is the sense that Islam and Muslims are collectively under attack. This, again, is a theme that applies to more than just the modern jihadist movement: Americans lined up in droves outside recruiting stations following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and decades later after September 11, 2001. Following the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, many Muslims from around the world began to see this not as just the West going after the 9/11 conspirators, but as a global attack on Islam. Each day, fresh news stories of coalition soldiers' crimes against 12 Muslim civilians and pictures of burning villages continued to motivate men to join the fight to protect the ummah from the foreign invaders. Nilsson contends that since most jihadists are very young, in their teens and early twenties, they are very susceptible to the influences of close friends and social groups. Safet, a young Muslim living in Sweden, was pressured by a friend to join the Islamic State in Syria, saying that he became convinced by his friend Ahmed that the group was fighting to protect Muslims (Nilsson). However, after realizing that the Islamic State was actually killing other Muslims in a practice called takfir, or excommunication, Safet became disillusioned and returned to Sweden (Nilsson). From the fight against the foreign invaders in the early 2000s in Afghanistan and Iraq, to the struggle for the establishment of an Islamic caliphate in 2015, it seems jihadists have most often been motivated by the need to protect the international Muslim community. Aside from the social responsibility of defending their faith and people, the need for adventure also seems to permeate the ideations of young men seeking to join a jihadist group. One of Nilsson's (2019) most interesting theories is that jihad is not the radicalization of Islam, but rather the Islamization of radicalism. Individuals who are already naturally predisposed to such adventurous or nihilistic behavior get caught up in the social dynamics of their time, ending up in a jihadist movement. Venhaus (2010) explains that in interviews with over 2,000 al-Qaeda prisoners from Iraq to Guantanamo Bay, he found that young Muslim men sought the cause of jihad for a number of normal social pressures felt by normal teens worldwide: "Revenge seekers need an outlet for their frustration, status seekers need recognition, identity seekers need a group to join, and thrill seekers need adventure" (Venhaus). The Effects of Social Media and Technology on Jihad. In the modern era, news is no longer bound by the time it takes for an article to be published, printed, and distributed across 13 great distance in a community. Social media platforms like Facebook, Youtube, Twitter, and Instagram have made sharing news instantaneous. Additionally, the advent of the smartphone, which acts simultaneously as a hand-held computer, high definition camera, and telephone with nearly world-wide coverage has forever changed the media landscape. In the era of modern jihad, one can post a single video that moves the minds of thousands in a matter of seconds. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq to topple Saddam Hussein's regime, news stories of atrocity among the efforts of coalition troops over the next decade served to further the cause of local and foreign jihadists to protect the ummah from these invaders. Accidental bombing of civilians, mistreatment of the prisoners at Abu Ghraib, and a general ignorance toward Muslim culture were fueled by social media and smartphone technology. Venhaus (2010) claims that throughout this early phase of the war in Iraq, al-Qaeda very rarely had to actively recruit, their global brand was aggressively promoted through satellite television, internet chat rooms, and social media platforms; willing candidates sought them out. This use of media continued to be perfected by jihadist organizations like the Islamic State, who published a digital magazine called Dabiq, named for the ideological capital of the proposed caliphate, which rallied Muslims to jihad through stories of glory and heroism in the cause for Islam. The Islamic State also posted grisly execution videos, with stunning music and production value, including super high-definition shots of their brutality. Publications and videos such as these could be copied, saved, shared, and re-shared before any sort of government intervention could stop them. Creswell and Haykel (2015) reveal that jihadists were running a massive, secret network of social media websites and fake accounts that could be rapidly assembled and dissembled by hackers. The effects of social media and technology on modern jihadist culture are easy to understand, but challenging to measure in scope and reach. Just as easily as videos of Islamic 14 State propaganda or poetry can be shared, so too can stories of coalition force atrocities in Afghanistan and Iraq. This has put strategists in a unique position, where it is nearly impossible to control the narrative. Unfortunately, the story that breaks first is still the one that is liked and shared the most, even if the truth comes out after. Effects of Western Culture on Jihad. Rapid globalization, including the widespread diffusion of the internet and technology into the Middle East in the last two decades has continued to foment jihadist hatred for the West. Personal conversations with multiple Muslims in Iraq and Afghanistan revealed that the decadence, lavish richness, and sinful lifestyles portrayed by Western movies and media served to fuel the fires of disdain among the pious Salafi-jihadists. Additionally, Muslim men living in Western nations following the attacks on the World Trade Center were ostracized and feared by society, often leading them to an eventual radicalization process. Being denied a peaceful coexistence because of continued Western misperception, caused many young Muslims to become angry and seek community and brotherhood among other Muslims experiencing the same problems. Venhaus (2010) notes that out of the over 2,000 captured jihadists interviewed, more than 30 per cent of them sought al-Qaeda because they were angry. Under the tutelage of local al-Qaeda mentors, the frustrations of these young men were then turned upon their neighbors through careful instruction and manipulation. They were taught to see the West as the enemy of Islam, with hundreds of the ummah being harmed by their military coalitions in Afghanistan and Iraq each day. They were instructed in the ways of the pious ones who came before them, inspiring them to turn from the sinfulness of their Western neighbors and take pride in their newfound self-discipline and righteousness in the eyes of Allah. Eventually, many of these young men would travel to their 15 ancestral homelands to join the struggle, or conduct terrorist attacks on their own Western communities. Analysis A Unique Challenge Given the litany of reasons one might join jihad, the incredibly complex cultural and social environment, and the fluidity of the modern jihadist movement, how can the United States begin to contain this problem? The reasons one individual might join a jihadist cause are as various and sundry as why one might choose to join any movement or profession over another. As Nilsson (2019) and Venhaus (2010) have detailed, there appears to be no singular marker: one could be an extremely religious or a passive Muslim, rich or poor, single or married with a family, have a completely stable social life or be isolated with no friends. Jihadists can be from any country, any walk of life, and usually do not widely broadcast their intentions prior to taking part in acts of violence for the cause of Islam. It is because of the near-impossibility of clearly identifying a pattern of distinguishable cultural markers that make it such a challenge for the United States government and its allies to address the threat of jihad. Targeting an individual before they become a jihadist or before they commit a terrorist act has been one of the most formidable challenges of our time for military and law enforcement professionals alike. Usually, the much simpler job is finding a jihadist who has allowed their communications discipline to slip before an act, or catching them in a pitched battle on foreign soil. In order to protect citizens of the West and East alike against jihadists' aims, the United States Government must be prepared to confront, contain, and counter the jihadist narrative "left of bang," before an attack occurs. 16 The Global War on Terrorism: Taking the Fight to the Jihadists. In the months that followed September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush deployed Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) paramilitary officers and US Special Operations Forces (SOF) to find, fix, and finish pockets of al-Qaeda militants being harbored by the Taliban in Afghanistan. A fierce campaign of relentless aerial bombardment and mounted assaults by the forces of the Afghan Northern Alliance led to a swift and decisive defeat of al-Qaeda and the Taliban. With Kabul and Kandahar in allied hands, and an interim government established under the leadership of the Pashtun Hamid Karzai, the future of a free and prosperous Afghanistan seemed assured, but what came to be known as The Long War had only just begun. Trillions of dollars, thousands of lives, and 19 years later, the United States and its allies have been forced to the negotiating table with the Salafi-jihadist Taliban. Likewise, after Saddam Hussein's continued disregard for international law, threats against the United States, and open violence against his own people, the administration of President Bush decided again to pursue a military option. Much like Afghanistan, the coalition was led by CIA operatives and SOF operators, coordinating airstrikes on key positions in a tactical display of American firepower affectionately titled Shock and Awe. However, unlike Afghanistan, a massive conventional invasion followed the bombing campaign, bent on toppling the Baathist regime and finding Saddam's chemical weapons stockpiles. What followed was a series of policy failures, leading to a steady influx of jihadists partnering with local insurgents seeking to oust the foreign invaders and protect the ummah from the atrocities of the kuffar. In my professional opinion, Iraq is still recovering from the decade-long military occupation, cleaning up the destruction left by the Islamic State, and on the brink of civil war due to concerns about being an Iranian puppet state. 17 Ineffective Military Methods to Combat Jihad Operation Iraqi Freedom. During my first combat rotation as an Infantryman in the Triangle of Death in southern Iraq in 2005-2006, I experienced the initial rumblings of a civil war between the Sunni and Shia Muslims in Iraq, each wrestling for power in a post-Saddam world. I was also witness to the inundation of foreign jihadists, joining the ranks of al-Qaeda in Iraq under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who at times headquartered in my area of operations. As I analyze our highly-kinetic and aggressive initial campaigns years later, I can see that the coalition's fight, first against Saddam, then against al-Qaeda, only bolstered jihadist motivation. In being a foreign invader, we inadvertently created a jihadist resistance movement, bent on the removal of their occupiers. Kilcullen (2010) explains this dilemma by explaining that focusing on the wrong metrics in a fight against insurgents can be deceptive: If you kill 20 insurgents, they may have 40 relatives who are now in a blood feud with your unit and are compelled to take revenge. Again in 2007-2008, I was deployed to Iraq as an Infantry squad leader to the sacred city of Khadimiyah in Northwest Baghadad. This was during the famous troop surge, meant to fix the ongoing problems with stability throughout the country. Being in the home of the beautiful Shrine of the Seventh Imam, it was a predominantly Shia area. Over the course of 15 months, my unit fought several engagements against Iranian-backed Shia militias and worked on project after project to strengthen local civil infrastructure, all while maintaining the utmost discretion against damaging homes or creating civilian casualties. Yet again, although we had conducted a nearly perfect counterinsurgency fight, it seemed that Kilcullen's insurgent math still applied: Fighting the jihadists only served to create more unrest within the population, no matter if we were restoring essential services and reducing damage to homes or not. 18 Operation Enduring Freedom. Nearly a decade after the fall of al-Qaeda and its Taliban hosts, I was deployed to the mountains of Afghanistan from 2010-2011. Stationed along the Arghandab River, just north of Kandahar, we were in the heart of the Pashtun Taliban. Again, the same story remained true: We fought the Taliban jihadists almost daily, but could not seem to win over the true key terrain in a counterinsurgency fight: The hearts and minds of the people. The Taliban would harass our unit's base of operations with a few pop shots as we called them, which would unleash a massive response in firepower and resources. Thousands of rounds of machine gun ammunition would be fired into the farm fields surrounding our Combat Out Post (COP), squads would be sent in pursuit of the attackers, and helicopters would spend hours scouring the terrain in an attempt to heap justice on the insurgents. This massive effort against so few served to erode the unit's motivation, exhaust our supplies, and alienate the civilian population whose homes and fields had been damaged in the process. Reflections on Personal Combat Experience. After years of combat experience and deeply studying Muslim culture, I can now see how the mistakes the coalitions made early-on in both operations only fueled the fires of insurgency, resistance to foreign occupiers, and generalized hatred for the West. Porch (2013) argues brilliantly that US counterinsurgency doctrine made the same mistake as its imperialistic predecessors of centuries before: Believing that military action was a proper vehicle for providing Middle Easterners with Western values, as well as a foundation for governance, social programs, and economic transformation in a region. This became evident in my own experience, realizing that no matter what sort of social, infrastructure, or economic programs ran alongside our military efforts, the people of both Afghanistan and Iraq felt the enormous social weight of being occupied by a foreign power, rendering these efforts nearly ineffectual. On the contrary, local and foreign jihadist movements 19 capitalized on each and every mistake of coalition forces, increasing their recruitment and resolve against the West. Though our military may have been winning every major battle against the jihadists, our policy makers and field commanders made the fundamental mistake of believing that these non-Western nations lived in some sort of time-warp, in which the adoption of Western democracy, rule of law, and capitalism would allow them to thrive as a nation (Porch). Effective Military Methods to Combat Jihad Surgical Strike and Precision Targeting. A unique feature of the Global War on Terrorism was the US military's continued perfection of covert strike operations with surgical precision deep into enemy safe havens. This was put on display in the rout of al-Qaeda by CIA and SOF in Afghanistan, in the kill/capture missions against the Baathists in the deck of cards in Iraq, and later in the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan and Sheik Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in Iraq. Having the ability to appear out of nowhere in the middle of the night, kill or capture an intended target with zero damage to infrastructure or civilian casualties, and leave within minutes of arrival struck fear into the hearts and minds of jihadists across the globe. The success and efficacy of this type of operation was acknowledged in the 2015 National Military Strategy, which stated: "The best way to counter VEOs [violent extremist organizations] is by way of.military strengths such as ISR, precision strike [emphasis added], training, and logistical support" (p.11). Likewise, President Obama's massive expansion of the use of drones, which could watch individuals for days and execute a precise strike that only touched the intended target, has continued to sow fear and deny jihadists' freedom of maneuver on a global scale. The US military and its allies have only continued to master these types of operations throughout the 20 fights in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other locations. The jihadists know this, and realize that one wrong move at any time could mean disaster. Security Cooperation. An additional theme that has spelled the end for jihadists throughout the globe has been the training, advising, and equipping of security forces and partners within Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other nations. Enabling the host-nation military to handle jihadist movements on their own helps the United States military work itself out of a job. US Army Special Forces are uniquely suited to accomplish this mission: With specialized training, language capability, and cultural understanding, they are able to train foreign security forces through a variety of Principle Tasks. These tasks include Foreign Internal Defense, which focuses on a holistic approach to internal security and protection of citizens against lawlessness and insurgency, and Security Force Assistance, which can be focused internally or externally against threats to a nation's stability and security. The success of these mission sets was evident in 2014, during my own experience with the Afghan Commando Kandaks' continued fight against the Taliban and in closely following the Iraqi Counterterrorism Service's efforts against the Islamic State. Both of these forces, built from the ground-up by US Army Special Forces have continually fortified weak conventional military force operations against jihadist groups in their respective nations. Muslim Youth Efforts Against Jihad Globalization, though it has been proven to bolster the jihadists' narrative against the West, has also been beneficial to the movement against jihad itself. Because youth of the world have access to technology that allows them to see the atrocities and lies associated with global jihadist organizations, they are beginning to turn the tide. During the Islamic State's rise to power in Iraq and Syria, Muslim youth from across Europe travelled to join the jihadists in their 21 fight against the West. However, groups of Muslim youth also spoke up to counter this narrative. In 2015 the Muslim Youth League, an anti-Islamic State cultural movement, declared a holy war against all extremist organizations (Dearden, 2015). The group called on all Muslims to stand united against those who have hijacked Islam and misrepresented the faith. Through engagement work in schools and communities, as well as a robust online campaign, the Muslim Youth League is fighting back against jihadist propaganda that bids young Muslims join the Islamic State and other extremist groups (Dearden). Since the time of this publication, the Muslim Youth League has spread to several countries throughout the Middle East, Asia, and Europe, each with their own social media presence, outreach programs, community events, and websites. Local Government Efforts Against Jihad In the years following the Islamic State's spread across Iraq and Syria, the United Kingdom has developed a robust strategy to help at-risk Muslims avoid the radicalization process. The program itself is called Contest, and includes four distinct categories: Prevent, Prepare, Protect, and Pursue (British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC], 2017). Police departments and social organizations have built relationships with doctors, faith leaders, teachers and others, who are required to report suspicious persons to the proper authorities. In response to these reporting requirements and recommendations, over 7,500 reports were filed between 2015-2016, with one in 10 being actionable intelligence for government and police forces (BBC). In 2015 alone, over 150 people, including 50 children, were kept from traveling to conflict zones in Iraq and Syria (BBC). The strategy has of course drawn criticism, for fear that it will further alienate Muslims from their local communities, but it presents as an excellent plan of action for identifying individuals who are at risk beyond just using traditional signals intelligence and 22 surveillance techniques. It does more than just target the individual, it also seeks to reform them through education, outreach, and community programs. Counterarguments You Can Kill an Idea. I have heard the opinion throughout my time in the military that jihad and the idea of Islamic supremacy can be completely eradicated. The example most often given is that Nazism, including the idea that the Aryan race was superior to all others, was effectively destroyed by a global military campaign. This argument is weak. The Nazis represented a very small portion of German culture, including among those serving in the military, so it was relatively easy to contain once there was an overwhelming military victory by the Allies. However, although the German Army of the 1940s was defeated militarily, the idea of white supremacy lives on in small social groups throughout the world to this day. The Ongoing Taliban Peace Talks. I have colleagues throughout the military who are convinced that the current negotiations with the Taliban are a key indicator of success in our two decades at war against the Salafi-jihadist group. The issue with this is that temporary cease fires have already been violated several times, leading one to believe that the strategic level leadership's messages are simply not reaching their subordinates or that local factions are not adhering to the agreement. Trusting that radical Muslim extremists will not allow Afghanistan to become a future safe haven for other jihadists, as it has in the past, is simply unrealistic. Believing some sort of quasi peace deal is going to miraculously pacify an organization that hates everything the West stands for is misguided. My own experiences throughout the Middle East have proven that the spirit of jihad and hatred will live on in Afghanistan. The Islamic State is Nearly Defeated. Multiple global media outlets continue to run stories about the dismantling of the Islamic State, as though the battle is won. Though Sheik Abu 23 Bakr al-Baghdadi has been killed, and the proposed Islamic caliphate was never fully realized, it would be naïve to think that the Islamic State's jihad is over. The movement will metastasize and take on new forms in other parts of the globe: It is already happening. Jihadists are continually leaving the battlefields of Iraq and Syria, headed back to their former homes in mainland Europe. As these individuals reenter the diaspora, the concern is that they will radicalize other individuals and conduct terrorist attacks within the continent. Conclusion The reasons an individual seeks to join a jihadist movement are deeply rooted in personal social dynamics, the security situation of their country, and a multitude of other religious, cultural, and economic factors. I agree with Venhaus (2010) and Gorka (2016) who assert that there is no singular military operation or strategy that can bring about a decisive victory against something so intangible as why one might join the modern jihadist movement. Use of the US military as a vehicle for the establishment of Western democracy and nation-building efforts in tribal nations like Afghanistan and Iraq only served to invigorate the jihadists' call to arms. Jihad is not something that can be eradicated completely by military force. Jihad must be confronted, contained, and countered through a comprehensive approach that empowers state and non-state actors to develop local solutions and directs expeditious military applications only where completely necessary. Recommendations Promote and Protect the Muslim Youth Leagues In order to truly create a cultural paradigm shift in Muslim youth at risk of radicalization, groups like the Muslim Youth League (BBC, 2017) should be promoted by governments worldwide as a bastion of true and peaceful Islam. While they should no doubt be supported, 24 governments must also protect these organizations from becoming targets for violent acts of terrorism or influence operations by jihadists. Through a combination of deep cultural understanding and positive messaging, the Muslim Youth League has already shown its effectiveness in the United Kingdom and beyond. Because the youth of each nation understand the social pressures and cultural influences that may lead one to seek jihad, they can effectively develop tailored, local solutions to persuade at-risk individuals. The Muslim Youth Leagues are on the front lines of countering the jihadist worldview, taking a stand and declaring war on jihad and its misrepresentations of Islam. Enable Local Solutions for Local Problems This should be accomplished through unified government action that involves all the United States' instruments of national power including diplomacy, information sharing, military action where necessary, and economic stimulus as needed. The specific issue with efforts like these, is that they cannot be accomplished during what is perceived by locals as a military occupation. This was proven true in Afghanistan and later in Iraq. Despite massive efforts to rebuild infrastructure, aid in agricultural processes, build schools, and organize community projects, the United States and its allies were still viewed as pushing Western values and democracy on nations through military occupation. As much as possible, we must limit our military presence in areas that are ripe for developing a jihadist movement, or in ones that are recovering. I have seen firsthand that government efforts against jihadist organizations or at-risk communities have often been fragmented, poorly staffed, and uncoordinated. Venhaus (2010) suggests the creation of an agency that is staffed, trained, funded, enabled, and equipped for strategic communications, calling it the United States Strategic Communications Agency. An 25 agency like this could ensure that a comprehensive national communications strategy is developed and achieved, with a focus on enabling local community efforts to counter the jihadist narrative. By promoting social outreach, religious education, and community programs, this agency could bolster the efforts of community leaders and stifle jihadist aims in their areas. Support Religious Education and Reintegration Reintegration programs in Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Singapore and elsewhere have successfully rehabilitated former jihadists through religious education (Venhaus, 2010). Countering the apocalyptic world view of jihadist groups like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State requires local religious leaders who understand their community's issues to band together and refute the extremist narrative. Through careful, patient, and individually-tailored instruction, Muslim religious leaders can invalidate each and every one of the extremists' claims. Individuals who turn to jihad are often seeking this type of direction, they just find it in the wrong places. Counter Threats with Tailored Military Force Packages Continued themes among the military failures in counterinsurgency and counterterrorism operations during the early years of the Global War on Terrorism are indiscriminate use of force, lack of cultural understanding, and hyper-focus on tactical gains while failing at the strategic level. US government nation-building efforts on the backs of the military cost our country trillions of dollars, thousands of lives, and years of frustration, bogged-down in an endless quagmire of misunderstanding. US Army Special Forces are selected, trained, equipped, and enabled to clandestinely handle complex problem sets in denied or politically-sensitive environments. Each Special Forces Group is regionally-aligned, with Operational Detachments developing deep cultural understanding through Area Studies and continuous relationship-building with regional state and 26 non-state actors. Special Forces operators understand the complex cultural and security situations in their areas of responsibility and have the language capability and strategic understanding to operate with complete independence of outside support. Frankly, if given the authority and autonomy to do their jobs, Special Forces can coerce, disrupt, or overthrow jihadist organizations unilaterally, or train, advise, and equip foreign security forces to accomplish this task on their own. This can all be done independent of a large, slow, and expensive conventional military occupation. Organizations like al-Qaeda must be kept in a state of constant fear and uncertainty. US Special Operations Forces are uniquely suited to this task. Through structured, rapid application of military force, SOF can find, fix, and finish intended targets with surgical precision. 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The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of credit card knowledge and financial self-efficacy toward credit card misuse and intention to reuse credit card. The technological breakthroughs and regulatory reforms of the past decades have brought payment media to the forefront of business, social and political interest. This research is a survey research that is conducted to understand the causal relationships between variables with the use of questionnaire as the instrument to obtain data. The questionnaire is distributed to 100 sample who fulfill the requirements. The sample of this research are adults in Pontianak that are at least 21 years old. In this research, the data analysis method used is Structural Equation Model Partial Least Square (SEMPLS) method. To conduct analysis using PLS method, this research is using smartPLS 3.0 software. 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ABSTRAKGPIB Jemaat Siloam Pontianak merupakan entitas nirlaba yang berbentuk sebagai tempat ibadah dan didirkan dilingkungan institusi pendidikan. Berdasarkan hal itu, penulis tertarik melakukan penelitian terkait untuk menerapkan PSAK Nomor 45 Tentang Pelaporan Keuangan Entitas Nirlaba terhadap laporan keuangan yang telah disusun oleh GPIB Jemaat Siloam Pontianak tersebut serta ingin mengetahui sistem pelaporan keuangan yang diterapkan dan kendala-kendala dalam menerapkan PSAK Nomor 45 tersebut.Alat analisis yang digunakan oleh penulis adalah analisis kualitatif yaitu menggunakan PSAK Nomor 45 dalam menyusun laporan keuangan dan kuisioner dalam mengetahui kendala-kendala yang di hadapi oleh entitas nirlaba dalam menerapkan PSAK Nomor 45. Penulis menerapkan PSAK Nomor 45 pada Laporan Keuangan GPIB Jemaat Siloam Pontianak untuk periode Januari 2015 – Desember 2015. GPIB Jemaat Siloam Pontianak dapat menerapkan PSAK Nomor 45 dalam laporan keuangannya meskipun dalam bentuk yang sederhana. Selain itu dapat diketahui kendala internal dan eksternal GPIB Jemaat Siloam Pontianak dalam menerapkan PSAK Nomor 45. Kendala Internal yaitu: (a) bendaharawan yang memiliki pemahaman laporan keuangan yang kuran serta latarbelakang yang tidak sesuai dengan tanggungjawab yang diberikan (b) adanya kesepakatan bersama antar pengurus tentang sistem penyusunan pelaporan keuangan. Sedangkan kendala eksternal yaitu : (a) belum adanya sosialisasi dan edukasi langsung dari pihak terkait tentang PSAK Nomor 45. (b) belum adanya anjuran dari pemerintah untuk menjadikan PSAK Nomor 45 sebagai acuan penyusunan laporan keuangan. Kata Kunci: Entitas Nirlaba, Lapora Keuangan, PSAK Nomor 45 ABSTRACTSiloam Church GPIB Pontianak is a non-profit entity shaped as a place of worship located at educational institutions. Based on that, the authors are interested to researching by applying PSAK No. 45 About Financial Reporting For Non-Profit Entity on the financial statements which have been prepared by Siloam Church GPIB Pontianak and wanted to know the financial reporting system that is applied and the constraints in implementing the PSAK No.45.The analytical tool used by the authors is a qualitative analysis that is required under PSAK No.45 in preparing financial reports and questionnaires in knowing the constraints faced by nonprofit entities in applying PSAK No.45. The author applied PSAK No.45 to the Financial Statement of Siloam Church GPIB Pontianak for the period January 2015 - December 2015. Siloam Church GPIB Pontianak can apply PSAK No.45 in its financial statements although the simplest form. Besides knowable internal and external constraints Siloam Church GPIB Pontianak in applying PSAK No.45. Internal Constraints are: (a) the treasurer who have less understanding of the financial statements and educational backgrounds that are not in accordance with the given responsibilities (b) their collective agreement between officials on the preparation of the financial reporting system. While the external constraints, namely: (a) the lack of socialization and education directly related parties of PSAK No.45. (b) the absence of encouragement from the government to make the PSAK No.45 as a reference for the preparation of financial statements. Keywords: Non-Profit Entities, Financial Statements, SFAS No. 45 RINGKASAN SKRIPSI"ANALISIS PENERAPAN PSAK NOMOR 45 TENTANG PELAPORAN KEUANGAN ENTITAS NIRLABA BAGI GPIB JEMAAT SILOAM PONTIANAK"1. Latar Belakang GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak merupakan entitas nirlaba berbentuk gereja yang terletak dikawasan kota Pontianak. Maka perlu adanya penyesuaian dalam laporan keuangan yang disusun oleh GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak agar dapat mengacu kepada standar yang berlaku yaitu PSAK Nomor 45 Tentang Pelaporan Keuangan Entitas Nirlaba. Sehingga diharapkan GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak dapat menjadi role model bagi entitas nirlaba lainnya.2. PermasalahanBagaimana sistem pelaporan keuangan yang diterapkan pad GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak?Bagaimana penerapan laporan keuangan GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak berdasarkan PSAK Nomor 45?3. Tujuan PenelitianMengetahui sistem pelaporan keuangan yang telah diterapkan oleh GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak. Menerapkan laporan keuangan GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak berdasarkan PSAK Nomor 45 Tentang Pelaporan Keuangan Pada Entitas Nirlaba. 4. Metode PenelitianLokasi : GPIB Siloam Jemaat PontianakSumber data : Data primer dan data sekunderAlat analisis : Penerapan laporan keuangan sesuai PSAK No. 45 5. Hasil dan pembahasanPada awalnya, GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak melakukan pelaporan keuangan hanya melalui Buku KasUmumLaporan keuangan yang disusun oleh GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak dapat disusun dan disajikan sesuai dengan PSAK No. 45. 6. Kesimpulan dan saran KesimpulanBerdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak hanya melakukan pelaporan keuangan secara sederhana dengan mencatat penerimaan dan pengeluaran kas selama satu tahun dan belum menerapkan PSAK No.45SaranBerdasarkan penelitian yang dilakukan, diharapkan kepada pengurus GPIB Siloam Jemaat Pontianak dapat melakukan penyusunan pelaporan keuangan sesuai dengan PSAK No. 45 dan kepada Ikatan Akuntan Indonesia maupun pemerintah terkait agar dapat memberikan sosialisasi dan edukasi terkait penerapan PSAK Nomor 45 pada pelaporan keuangan entitas nirlaba. SUMMARY "ANALYSIS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PSAK No. 45 ABOUT FINANCIAL REPORTING IN NONPROFIT ENTITIES FOR SILOAM CHURCH GPIB PONTIANAK"BackgroundSiloam church GPIB Pontianak is a non-profit entity shaped as a mosque located at City of Pontianak. herefore, it is necessary adjustments in the financial statements have been prepared by Siloam church GPIB Pontianak in order to refer to the applicable standards that PSAK No. 45 About Financial Reporting For Non-Profit Entity. So expect Siloam church GPIB Pontianak can become role models for other nonprofit entities.Problems How the financial reporting system which applied to the Siloam church GPIB Pontianak?How the application of the financial statements of Siloam church GPIB Pontianak in accordance with PSAK No. 45? Objective Knowing the financial reporting system which has been implemented by the Siloam church GPIB Pontianak.Applying the financial statements of Siloam church GPIB Pontianak in accordance with PSAK No. 45 About Financial Reporting For Non-Profit Entity. Methods Location: Siloam church GPIB PontianakData Sources: Primary dataAnalysis tools: Application of financial statements in accordance with PSAK No. 45 Results and Analisys At first, Siloam church GPIB Pontianak financial reporting only through the General LedgerThe financial statements were prepared by the Siloam church GPIB Pontianak can be prepared and presented in accordance with PSAK No. 45. Conclusions and Recomendation ConclusionBased on the results of research conducted, Siloam church GPIB Pontianak only make financial reporting in a simple recording receipts and disbursements during the year and have not applied PSAK No. 45RecomendationBased on research conducted, encouraged the board of Siloam church GPIB Pontianak can prepare financial reporting in accordance with PSAK No. 45 and the Indonesian Institute of Accountants (IAI) and the relevant government to provide socialization and education related to the implementation of PSAK No. 45 to the nonprofit entity's financial reporting. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Amaliah, S.A., (2016) Analisis Penerapan PSAK No.45 Tentang Pelaporan Keuangan Organisasi Nirlaba Pada SMA Panca Bhakti Pontianak. Skripsi. Universitas Tanjungpura.Andasari, P.R., (2016) Laporan Keuangan Organisasi Nirlaba (Lembaga Masjid). Jurnal Ekonomi Universitas Kadiri Vol. 1, No. 2, September 2016:143-152.Arifin, J, (2011) Menyusun Laporan Keuangan UMKM dengan Microsft Excel. Jakarta : PT. Elex Media Komputindo.Atika (2016) Penerapan PSAK No. 45 Tentang Pelaporan Keuangan Entitas Nirlaba Pada Pondok Pesantren Darul Ma'Arif Sintang. Skripsi, Universitas Tanjungpura.Bastian, I, (2007) Akuntansi Yayasan dan Lembaga Publik. Jakarta : ErlanggaBastian. I, (2007) Akuntansi Untuk LSM dan Partai Politik. Jakarta : ErlanggaBeams, F.A., Joseph H.A., Robin P.C., dan Suzanne H.L., (2009) Advanced Accounting: Tenth Edition. New Jersey : Pearson Education, Inc.Belkaoui, A.R., (2000) Teori Akuntansi. Buku I. Edisi Pertama. Jakarta : Salemba EmpatIkatan Akuntan Indonesia (2014) Standar Akuntansi Keuangan Per Efektif 1 Januari 2015. Jakarta: Ikatan Akuntan IndonesiaKementerian Agama Republik Indonesia (2014) Sistem Informasi Masjid: Masjid Al-Muhtadin Komplek Universitas Tanjungpura. Diakses dari http://simas.kemenag.go.id/index.php/profil/masjid/145/ Jakarta: Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia.Lestari, J. (2013) Akuntansi Untuk Entitas Tempat Ibadah. Diakses dari http://julymuslimah.blogspot.co.id/2013/09/akuntansi-untuk-entitas-tempat-ibadah-1.html?m-1Masjid Al Muhtadin Universitas Tanjungpura (2012) Sejarah singkat Masjid Al-Muhtadin Universitas Tanjungpura. Diakses dari http://almuhtadin-untan.blogspot.co.id/2012/05/sejarah-singkat-masjid-al-muhtadin.html. Pontianak: Masjid Al-MuhtadinNainggolan, P. (2005) Akuntansi Keuangan Yayasan Dan Lembaga Nirlaba Sejenis. Jakarta : Raja Grafindo Persada.Paramitha, Elsa (2012) Analisis Penerapan PSAK No.45 Terhadap Pengakuan, Pengukuran Setelah Pengakuan Awal, Penyajian Dan Pengungkapan, Laporan Keuangan Organisasi Nirlaba Studi Kasus : Yayasan Sekolah. Thesis. Universitas Bina Nusantara. JakartaPicelia, R, (2013) Penerapan PSAK 45 dalam Penyusunan Laporan Keuangan Perusahaan Nirlaba (Non Profit) Pada Yayasan Pendidikan SMK Putra Khatulistiwa Pontianak. Skripsi. Universitas Tanjungpura. PontianakPontoh, C.R.S., (2013) Penerapan Laporan Keuangan Organisasi Nirlaba Berdasarkan PSAK No 45 Pada Gereja Bukit Zaitun. Skripsi. Universitas Sam Ratulangi. ManadoPurnamasari, F., (2013) Analisis Penerapan PSAK Nomor 45 Pada Yayasan di Kota Malang. Skripsi. Universitas Negeri Malang. MalangSabeni, A., dan Imam G. (2001) Pokok Pokok Akuntansi Pemerintahan. Edisi ke IV. Yogyakarta : BPFESatori, D., dan Aan K., (2010) Metodologi penelitian kualitatif, Bandung: Alfabeta.Sejati, N.A., (2012) Bagaimana Perlakuan Akuntansi Renovasi Aset Tetap? Diakses dari http://www.warungkopipemda.com/bagaimana-perlakuan-akuntansi-renovasi-aset-tetap/Sugiono, A., Yanuar N.S., dan Synthia M.K. (2009) Akuntansi dan Pelaporan Keuangan Untuk Bisnis Skala Kecil dan Menengah. Jakarta : Grasindo.Sulistyawan, D. (2007) Akuntansi Nirlaba Menggunakan Accurate. Jakarta : PT. Elex Media Komputindo.Umar, H., (2013) Metode Penelitian Untuk Skripsi dan Tesis Bisnis , Jakarta : Raja Grafindo Persada

In October this year, Science published a journalistic investigation into quality of peer review in open access journals [1]. The results were sobering. Around 60% of all journals accepted to publish a research paper with most obvious and basic mistakes - in fact the whole paper, its data, authors and their affiliations were entirely made up by the journalist, John Bohannon, to expose poor peer review. The article has provoked a lot of media attention as well as a backlash from open-access publishers and supporters, who called it unethical, unsound and even accused the journalist of being racist (for making up authors with African names). But regardless of the criticisms, the paper's surprising findings stand and should be a cause of grave concern for science and science publishing: it shows that many - if not most - open access journals do not have a strict enough editorial and peer review process to catch poor research and flawed papers. The article intrigued me especially, as I commissioned a similar feature article for the website where I edit new and feature, SciDev.Net, which we published earlier this year [2]. I also had the idea of sending out fake and flawed papers to catch 'bad journals' who accept it, but the time and money needed to do this meant we ended up skipping the investigative part, and we based our article only on reporting interviews with people affected. The key findings were that this is a global problem with some journals prey on researchers going for their money but not providing proper peer review, and that pressure to publish draws scientists, especially in developing countries, to publish in such journals. Experts suggested investigation and regulation is needed to ensure proper peer review, but there was little indication that this regulation will happen any time soon. Another key reason for not sending out fake papers were concerns over how to do this ethically and legally - in fact, the prospects of being sued by journals or their publishers for even talking about this issue meant that we had to be extra careful and run the article by media lawyers, as well as amend some sections and still accept some risk of being sued. Bohannon, in his recent interview with The Scholarly Kitchen blog, says his investigation, too, was initially held back by an editor who feared a lawsuit [3]. And here's the thing: there is a huge number of journals and publishers out there doing a poor job indeed, publishing suspect science and some charging scientists money for it, and yet this is not illegal - and there is no national or international body that can order such journals to shut down. What they do is bad for science, good for publishers who make money off it and even good for some scientists who choose to publish there simply not to perish - rather than having any significant findings to communicate, and yet it is not against any law to do so. Yet journalists wanting to report on this issue fear being sued and are being held back from even investigating the issue. This is why I think Science's article is so important: it was brave enough to investigate this issue and expose bad practice even though the prospect of a lawsuit was very real along the way [3]. This is what real journalism is about: telling stories that someone somewhere does not want you to tell; and seeing it done in science, where we rarely have investigative stories is especially satisfying. And even after this expose there may be no consequences for most of the journals and publishers. Indeed, apart form InTech's (Rijeka-based publisher) International Journal of Integrative Medicine, which closed down as I reported at Retraction Watch blog [4], Bohannon says he is not aware of any other closures [3]. In the legal void in which anyone can set up a 'scientific journal' online and start charging scientists for 'publishing' there it is up to national and international grant giving bodies and funders to act to exclude journals with poor peer review from being accepted in scientists grant, job and promotion applications. Science's investigation included most - or all, as Bohannon claims - of open access publishers that publish in English and in sciences (such as biology, medicine, chemistry), targeting 304 journals many of which were listed in Directory of Open Access Journals, and some, tellingly, in Beall's List of predatory publishers. This left out thousands of journals that publish in local languages, including many in our region of South-East Europe. Croatia alone, has 343 academic journals listed on the central portal of Croatian scientific journals - Hrčak [5]. Most of these are open access and funded by the government, yet scientists often criticise many of them for being a waste of public money and dumps for bad science that cannot be published in better international journals [6]. Quality of peer review, especially in domestic language is also brought into question [6]. Similarly, in Serbia, SCIndeks lists 411 academic journals [7]. Yet, Centre for Evaluation in Education and Science, which runs the index together with National Library of Serbia, found recently that up to 11% of all articles published there contained some sort of plagiarism [8]. The centre itself admitted later that "after about one-year time we have to admit that the expected response by journal editors is still missing" and itself it only excluded two of the biggest culprits out of SCIndeks [9]. Similarly, my own journalistic investigation into what how, if at all, plagiarised papers are then retracted from journals in Serbia [10] and Croatia [11] shows a lack of standard practices and wide variation in retraction practices - often not following internationally accepted guidance, such as those set by COPE. If journals fail to detect plagiarism, which is a routine procedure these days, one wonders what the state of peer review and detection of other forms of misconduct may be. Indeed, a more recent study by the same centre found what is calls"a citation cartel created for manipulative purposes by two predatory journals" published by a publisher based in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but where many Serbian researchers regularly publish, in what the study called a cartel (i.e. scientists know they are doing a bad thing, paying public money to publish in their friends' journals, and citing other studies in those journals to artificially boost their impact factors) [12]. What these examples highlight is that by no means has the publishing misconduct - or at least suspect practices - bypassed our region. In fact, small scientific communities, peer review in local languages, and lack of publishing and scientific expertise are all likely to exacerbate the problems in conducting proper peer review in small and local journals. Indeed, out of five journals in the former Yugoslavia, which Bohannon targeted, only one - the journal you are reading - has recognized the problems with the fake paper and decided to reject it. The other four: International Journal of Integrative Medicine (In Tech, Croatia), Journal of Plant Biology Research (International Network for Applied Sciences and Technology, BH), Acta Facultatis Medicae Naisensis (Medical Faculty of University of Niš, Serbia), and Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences (Institute of Immunobiology and Human Genetics in Skopje, Macedonia) all accepted it and if this was not a journalistic investigation they could have all be by now had published similar fake papers. When asked about this case, the editorial offices of the Journal of Plant Biology Research and Acta Facultatis Medicae Naisensis did not reply to my e-mails, which is discouraging. It shows how little transparency some journals are prepared to have in their work, and to what extent they can simply ignore such exposes by even the venerable Sciencemagazine. The answers I received from the other three journals' editorial offices shine some light on the issues in the region [13]. Editor of the Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, Professor Mirko Spiroski, PhD, MD, told me his editorial team and peer reviewers did not have expertise in the field the fake article was in, and after seeking ten peer reviews and only receiving one back (a single line review), they decided to accept the paper nevertheless. InTech basically said they gave their appointed scientific editors, who were not part of the firm, full freedom in peer review and then blamed the mistake on them. This shows a lack of in-house expertise in some journals and a worrying degree of relying on outside editors or peer reviewers with little oversight to make the decisions on whether to publish a paper or not. In contrast, the editors of this journal, Professor Bakir Mehić, PhD, MD and AminaValjevac, PhD, MD highlighted the value of in-house pre-review check of papers, before sending them out to peer reviewers. As the world continues to debate the merits of, and potentially better ways of doing, peer review (e.g. post-publication peer review, Peerage of Science's or LIBRE's community peer review before it reaches journals), we should take care to ensure proper peer review in our journal now. It is not rocket science and it has worked for centuries now. And national bodies and funders should recognize good practice and reward hard-working and ethical editorial offices to stimulate excellence and better peer review, while at the same time punishing the misconduct and being quicker and more proactive in striking off known offenders off citation indices and lists of journals accepted for official grants and job promotions.

Chapter 1 Introduction: Globalization and the Millennial Ascent of Individual Rights; Ino Rossi -- PART I. GLOBALIZATION AS A FIELD OF STUDY: CONCEPTUALIZING AND EXPLORING GLOBALIZATION: Introduction: Chapter 2. The Global Turn; Roland Robertson -- Chapter 3. Global Systemic Anthropology and the Analysis of Globalization; Jonathan Friedman -- Chapter4. Media, Sociocultural Change, and Meta-Culture; York Kautt -- Chapter 5. Globalization and the Challenge of the Anthropocene; Leslie Sklair -- Chapter 6. Conceptual Structures for a Theory of World Society; Rudolf Stichweh -- Chapter 7. Principles of Geo-Political Dynamics; Jonathan H. Turner -- Chapter 8. Transdisciplinarity in Globalization Research: The Global Studies Framework; Manfred B. Steger. PART: GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES: CULTURAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL: ON CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION : Chapter 9 Goals, Values, and Endemic Conflicts in the New Global Culture; Martin Albrow -- Chapter 10. The Affectual Landscape of Globalization: New Migration, Generalized Discontent, and Ressentiment; Jörg Dürrschmidt -- Chapter 11. Globalization, Cosmopolitanization, and a New Research Agenda; Joy Zhang.-. PART ON POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION : Chapter 12. Global Transformations in Polity, Policy, and Politics: World Polity, Europe, and the Nation-State; Didem Buhari Gulmez -- Chapter 13. The Politics of the Adjective Global: May's Global Britain and the 'New World'; Sabine Selchow -- Chapter 14. (Postmodern) Populism as a Trope for Contested Glocality; Barrie Axford -- Chapter 15. Globalization and the Rise of the Economic State: PRC and USA in Comparison; Guoguang Wu PART: ON ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: Chapter 16. Trade Globalization and Its Consequences; Michael C. Dreiling -- Chapter 17. The Political Economy of the United States and the Structure of the Millennial World-System; Salvatore Babones -- Chapter 18. Global Inequality and Capitalist World-Economy, 1500—Present: A Critique of Neo-Modernization Theories; Sahan S. Karatasli -- Chapter 19. Mind the Gaps! Clustered Obstacles to Mobility in the Core/Periphery Hierarchy; Marilyn Grell-Brisk and Christopher Chase-Dunn -- Chapter 20. Global Inequality and Global Poverty; Robert Holton. PART: ON ECOLOGICAL GLOBALIZATION: Chapter 21. Reconfiguring Ecology in the Twenty-First–Century. Social Movements as Producers of the Global Age; Geoffrey Pleyers -- Chapter 22. Globalization, Marginalization, and the External Arena; Robert Schaeffer -- Chapter 23. Global Indigenism and the Web of Transnational Social Movements; Christopher Chase-Dunn, James Fenelon, Thomas D. Hall, Ian Breckenridge-Jackson, and Joel Herrera -- PART: GLOBALIZATION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH: VIEWS FROM THE ASIA-PACIFIC: Globalization and Political Economy Chapter 24. Globalization in Asia or Asian Globalization?; Habibul Haque Khondker -- Chapter 25. China's Global Rise: From Socialist Self-reliance to the Embracement of Economic Globalization; Yin-wah Chu -- Chapter 26. The Newness of the Chinese Developmental State Under Xi's Administration; Falin Zhang -- Chapter 27. India's Transition: A New Complex of Capitalism and Hindu Nationalism; Anjan Chakrabarti, Anup Dhar, and Sayonee Majumdar -- Chapter 28. Socially Sustainable Globalization? The Domestic Politics of Globalization in Australia; Tom Conley. Part: Impact of Globalization on Culture -- Chapter 29. Neoliberalism Without Guarantees: The Glocality of Labor,Education, and Sport in Japan from the 1980s to the 2000s; Koji Kobayashi and Steven J. Jackson -- Chapter 30. "The Impact of Globalization on Chinese Culture and "Glocalized Practices" in China"; Ning Wang -- Chapter 31. Border-Crossing and Interfacing in Asia: Approaches, Patterns, and Consequences; Ming-Chang Tsai -- Chapter 32. Transformations in Kinship Relations in a Globalized India: Interrogating Marriage, Law, and Intimacy; Rukmini Sen Part: Globalization, Law and Democracy -- Chapter 33. The Ascent of Asian Strongmen: Emerging Market Populism and the Revolt Against Liberal Globalization; Richard Javad Heydarian -- Chapter 34. Globalization and Indian Political Modernity; Leïla Choukroune -- Chapter 35. Whose Democracy? Governing Indonesia in a Globalized World; Lena Tan PART: VIEWS FROM SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: Globalization and Political Culture -- Chapter 36. Globalization, Democracy, and Good Governance in Africa; Ngozi Nwogwugwu -- Chapter 37. Political Globalization in an African Perspective: Continuity and Change; Goran Hyden Globalization, Poverty and Economic Development -- Chapter 38. Human Capital Contribution to the Economic Growth of Sub-Saharan Africa: Does Health Status Matter? Evidence from Dynamic Panel Data; Abel Kinyondo and Mwoya Byaro -- Chapter 39. Globalization, Poverty, and Development in Africa: Looking Past to the Future; Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba, Ebenezer Babajide Ishola,and Israel Kehinde Ekanade -- Chapter 40. Africa's Industrialization and Prosperity: Time for Structural Change; David Sseppuuya PART: VIEWS FROM LATIN AMERICA: Globalization and Political Economy -- Chapter 41. Latin America: Between the Promises of Globalization and the Chimera of Nationalism; Ronaldo Munck -- Chapter 42. Globalization and the Transformation of Latin America's Political Economy; William I. Robinson -- Chapter 43. The Caribbean and Global Capitalism: Five Strategic Traits; Jeb Sprague -- Part Impact of Globalization on Culture: Chapter 44. Through Thick and Thin: Globalization and Contested Conceptualizations of the Rule of Law in Latin America; Craig L. Arceneaux -- Chapter 45. Indigenous People in Pluricultural Nations of Latin America; June Nash PART: DESIGNS FOR A FUTURE WORLD ORDER: Introduction: TOWARD A DEMOCRATIC GLOBALIZATION Chapter 46. Re-embracing the Masses Economically by Financialization; Jürgen Schraten -- Chapter 47. A Manifesto for Good Globalization: Or, the Manifesto as Method; Paul James -- Chapter 48. Forging a Diagonal Instrument for the Global Left: The Vessel; Rebecca Álvarez and Christopher Chase-Dunn -- Chapter 49. Alternatives to Neoliberal Globalization; Vishwas Satgar PART: ALTERNATIVE CIVILIZATIONAL DESIGNS: Chapter 50. Global Mobilization in the Name of Islam: the Global Imaginary of Political Islam; Amentahru Wahlrab and Rebecca A. Otis -- Chapter 51. Tian Xia: A Confucian Model of State Identity and Global Governance; Tongdong Bai -- Chapter 52. Russian Civilization and Global Culture: Alternative or Coexistence?; Ilya Ilyin and Olga Leonova -- Chapter 53. (Re)Constructing Neo-Confucianism in a "Glocalized" Context; Ning Wang PART: TOWARD AN INTER-CIVILIZATIONAL AND COSMIC WORLD ORDER: Chapter 54. From Cultural Pluralism and Civilizational Disintegration to a Global Cultural-cum-civilizational System; Alexander N. Chumakov -- Chapter 55. From World Politics to a World Political System; Olga Leonova and Ilya Ilyin -- Chapter 56. The Final Frontier of Global Society and the Evolution of Space Governance; Eytan Tepper -- PART. CONCLUSION: Chapter 57. Toward a New Globalization Paradigm and a UDHR-Based Inter-civilizational World Order - Ino Rossi.

Money-related stress dates as far back as concepts of money itself. Formerly it may have waxed and waned in tune with the economy, but today more individuals are experiencing financial mental anguish and self-destructive behavior regardless of bull or bear markets, recessions or boom periods. From a fringe area of psychology, financial therapy has emerged to meet increasingly salient concerns.Financial Therapyis the first full-length guide to the field, bridging theory, practical methods, and a growing cross-disciplinary evidence base to create a framework for improving this crucial aspect of clients' lives. Its contributors identify money-based disorders such as compulsive buying, financial hoarding, and workaholism, and analyze typical early experiences and the resulting mental constructs ('money scripts') that drive toxic relationships with money. Clearly relating financial stability to larger therapeutic goals, therapists from varied perspectives offer practical tools for assessment and intervention, advise on cultural and ethical considerations, and provide instructive case studies. A diverse palette of research-based and practice-based models meets monetary mental health issues with well-known treatment approaches, among them:Cognitive-behavioral and solution-focused therapies.Collaborative relationship models.Experiential approaches.Psychodynamic financial therapy.Feminist and humanistic approaches.Stages of change and motivational interviewing in financial therapy.A text that serves to introduce and define the field as well as plan for its future, Financial Therapyis an important investment for professionals in psychotherapy and counseling, family therapy, financial planning, and social policy. Brad T. Klontz, Psy.D., CFP®is an Associate Professor at Kansas State University and a Managing Partner at Occidental Asset Management (OCCAM), LLC. He is a financial psychologist, keynote speaker, researcher, and author. Dr. Klontz is a former President of the Hawaii Psychological Association, a Fellow of the American Psychological Association (APA), and was awarded an Innovative Practice Presidential Citation from APA for his application of psychological interventions to help people with money and wealth issues and his innovative practice in financial psychology for practitioners across the country. Dr. Klontz is a frequent contributor to professional journals and magazines and is on the editorial review boards of Psychological Servicesand the Journal of Financial Therapy. With his father, Ted Klontz, Ph.D., Dr. Klontz has co-authored four other books on financial psychology: Mind Over Money: Overcoming the Money Disorders that Threaten Our Financial Health(Crown Business, 2009), Wired for Wealth: Change the Money Mindsets That Keep You Trapped and Unleash Your Wealth Potential(Health Communications, 2008), The Financial Wisdom of Ebenezer Scrooge: 5 Principles to Transform Your Relationship with Money (Health Communications, 2006), and Facilitating Financial Health: Tools for Financial Planners, Coaches, and Therapists(National Underwriters Company, 2008). Dr. Klontz's work has been featured on ABC News' 20/20, Good Morning America, CBS News, and NPR, and is frequently featured in print media including USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Time, Kiplinger's, Money Magazine, and others.Sonya L. Britt, Ph.D., CFP® is an Associate Professor and Program Director of Personal Financial Planning at Kansas State University. As founding president of the Financial Therapy Association, Dr. Britt enjoys the opportunity to combine her skills in marriage and family therapy (M.S.) with her talents in financial planning (Ph.D.). Dr. Britt is known for her groundbreaking research in physiological assessment of stress in the financial planning and counseling setting. Dr. Britt's other research interests include money issues within marriage, predictors of money arguments and their influence on relationship satisfaction and divorce, effectiveness of financial literacy efforts, and assessment of money beliefs and behaviors in the financial planning and counseling setting. Dr. Britt's research has been featured in Kiplinger's, InvestmentNews, The Wall Street Journal, the New York Times, and many other outlets. Dr. Britt attended the Child and Youth Finance International Financial Literacy Summit held in Amsterdam, Netherlands in April 2012 where she shared her experiences and research in financial literacy of young people. Dr. Britt co- edited a book with Dr. Dottie Durband, Student Financial Literacy: Campus-Based Program Development(published by Springer), which leads readers through the process of developing or enhancing financial literacy programs for college students. Dr. Britt serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Family and Economic Issues and the Journal of Financial Therapyin addition to serving as a regular journal reviewer for other academic journals.Kristy L. Archuleta, Ph.D., LMFTis an Associate Professor in Personal Financial Planning and the Director of the Institute of Personal Financial Planning Clinic at Kansas State University. Dr. Archuleta is a nationally and internationally recognized researcher and financial therapist with backgrounds in both personal finance and marriage and family therapy. She aims to bridge the gaps between interpersonal and intrapersonal factors and personal finance in research and practice. Dr. Archuleta co-founded the Financial Therapy Association, Journal of Financial Therapy, Institute of Personal Financial Planning Clinic, and Women Managing the Farm. She currently serves as the President-Elect and Treasurer of the Financial Therapy Association and is the editor of the FTA's scholarly journal, Journal of Financial Therapy. Dr. Archuleta, co-edited the Financial Planning and Scales, the first and only book of its kind geared for the academic community. Dr. Archuleta and her team of students were awarded 'Outstanding Paper' at the Financial Therapy Association conference, recognizing their seminal work of developing a conceptual framework of financial therapy. Dr. Archuleta is a recipient of the Myers-Alford Outstanding Teaching Award in the College of Human Ecology at Kansas State University and the Distinguished Alumni Award from the College of Human Sciences at Oklahoma State University. Dr. Archuleta's work has been featured in Glamour, Parade, Korean Journal of Financial Planning, NPR Marketplace, Chicago Tribune, NY Daily News, CBS Money Watch, Kansas City Star, Investment News, frobes.com, onenewsnow.com, usatoday.net, and filife.com, and Mid-America Ag Network among others. In addition to her scholarly work, Dr. Archuleta is a practicing Marriage and Family Therapist in Manhattan, KS.

[eng] This PhD thesis presents empirical evidence about the effects of political fragmentation on some of the main political challenges society has faced to date in the 21st century. For governments to behave in their citizens' best interests, they need to take responsibility for the actions they implement and offer satisfactory reasons for the policies they adopt. Therefore, it is crucial to guarantee that political fragmentation does not undermine their accountability. Specifically, this thesis has first analysed the effect of government fragmentation on political corruption by determining whether fragmented governments (non-majority) are more likely to find themselves embroiled in corruption scandals. Second, this thesis has examined the effect of political fragmentation (entry of one additional party in the legislature) on the implementation of fiscal consolidation. Finally, continuing with the study of fiscal consolidation, this thesis has analysed clarity of responsibility and the electoral effects of the implementation of fiscal adjustments in a multi-level governance setting. The second chapter of this thesis has examined the relation between government fragmentation and political corruption in the period 1999-2007. A matching procedure restricts the sample to majorities and non-majorities that are otherwise identical in a set of political variables. After matching, these municipalities are also similar in terms of a broad set of socio-economic traits that might correlate with corruption. In short, the only difference between the municipalities being compared is the government type (majority vs. non-majority). The results indicate that, in close elections (+/– 1 seat), the presence of a fragmented government is not associated with a higher probability of corruption. This outcome sheds light on the political and media debate in 2014 when the national government specifically sought to promote the formation of majority governments to avoid corruption. Moreover, the analysis carried out in the second chapter actually detects that some fragmented governments are less likely to be corrupt than majority governments. Indeed, non-majority governments supported by a pivotal party – that is, parties able to enter into agreements with either ideological bloc – are less corrupt. This result is consistent with a narrative according to which coalition partners are more willing to denounce political corruption when they have other options when it comes to forming a pact. Thus, with regards to limiting corruption, policies should seek to promote the presence of more neutral political groups that can act as pivotal parties. In an examination of the effects of political fragmentation on the way in which fiscal consolidation is implemented, the third chapter offers empirical evidence for a situation characterised by the presence of Fiscal Rules limiting deficits and new debt. This framework is becoming the standard setting for more and more local and regional governments in advanced democracies. By analysing the intra-term variation (2011-2014) of the main budgetary aggregates, the results show that political fragmentation has a relevant impact on fiscal consolidation and the resulting size of the budget. Increasing the political fragmentation of a legislature (in this chapter, the entry of one additional party) shifts the focus of fiscal consolidation from expenditure reductions to an increase in revenues. Thus, the resulting budget increases as the number of parties in the legislature expands. However, this effect is only significant when the overall fragmentation is not especially large. When legislatures already include more than four parties, the entry of one more party is not significant. Likewise, the fact of having to face financial difficulties also offsets the effect of increasing political fragmentation in a municipality. In times of economic problems, fiscal consolidation centres on expenditure cuts, irrespective of the level of political fragmentation. The results indicate that political fragmentation does not impact the effectiveness of fiscal consolidation, but that it does impact the approach adopted. Continuing with this examination of fiscal consolidation, the fourth chapter of this thesis has examined the political accountability of fiscal adjustments by analysing their electoral cost in Spain's system of multi-level governance. Political accountability in the case of fiscal adjustments may be weakened in multi-level governance systems as different tiers of government share fiscal responsibilities across the same population. These shared responsibilities may affect the clarity of responsibility and, hence, the electorate's ability to attribute credit or blame to a government for its actions. Moreover, each level of government has the incentive to blame the adverse economic outcomes on the performance of upper levels of government in that same system. By measuring the evolution of the incumbents' share of votes before and after the implementation of fiscal adjustments, the study provides causal evidence that voters punish the political party responsible for the application of fiscal adjustments (a tax increase in the cases studied here). The literature to date has been unable to provide a conclusive answer as to whether voters approve or disapprove of the application of fiscal adjustments and, so, this result represents a relevant contribution insofar as the setting considered overcomes some of the concerns of analyses of this kind, most notably problems of reverse causality and endogeneity. In short, this thesis has taken a broad focus on possible concerns associated with political fragmented and multi-level governments. The studies show that fragmented governments or legislatures represent neither increased risks of corruption (compared to majority governments) nor for fiscal consolidation (even if implemented differently). Moreover, the results are in line with the argument that political fragmentation does not diminish accountability. Accountability holds firm in multi-level governments, because of the persistence of clarity of responsibility in such systems of governance, with each tier of government being held responsible for its own actions. As a consequence, the benefits of increasing political fragmentation – insofar as voters can choose a party whose ideas are closer to their own political preferences – or decentralisation – with local governments being in a better position to address local problems – are not undermined by an objective malfunction of institutions of this type.

'Play, Life, Illusion' performed the Festival Stage TOTAL, Bauhaus Museum, Dessau Directed by Daniel Sturgis, Sarah Kate Wilson, Juan Bolivar and Matthew Draper Performed by students from Camberwell College of Arts: Amy Lott, Rafaella Lazarou, Molly Brown, Helen Ainscough, Robin Pickering, Oscar McQuillian-Bryan, Joseph Tebbutt, Martin Del, Busto Ruiz De Velasco, Zviad Sokhadze, Luke Parry, Clare Marsden Commissioned for the Festival Stage TOTAL, BA Fine Art students from Camberwell College of Arts reimagined and staged Xanti Schawinskys' performance-installation 'Play, Life, Illusion' (1936). Schawinsky was taught by Oskar Schlemmer, who led the Stage Workshop from 1923 – 1929. Schawinsky became particularly active in the Stage Workshop and eventually led the course, a course that investigated all aspects of performance. Later on, Schawinsky moved to America and founded the Stage Studies Workshop at Black Mountain College. Importantly, Schawinsky saw the theatre as a place of action where '…teaching and learning is shifted from the classroom to the stage as a practice ground and a laboratory for demonstration.' Schawinsky referred to 'Play, Life, Illusion' as a Spectodrama, a total experience performance installation concerned with duration, light, sound, colour and bodies moving in three-dimensional space. 'Play, Life, Illusion' is a non-narrative work, ordered into a series of episodes, within which the performer figured in a tableau and addressed particular themes such as colour, the news, motion and endlessness. The Camberwell group undertook research into Schawinskys' oeuvre, recognising him as a Bauhäusler unrestricted by media, who worked across painting, photography, architecture, graphic design, stage design and played saxophone in the Bauhauskapelle (Bauhaus band). In reimagining 'Play, Life, Illusion' students and staff worked together as a community of artists to produce a series of innovative performances which were staged throughout the entirety of the four-day programme of the Festival Stage TOTAL. Following a similar episodic structure to that of 'Play, Life, Illusion', the Camberwell group produced seven performances (episodes). The creation of these episodes began with students and staff selecting an object, sound and idea, that captured something they wished to develop into a performance demonstration. These included: Yoga Mats, an egg timer, a medical bag, the butterfly effect, a gift, absurdity, over-engineering, illusion, a synthesiser, WhatsApp pings, atemporal sounds, homelessness, a trap door, velcro, a mirror (on the floor), a raised heart-beat, an oak branch, discussions around immigration. Senior Lecturer Sarah Kate Wilson explains, '…the conversations that arose in our initial meeting pivoted around migration, surveillance, human rights and the political unrest we find ourselves in, in the UK, in 2019. Working with the objects, sounds and ideas generated in this initial meeting we set about organising these ideas under the following themes Socio-Political-Technological, Protest, Colour and Painting and London.' These topics extended far beyond the groups staged episodes, into the set lists, costumes and activities devised for the evening parties which the Camberwell group hosted each evening. Similarly to the way in which Schawinksy devised his Spectodramas, the Camberwell group worked across mediums to produce costumes, soundscapes, scripts, films, improvised actions, paintings. They played instruments, made sets and moveable sculptures. Each episode used a variety of technologies to explore the radical ethos of the Bauhaus, inflected through performance. The low-tech came into contact with the hi-tech, AR filters, drums, record players, smartphones, painting and live streaming were are all employed. Costumes that incorporated prosthetic limbs that hindered instead of helped the body, emergency silver blankets were worn as 'thought clouds' and bespoke tailor-made hand-painted jumpsuits drew attention to the way colour moves in space. Inspired by Schawinsky's painting 'Trac', (1960) the Camberwell group made enormous paintings using spray paint. Cans were attached to the undercarriage of skateboards, therefore the skaters left painterly marks as they traversed the canvas. These 4m x 2m canvases were stretched and installed, freestanding in space and formed the backdrop to much of the groups performances. Another element of the set was a wooden structure formed of interlocking trapeziums, populated with circular colour wheel paintings which had been painted or printed by each performer. These colour wheels were danced, choreographed according to a diagrammatical translation of a tableaux from 'Play, Life, Illusion'. Live soundscapes were produced as performers were attached to electric guitars via extended wires, therefore the movements of the body registered in eerie metallic sounds from the guitars effects loop. Performers broke the forth wall by offering toasted cheese sandwiches to spectators and elsewhere an all seeing being incessantly questioned the audience, asking the public to do something, and save the planet. One episode saw Camberwell BA Fine Art Sculpture alumna Hannah Skinner re-staged her degree show work, which explores themes of queerness, mimicry and humour through soft sculpture, air and sound. In another episode notions of protest and upheaval were explored, workers in hi-vis jackets carried enormous white banners aloft. These banners quickly become walls that were used to barricade and trap people. Performers danced in response to sounds made when contact mics interfaced with objects just as rocks and trees. In one episode the vision of performers was replaced by a gopro camera, which streamed by way of a live feed on Instagram, what the performers could 'see', the performers could see the audience, therefore the audience, in watching the performance by way of the live feed, could 'see' themselves. In their reimaging of Schawinsky's seminal work, the Camberwell group wholeheartedly embraced the spirit of the Bauhaus by choosing to work alongside one another as artists, sharing ideas whilst developing and exchanging skills. Following the festival at the new Bauhaus Museum, Dessau, their performances were re-staged at Camberwell College of Arts on the 24 October 2019 as part of the University of the Arts London OurHaus Festival, a programme of events that celebrates 100 years of The Bauhaus.

Programa de Doctorado en Migraciones Internacionales y Cooperación al Desarrollo ; Desde que ISIS declaró su califato de forma unilateral el 29 de junio de 2014, ha atraído a al menos 7,700 combatientes extranjeros de países occidentales y a otros 35,000 extremistas de otros 120 países. Esta migración de combatientes extranjeros, y la reciente ansiedad que supone su vuelta a los países de origen, se ha convertido en una de las principales preocupaciones en materia de seguridad en Occidente. Esta tesis doctoral se basa en los conocimientos en el ámbito de la trata de personas para proporcionar una alternativa a la securitización de la participación y la desvinculación de grupos políticamente violentos, como lSlS. Más concretamente, la estrategia de las 4P's utilizada en la lucha contra la trata de personas (prevención, protección, persecución y partenariados) ofrece un enfoque holístico apropiado para la prevención, la rehabilitación y la reintegración de extremistas violentos y combatientes extranjeros retornados, especialmente en el caso de las mujeres. Con el fin de confirmar la utilidad del ámbito la trata de personas como alternativa para los expertos en la lucha antiterrorista, este trabajo examina los paralelismos existentes entre los mecanismos de reclutamiento empleados por las redes yihadistas y aquellos empleados por las redes de trata. Una revisión bibliográfica preliminar revela que no hay estudios previos que destaquen estas similitudes y que, por tanto, no han explorado la aplicabilidad de la estrategia de las 4P's en el ámbito de la lucha contra el extremismo violento. Un análisis del discurso documenta que los medios de comunicación dominan la narrativa en tomo a ISIS. Esta realidad afecta tanto la investigación académica como la elaboración de políticas. A continuación, un estudio de caso sobre ISIS revela que los mecanismos de reclutamiento son muy similares a aquellos empleados por las redes de trata de personas, incluyendo la importancia dada a ideas como la 'mejora de los medios de vida' o la •idea de una utopía.' El 30% de los combatientes extranjeros que respondieron a la llamada a la migración (hijrah) han regresado a sus países de origen. Aunque la persecución siga siendo una opción, muchos de los combatientes extranjeros serán liberados. En el caso de las mujeres que no estuvieron involucradas en la lucha armada, lo más probable es que no se impongan penas de cárcel. El ámbito de trata de personas ofrece una serie de mecanismos de rehabilitacion y reintegracion que pueden ser adaptadas a las necesidades de aquellos que en su momento apoyaron el extremismo violento pero que nunca estuvieron directamente involucrados. Existen varias historias de éxito que reflejan que la cooperación entre las fuerzas de seguridad, activistas y antiguos extremistas pueden tener un efecto positivo en lo que respecta a la prevención y la reversión del proceso de radicalización. La estrategia de las 4P's pone de manifiesto que la solución ha de ir más allá de la represión. Los procesos de reintegración y rehabilitación efectivos suponen un elemento fundamental a la hora de abordar los principales elementos subyacentes del extremismo violento. Esta tesis doctoral plantea que no hemos de reinventar la rueda, y que mucho de lo que se ha aprendido a nivel internacional en la Guerra contra la Trata puede contribuir de forma positiva a la Guerra Contra el Terror. ; Since ISIS unilaterally declared it so-called Caliphate on June 29, 2014, it has attracted at least 7,700 Western foreign fighters plus another 35,000 extremists from another 120 countries. This flight offoreign fighters, and now anxiety associated with their potential return to their countries of origin, has become one ofthe main security concems in Westem countries This doctoral dissertation draws from what is known in the field of human trafficking to provide an altemative understanding to the securitization of engagement and disengagement from politically violent groups such as TSTS. The 4P strategy utilized to combat human trafficking (prevention, protection, prosecution and partnersbips) in particular offers a holistic approach that may prove appropriate for the prevention, rehabilitation and reintegration of violent extremist offenders and retuming foreign fighters, particularly women. In order to confirm the utility of human trafficking as an altemative for counter-terrorism experts and those countering violent extremism, the parallels between the recruitment mechanisms employed by jihadist groups and those employed by human trafficking networks are explored. A preliminary literature review reveals that no prior studies have bighlighted these similarities and have therefore not examined the applicability of the 4P strategy when it comes to countering violent extremism. A discourse analysis then documents that media dominates the discourse surrounding ISIS. Tbis reality affects both academic research and policymaking. Thereafter, an in-depth case study of ISIS recruitment reveals that its mechanisms are very similar to those employed by human traffickers, including the importance given to ideas such as 'livelihood improvement,' or 'selling utopía.• Thirty percent of the foreign fighters that answered ISIS' call for hijra (migration) have now returned to their countries of origin. Although prosecution must be incorporated, most of these foreign :fighters will be released and, in the cases of women who have not taken up arms, there willlikely be no incarceration. The :field ofhuman tra:fficking offers a series of reintegration and rehabilitation mechanisms that could be tailored to meet the needs ofthose who once supported violent extremism but were never directly engaged in it Several success stories show how partnerships between law enforcement, activists and former extremists can have a positive impact regarding prevention and reversing the radicalization process. As the 4P's model makes apparent, ultimate solutions must be more than merely punitive. Effective rehabilitation and reintegration will prove a crucial component of addressing the core issues violent extremism protrudes from. Tbis dissertation hypothesizes and concludes that we need not rebuild the wheel, and that much of what has been learned internationally from the War on Trafficking can make a positive contribution to the War on Terror.

The eco society, the knowledge society, the digital society are transforming into an intelligent society. It is built on "smart" work, which is done by "intelligent" government and business representatives, based on "intelligent" infrastructure and "intelligent" citizens, playing a key role in creating culture. In addition, the priority is the development of such industries as smart transport, smart health, smart energy, smart food, etc., which will eventually lead to the creation of a smart world. SMARTs will play a special role in the preparation of new-generation specialists, in which e-learning and personalized learning will have priority positions. In an intelligent society, technologies, previously based on information and knowledge, are transformed into technologies based on interaction, cooperation, exchange of experiences – smart technologies. Citizens, new generation specialists, turn their activities into "intelligent" and implement innovative changes in management strategies. This means that society needs more creative and open thinking persons, so that human dignity, based on flexibility and originality, is a priority. The most important issue is the training of staff with creative, creative potential, able to work and think in the new world. (Smyrnova- Trybulska 2018). The monograph "E-learning and Smart Learning Environment for the Preparation of New Generation Specialists" includes articles based on the best papers prepared and presented by authors from nine European countries and from more than twenty universities during the scientific conference entitled "Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Distance Learning", subtitled: "E-learning and Smart Learning Environment for the Preparation of New Generation Specialists", which was held on 15-16 October 2018, organized by the Faculty of Ethnology and Sciences of Education in Cieszyn, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. The speakers from University of Extremadura (Spain), Linnaeus University in Kalmar (Sweden), the Comenius University in Bratislava (Slovakia), Plovdiv University "Paisii Hilendarski" (Bulgaria), Lisbon Lusiada University (Portugal), Kirchlische Pedagogische Hochschule, Vienna (Austria), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (Ukraine), Gdańsk Technical University (Poland), Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, St. Petersburg (Russia), Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), (Russia), Jagiellonian University (Poland), Warsaw University (Poland), Silesian University in Opava (Czech Republic), Jesuit University of Philosophy and Education "Ignatianum", Cracow, Poland, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (Slovakia), University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland), University of Defence in Brno (Czech Republic), Kostiantyn Ushynsky South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University (Ukraine), Rzeszów University of Technology (Poland), Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin (Poland), Lublin University of Technology (Poland), Mykhailo Drahomanov National Pedagogical University, Kyiv, (Ukraine), Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (Poland), Taras Shevchenko National University "Chernihiv Collegium" (Ukraine), University of Ostrava (Czech Republic), Cracow Pedagogical University (Poland), University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw (Poland), Dniprovsk State Technical University (Ukraine), Poznań University of Medical Sciences (Poland), Warsaw University of Technology, (Poland), Higher School of Education of the Polytechnic Institute of Santarem (Portugal), Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, (Poland), University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw (Poland), Ternopil University (Ukraine), Federal Research Center "Computer Science and Control" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, (Russia), State Higher Vocational School in Krosno, (Poland) and other educational institutions delivered lectures providing insights into interesting studies, presented their recent research results and discussed about their further scientific work. The authors include experts, well-known scholars, young researchers, highly trained academic lecturers with long experience in the field of e-learning, PhD students, distance course developers, authors of multimedia teaching materials, designers of websites and educational sites. I am convinced that the monograph will be an interesting and valuable publication, describing the theoretical, methodological and practical issues in the field of the use of e-learning for societal needs, offering proposals of solutions to certain important problems and showing the road to further work in this field, allowing for exchange of experiences of scholars from various universities from many European countries and other countries of the world. This book includes a sequence of responses to numerous questions that have not been answered yet. The papers of the authors included in the monograph are an attempt at providing such answers. The aspects and problems discussed in the materials include the following: 1. E-environment and Cyberspace E-environment of the University  SMARTer Education – Preparing a New Generation of E-learning Specialists  Smart-Universities  Smart Technology in education  E-learning in a sustainable society  Internet of things 2. Effective development of teachers' skills in the area of ICT and e-learning  Computer training for prospective and practicing teachers in the area ICT and e-learning  Teachers' and learners' competences in distance learning and computer science Table of Contents 15  Distance Learning and Lifelong Learning  Self-learning based on Internet technology 3. E-learning and Intercultural Competences Development in Different Countries  Legal, social, human, scientific, technical aspects of distance learning and e-learning in different countries  Psychological and ethical aspects of distance learning and e-learning in different countries  Collaborative learning in e-learning 4. E-learning Methodology – Implementation and Evaluation  European and national standards of e-learning quality evaluation  Evaluation of synchronous and asynchronous teaching and learning, methodology and good examples  MOOCs – methodology of design, conducting, implementation and evaluation  Contemporary trends in world education – globalization, internationalization, mobility 5. ICT Tools – Effective Use in Education  Selected Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 technology  LMS, CMS, VSCR, SSA, CSA  Cloud computing environment, social media  Multimedia resources and didactic materials, Video-tutorial design 6. Theoretical, Methodological Aspects of Distance Learning  Successful examples of e-learning  Distance learning in humanities and science  Quality of teaching, training programs and assessment  E-learning for the disabled 7. E-learning in the Development of Key Competences  Key competences in the knowledge society  Use of e-learning in improving the level of students' key competences 8. Alternative Methods, Forms and Techniques in Distance Learning  Simulations, models in distance learning  Networking  Distance learning systems  M-learning Publishing this monograph is a good example of expanding and strengthening international cooperation. ; University of Silesia, MNiSW

Popular Internet services are fundamentally shaping and reshaping traditional ways of people communication, thus having a major impact on their social life. Two of the very popular Internet services with this characteristic are Online Social Networks (OSNs) and Peer-to-Peer (P2P) systems. OSNs provide a virtual environment where people can share their information and interests as well as being in contact with other people. On the other hand, P2P systems, which are still one of the popular services with a large proportion of the whole Internet traffic, provide a golden opportunity for their customers to share different type of content including copyrighted content. Apart from the huge popularity of OSNs and P2P systems among regular users, they are being intensively used by professional players (big companies, politician, athletes, celebrities in case of OSNs and professional content publishers in case of P2P) in order to interact with people for different purposes (marketing campaigns, customer feedback, public reputation improvement, etc.). In this thesis, we characterize the behavior of regular and professional users in the two mentioned popular services (OSNs and P2P systems) in terms of publishing strategies, content consumption and behavioral analysis. To this end, five of our conducted studies are presented in this manuscript as follows: - "The evolution of multimedia contents", which presents a thorough analysis on the evolution of multimedia content available in BitTorrent by focusing on four relevant metrics across different content categories: content availability, content popularity, content size and user's feedback. - "The reaction of professional users to antipiracy actions", by examining the impact of two major antipiracy actions, the closure of Megaupload and the implementation of the French antipiracy law (HADOPI), on professional publishers behavior in the largest BitTorrent portal who are major providers of online copyrighted content. - "The amount of disclosed information on Facebook", by investigating the public exposure of Facebook users' profile attributes in a large dataset including half million regular users. - "Professional users Cross Posting Activity", by analyzing the publishing pattern of professional users which includes same information over three major OSNs namely Facebook, Google+ and Twitter. - "Professional Users' Strategies in OSNs", where we investigate the global strategy of professional users by sector (e.g., Cars companies, Clothing companies, Politician, etc.) over Facebook, Google+ and Twitter. The outcomes of this thesis provide an overall vision to understand some important behavioral aspects of different types of users on popular Internet services and these contributions can be used in various domains (e.g. marketing analysis and advertising campaign, etc.) and different parties can benefit from the results and the implemented methodologies such as ISPs and owners of the Services for their future planning or expansion of the current services as well as professional players to increase their success on social media ; Les services Internet populaires modèlent et remodèlent fondamentalement les moyens traditionnels de communication des personnes, ayant ainsi un impact majeur sur leur vie sociale. Deux des services Internet très populaires avec cette caractéristique sont les Réseaux sociaux en ligne (OSN) et les systèmes Peer-to-Peer (P2P). Les ONS fournissent un environnement virtuel où les gens peuvent partager leurs informations et leurs intérêts tout en étant en contact avec d'autres personnes. D'autre part, les systèmes P2P, qui sont toujours l'un des services populaires avec une grande proportion de l'ensemble du trafic Internet, offrent une occasion en or pour leurs clients de partager un type de contenu différent, y compris le contenu protégé. En dehors de l'énorme popularité des ONS et des systèmes de P2P parmi les utilisateurs réguliers, ils sont intensivement utilisés par les professionnels (grandes entreprises, politiciens, athlètes, célébrités en cas d'ONS et éditeurs de contenu professionnels en cas de P2P) afin d'interagir avec les gens à des fins différentes (campagnes marketing, les commentaires des clients, amélioration de la réputation publique, etc.) Dans cette thèse, nous caractérisons le comportement des utilisateurs réguliers et professionnels dans les deux services mentionnés populaires (ONS et P2P) en termes de stratégies de publication, de consommation de contenu et d'analyse comportementale. À cette fin, cinq de nos études menées sont présentées dans ce manuscrit comme suit: - "L'évolution des contenus multimédias", qui présente une analyse approfondie sur l'évolution du contenu multimédia disponible en BitTorrent en se concentrant sur quatre mesures pertinentes à travers différentes catégories de contenu : la disponibilité du contenu, la popularité du contenu, la taille de contenu et les commentaires de l'utilisateur - "La réaction des utilisateurs professionnels face aux actions de lutte contre le piratage", en examinant l'impact de deux grandes actions de lutte contre le piratage - la fermeture de Megaupload et la mise en œuvre de la loi anti-piratage française (HADOPI) - sur le comportement des publicateurs professionnels dans le plus grand portail de BitTorrent qui sont les principaux fournisseurs de contenu en ligne protégé. - "La quantité d'informations divulguées sur Facebook", en enquêtant sur l'exposition publique des profils utilisateurs, une grande base de données comprenant un demi-million d'utilisateurs réguliers. - "Les utilisateurs professionnels Cross Posting Activity», en analysant le modèle de publication des utilisateurs professionnels de mêmes informations sur trois grands ONS à savoir Facebook, Google+ et Twitter. - "Les stratégies des utilisateurs professionnels dans les ONS", où nous étudions la stratégie globale d'utilisateurs professionnels par secteur (par exemple, les entreprises de voitures, l'habillement, politiques, etc.) sur Facebook, Google+ et Twitter. Les résultats de cette thèse fournissent une vision d'ensemble pour comprendre certains aspects comportementaux importants de différents types d'utilisateurs des services Internet populaires et ces contributions peuvent être utilisées dans divers domaines (par exemple analyse de campagne marketing et publicité, etc.) et les différentes parties peuvent bénéficier des résultats et des méthodologies mises en œuvre telles que les FAI et les propriétaires des services pour leur planification ou l'expansion des services actuels à venir, ainsi que les professionnels pour accroître leur succès sur les médias sociaux

When I was growing up in the beautiful Red Lick Valley in eastern Kentucky, I saw many families practicing intensive subsistence production. They grew large gardens, raised chickens for eggs and meat, built their own homes, and fixed their own cars and trucks. On the Yurok Reservation, I again saw a profound and ongoing engagement with hunting, gathering, and crafting activities - and then encountered contemporary subsistence yet again when I visited my wife's childhood home in rural Ireland. When I began my graduate studies, however, I could find little reflection of these activities in either the scholarly record or popular media. When they were noticed at all, they were often targeted for stereotyped ridicule: contemporary homesteaders in the US were either remnant hippies from the `60s, or quaint mountain folks lost in time. I already knew that these stereotypes were misleading and insufficient. However, they also highlighted the lack of understanding of a genuinely puzzling phenomenon: why, in the heart of an advanced industrial nation, are so many people still embracing what is, in essence, peasant production?Using multiple research methods - including in-depth, semi-structured interviews, participant observation, surveys, and archival work - I have found that contemporary homesteading is not a window lingering open upon the past, but a thoughtful and serious attempt to respond to the present. It is best thought of as an unusual kind of social movement. Rather than attempting to foster change by modifying policy or reforming dominant institutions, homesteaders pursue change through a conscious reworking of the economic foundations of their lives. Barbara Epstein calls this a "prefigurative" strategy: it aims to directly manifest - to prefigure - ways of life and relationships that dissidents believe are more appropriate. Because they do not require the visible organizational armature and attention-grabbing strategies of more traditional social movements, prefigurative movements - like the back-to-the-land movement - have often been overlooked by researchers.Contemporary homesteading is also an unusual social movement in that it attracts participants from widely different socioeconomic backgrounds. In eastern Kentucky there is an acute cultural distinction between two groups, known to each other, somewhat pejoratively, as hicks and hippies. I have found that neither group is accurately described by the dismissive stereotypes to which they are often subjected. There is indeed a countercultural back-to-the-land movement in the research area that emerged originally out of the radical leftist ferment of the 1960s. But rather than representing a dwindling cohort of aging hippie communards, this movement is comprised of people of all ages; my research suggests that there are more back-to-the-landers in the area now than there were forty years ago. Moreover, it is a movement comprised of a multi-stranded left, in which participants are as likely to have been radicalized through, say, the Quaker tradition or Catholic liberation theology as through the Grateful Dead or Timothy Leary. The stereotype of the "hick" homesteaders is no more accurate. They are not simply country folks carrying on Appalachian subsistence traditions despite the fact that those traditions have lost all practical relevance. Many of them have lived in cities and worked modern jobs, and consciously embrace homesteading in response to those experiences. They, too, are part of a back-to-the-land movement, in the sense of having chosen to live a certain way as a strategy of resistance.The presence of two groups who embrace homesteading, and yet remain distinct and somewhat distanced from one another provides one of the most profound and difficult questions that my research confronts. While there are individuals who move freely between these two groups, in general they remain remarkably segregated - even when they live side by side along the same country road. What accounts for this cultural distance? Whatever the difference between "hick" and "hippie" homesteaders, it is not straightforward: nearly half of those who can clearly be identified as belonging to the group of "countercultural back-to-the-land homesteaders" are themselves from rural Appalachian families.By far, the single most consistent difference between these two groups is that one group is not only college educated, but actively and independently literate; members of the other group, with few exceptions, have not attended college and seldom read. But this finding begs another question: why should a difference in the practice of literate intellectuality stand at the heart of profound cultural differences that encompass everything from diet and diction to religious belief and political orientation?The answer is complicated, but it emerges from the recognition that a modern capitalist society is one in which people have profoundly different experiences in all aspects of their lives, from cradle to grave, based on their socioeconomic position. As children, they attend radically different kinds of schools, or are slotted into separate tracks within a given school. After they leave school they have access to different kinds of jobs - shelving products at Wal-Mart, say, versus teaching in a college classroom. When people spend decades of their lives working such jobs, they end up with such divergent life experiences that they might as well be living in different societies. These divided institutional experiences are reinforced in turn by sharp segregation and by the development of opposition to the culture of those in other socioeconomic positions. The command or lack of literate intellectuality plays multiple roles in shaping and sustaining these starkly distinct life experiences, perhaps most clearly by shaping how a particular individual moves through the positions provided by dominant institutions. Taken together, these dynamics culminate in a forceful process that I refer to as "capitalist ethnogenesis": a process of cultural differentiation within a single society, rather than through geographic separation within separate, non-interacting or weakly interacting societies.The homesteading movement contains two groups who turn to the rural landscape for answers to the problems of modern civilization - but how they perceive and interpret that civilization and its problems are markedly different. They are, in effect, responding to different modernities. They turn to homesteading as people indelibly marked by the system they dream of escaping.

2005/2006 ; Questa tesi di dottorato è stata realizzata nell'ambito del progetto ECOManage (Jntegrated Ecological Coastal Zone Management System ), un progetto internazionale che ha come obiettivi comprendere e descrivere come gli ecosistemi estuarini rispondano agli impatti antropici, allo scopo di promuovere l'uso sostenibile, la protezione e la gestione della risorsa idrica; e fornire un supporto scientifico agli enti ambientali locali riguardo alle migliori pratiche politiche da attuare. I siti di interesse del progetto sono tre diverse aree costiere: un estuario con mangrovie (Santos, in Brasile), un grande estuario con estese aree intertidali (Bahia Bianca, in Argentina) e un fiordo (Puerto Aysen, in Cile). Le fasce costiere sono oggigiorno una delle zone più minacciate del mondo a causa della loro attrattiva e della disponibilità di risorse per lo sviluppo urbano e industriale. Per questo motivo molte di queste aree hanno raggiunto condizioni ambientali critiche come risultato della forte pressione antropica e del sovrasfruttamento delle risorse. Le aree costiere sono tra le più vulnerabili della Terra, quindi qualsiasi attività messa in pratica, dovrebbe essere accuratamente pianificata. Inoltre ciò che accade sulle coste ha effetti che vanno molto al di là delle comunità acquatiche e umane locali, causando conseguenze a lungo termine o irreparabili. In questa tesi ci si è occupati di due delle aree di studio costiere del progetto ECOManage: Santos e Bahia Bianca. Le due aree di studio sono sottoposte ad un notevole stress, causato specialmente da una mediocre pianificazione del territorio e dalle attività umane. La baia di Santos è contraddistinta dalla presenza di ecosistemi unici e di grande valore come la Mata Atlantica (foresta atlantica) e le foreste di mangrovie che sono costantemente sotto forte pressione provocata da un enorme sviluppo urbano nell'area che influenza anche la qualità dell'estuario stesso. Per questa ragione e per avere un'idea chiara delle condizioni di inquinamento dell'acqua dell'estuario di Santos, è stato calcolato un indice di qualità, applicando i principi dell'analisi Fuzzy, sulla base di campionamenti di acqua, sedimenti e organismi effettuati dal CETESB nel 1999 e nel 2000. L'indice di qualità evidenzia quelle aree dell'estuario in cui è presente un grado elevato, moderato e accettabile di inquinamento. Bahia Bianca è caratterizzata da estesi campi agricoli e da pascoli che la rendono una delle principali province argentine per l'esportazione di grano e di lana. Quest'area, pur essendo meno disturbata dal punto di vista ambientale rispetto alla baia di Santos, subisce un rilevante stress a causa delle attività agricole intensive che provocano erosione del suolo e degradazione del terreno. Lo scopo generale di questa ricerca è di creare un sistema di informazione completo e integrato usando le tecniche di telerilevamento e GIS, come fonte di dati per l'analisi dei problemi locali di Santos e Bahia Bianca, come ad esempio la perdita di suolo e l 'urbanizzazione. Inoltre stimare e comparare i risultati ottenuti da due modelli di erosione per evidenziare l'importanza della copertura vegetale come prevenzione dei processi di perdita del suolo che affliggono queste due aree. Nell'area di Santos è stata inclusa anche, come importante fonte di informazioni per gli studi attuali e futuri, un'analisi multitemporale della copertura del suolo, per determinare i cambiamenti di uso del suolo lungo un periodo di sette anni e la predizione dei cambiamenti nel futuro, applicando specifici software e tecniche di modellizzazione. Un sistema di supporto alle decisioni spaziale (SDSS) è stato elaborato per l'area di studio brasiliana per analizzare uno dei più importanti problemi di Santos: l'urbanizzazione, fornendo alle autorità locali uno strumento affidabile per i processi decisionali. L'analisi dei cambiamenti di copertura del suolo ha evidenziato le aree più vulnerabili alle pressioni antropiche (principalmente a causa della deforestazione e dell'urbanizzazione). I risultati ottenuti enfatizzano come le aree soggette maggiormente alle attività umane siano localizzate in zone di bassa e media elevazione, mentre le aree con maggior altitudine e forte pendenza ne sono meno influenzate. La maggior parte delle classi nelle due mappe di copertura del suolo (derivate dalla classificazione di due immagini satellitari Landsat del 1993 e del 2000) sono rimaste le stesse. Ciò è molto significativo in termini di impatto ambientale. La predizione della copertura del suolo per il 20 l O è stata ottenuta attraverso un'interpolazione basata sulle mappe di copertura del 1993 e del 2000. L'andamento di copertura del suolo per il 2010 rileva un apparente diminuzione degli effetti antropici e una copertura più uniforme. Ciò può essere giustificato dal miglioramento dell'applicazione delle leggi ambientali vigenti nell'area (CONAMA, 2002). La possibilità di predire la copertura del suolo del futuro è molto importante per effettuare valutazioni ambientali e per prevenire attività umane incontrollate, prevedendo possibili scenari riguardanti l'uso e la copertura del suolo dopo un numero specifico di anni. Per lo studio della degradazione del terreno e degli impatti dell'uomo sull'ambiente nelle due aree di studio, sono state elaborate delle mappe di rischio di erosione usando due diversi modelli, il RUSLE e l'USPED. Quest'ultimo permette di quantificare non solo la perdita di suolo ma anche i processi di deposizione che hanno luogo in una determinata regione. Il tasso di erosione è piuttosto basso sia per Santos che per Bahia Bianca, dove sembra che i processi di erosione siano determinati principalmente dalle caratteristiche topografiche delle due aree. Più bassi livelli di erosione sono stati trovati in terreni pianeggianti: in Santos le mangrovie hanno un tasso molto basso di erosione, mentre la vegetazione bassa ha un tasso più elevato; in Bahia Bianca le pianure intertidali hanno un tasso molto basso di erosione, mentre il suolo nudo a maggiori altitudini presenta un incremento dell'erosione. Ciò nonostante nell'area di Santos, la Mata Atlantica delle zone montane (che si trova prevalentemente ad altitudini maggiori a 570 m) presenta un'erosione molto bassa, evidenziando l 'importanza di una buona copertura vegetale nelle aree altrimenti soggette ad un elevato rischio di erosione. Comunque i livelli di erosione riscontrati nelle due aree di studio sono inferiori a quanto ci si aspettava: un'erosione molto elevata è stata rilevata solo nei terreni a maggior pendenza. Sfortunatamente la validazione dei risultati di erosione/sedimentazione non è possibile dal momento che non sono disponili misure in campo, ad ogni modo i risultati appaiono affidabili se confrontati con studi precedenti effettuati in località vicine con peculiarità simili. Inoltre i modelli di erosione sono un importante strumento per la valutazione dei processi di perdita di suolo e per l'elaborazione di mappe di rischio di erosione che possono essere utilizzate come utile riferimento per la pianificazione delle attività future, allo scopo di diminuire gli effetti erosivi attuali e di prevenire future degradazioni del suolo. Infine, l'elaborazione di un sistema di supporto decisionale spaziale per l'analisi dei problemi di urbanizzazione di Santos è stato possibile utilizzando i GIS. L'SDSS è stato progettato per valutare i problemi urbani di Santos, poiché c'è un numero considerevole di persone che vivono in aree protette come le riserve ecologiche delle mangrovie, comportando una forte pressione su questo fragile ed unico ecosistema, rendendo la loro sistemazione un importante problema da risolvere. Nella maggior parte dei casi queste persone appartengono alle classi sociali più basse, con stipendi miseri e uno stile di vita molto povero, aumentando la difficoltà della loro risistemazione. Essi dovrebbero venire al più presto spostati in zone più adeguate e più salubri. L'SDSS indica i posti più appropriate per realizzare questo progetto, tenendo in considerazione una serie di criteri. I fattori e le limitazioni considerate sono la topografia, la presenza di corpi d'acqua, la localizzazione di insediamenti urbani già esistenti, il tasso di erosione, il tipo di copertura del suolo, l'esistenza di aree protette. Tale strumento è un elemento prezioso che facilita la proposta di possibili soluzioni e gestioni del territorio attuabili per migliorare il problema dell'urbanizzazione a Santos e nei dintorni. Per questa ragione la realizzazione di un SDSS in questa tesi viene considerata come un metodo utile e affidabile per aiutare le autorità locali con i processi decisionali riguardanti le politiche da attuare per risolvere questo ed altri problemi critici che minacciano la città di Santos al momento attuale. È molto importante, quindi, fornire ai responsabili regionali e locali dei mezzi utili come i GIS, il telerilevamento, e strumenti di pianificazione attendibili come l'SDSS, come quelli realizzati in questa tesi, per aiutarli nel prendere decisioni, nel gestire il territorio e nell'affrontare i problemi odierni evitando un peggioramento dello scenario attuale. ; This thesis is developed within the ECOManage Project which have the strategic objectives to understand and quantify similarities and differences of estuarine system function in response to anthropogenic impacts in order to recommend restoration and/or sustainable development measures and to provide scientific support to local environmental managers on best-practice policies on 3 different coastal zones, including an estuary with mangroves (Santos-Brazil), a large estuary with wide intertidai areas (Bahia Bianca-Argentina) and a fiord (Aysen-Chile). This thesis focus mainly on two of Ecomanage study areas: Santos (Brazil) and Bahia Bianca (Argentina). Coastal areas, broadiy defined as near-coast waters and the adjacent land area, are nowadays one of the most threatened zones all over the world, due to their attractiveness, convenience and availability of resources for urban and industrial development. Therefore, many of these areas worldwide have reached critical environmental conditions as a result of great anthropologic pressure and overexploitation of their resources. Coastal areas are among the most vulnerable of Earth's ecosystems, any activity carried out in these areas should be carefully planned since what happens to the coasts has effects that reach far beyond their local aquatic and human communities, thus, causing irreparable or long term consequences. The two study areas that this thesis approach are characterized for being under significant environmental stress specially caused by poor urban planning and other anthropogenic activities like intensive agriculture. Santos is characterized by the presence of valuable and unique ecosystems as Mata Atlantica (Atlantic forest) and mangrove forests that are currently under great stress due to strong urban development in the area, which is also affecting the quality of its estuary. For this reason and so to have an appreciative idea of water quality conditions of Santos Estuary a quality index was also calculated applying Fuzzy set principles and based on water, sediment and organism samples collected by CETESB in 1999 and 2000. The quality index highlighted those areas with bad, moderate and acceptable pollution in the estuary. Bahia Bianca it is characterized by its extensive crop fields and pastures for grazing which make of i t one of the most important provinces in Argentina for grain and wool exportation. These area is under stress due to the intense agricultural activities which cause soil erosion and land degradation, however it is less environmentally affected than Santos Estuary. The general aim of this research is to create a complete information system using GIS and remote sensing techniques as data sources for the analysis of local problems of Santos and Bahia Bianca i.e. soil loss, urbanization. Furthermore, to estimate and compare rates of soil erosion obtained by two different erosion models stressing the importance of vegetation coverage as prevention of soil loss processes affecting these two study areas. The integration of landcover analysis making emphasis on multitemporal studies in the area of Santos to detect landcover change over a seven year period and the prediction of landcover change using specific software and modeling techniques was also included as an important source of information for the present and future studies. A Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) was elaborated for Santos study area to tackle one of its most important problems, urbanization, therefore providing local authorities with a reliable tool for decision making processes. Santos landcover change analysis highlighted the most vulnerable areas regarding anthropogenic pressures, mainly deforestation and urbanization. Results obtained emphasize that areas mostly affected by anthropogenic activities are located on low and medium elevations, while those areas characterized by high elevations and steep slopes are less influenced by human activities. Most of the classes in both cases seem to remain as themselves, between 70% and 90% of the area represented by each class does not suffer any impact or transformation into other class, which is quite significant in terms of environmental impact. Landcover prediction of 2010 was obtained through interpolation of surfaces based on the input landcover maps of 1993 and 2000. Landcover trend map of 20 l O highlight an apparent decrease of anthropogenic effects and a more uniform landcover. This could be justified by the improvement in application of environmental laws in the area (CONAMA, 2002). The possibility to predict future landcover is quite significant for performing environmental assessment and preventing uncontrolled anthropogenic activities in this way foreseeing possible scenarios regarding landuse and lancover after a specified number of years. Another important factor that was taken into consideration for Iand degradation and environmental impacts of human activities in these two areas, was the calculation of erosion risk maps using two different models, the RUSLE and USPED, the latest one also gives a quantification of deposition processes taking place. Erosion rates tend to be quite low for both study areas. In Santos and Bahia Bianca it seems that erosion processes are mainly determined by topographic characteristics of each area. Lower erosion rates are found on plain terrains: in Santos mangroves have very low erosion rates, while low vegetation have higher erosion rates; for Bahia Bianca intertidal flats have very low erosion rates, while bare soil at higher elevation increase its erosion rates. Nevertheless, in Santos Mata Atlantica of highlands is mainly found at elevations of more than 570 m, but erosion rates are still very low, this fact highlight the importance of a good vegetation cover in those areas at high risk of erosion. However, erosion rates obtained for Santos and Bahia Bianca, are quite lower than expected, very high erosion values were found only on steep slopes. Unfortunately, validation of erosion-sedimentation results was not possible since in-situ field measurements were not available, nevertheless, results tend to be quite reliable if compared to previous studies performed in nearby areas with similar characteristics. Nevertheless erosion modeling is an important tool for assessment of soil loss processes and elaboration of soil erosion risk maps which are useful references for planning future activities, decreasing current erosion effects as well as preventing future soil degradation. Finally, the elaboration of a Spatial Decision Support System for analyzing urbanization problems in Santos was also possible by the application of GIS. The SDSS was designed to evaluate urban problems in Santos, as there is a considerable number of people living in protected areas as mangrove ecological reserves, which put significant pressure on this fragile and unique ecosystem, so making their relocation an important issue to be solved. In most of the cases these people belong to the lowest social class, characterized by very low incomes and living in extreme poor conditions, which make the difficult task of relocation even more difficult. These people must be conveniently moved as soon as possible to adequate and safe areas. The SDSS indicates the most appropriate places for doing so, taking into consideration a series of local factors and constraints such as, topography, water bodies, existing urban settlements, erosion and landuse, that are the basis of the analysis performed to determine "suitable" locations. The SDSS was an important asset that facilitated the proposal of feasible solutions and viable recommendations to improve urbanization problems in the area of Santos and surroundings. For this reason the elaboration of a SDSS within this thesis, was intended to be a useful and reliable tool to help local authorities with the decision making process for solving Santos most critical threats affecting the city at the present time. It is important to provide regional responsible authorities with the right tools as remote sensing and GIS and reliable planning sources like SDSS thus, helping them in the decision making process for efficiently face current problems avoiding a worsening of the present scenarios. ; XIX Ciclo ; 1973 ; Versione digitalizzata della tesi di dottorato cartacea.

Regulatory legislations on chemicals have in recent years become more stringent, requiring more toxicological evaluation. The increased toxicological testing have resulted in a stronger effort to implement the 3Rs (Refinement, Reduction and Replacement) through identifying suitable alternatives (non-animal) to animal testing. Evaluation of alternative methods such as cell-based in vitro methods (e.g. continuous cell lines, tissues slices and primary cultures) have shown to be promising, but there are currently few validated alternative bioassays for fish. The present work aimed to evaluate the primary rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocyte model's suitability as an ecotoxicological tool in screening of single and mixtures of chemicals with modulatory properties on the estrogen receptor (ER)-activity and auxiliary endpoints such as cytotoxicity and biotransformation (e.g. aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-activity). The primary hepatocytes sensitivity, reproducibility and responsiveness were assessed for seasonal, donor and assay-related variability to address potential factors affecting the bioassay reproducibility. The hepatocyte model's suitability to characterise environmentally relevant concentrations of estrogens, anti-estrogens and organic compounds was assessed using both single endpoint and broad content approaches (global transcriptomics) after exposure to single compounds and mixtures of these with similar or dissimilar mode of action (MoA). Compounds estrogenicity and anti-estrogenicity were assessed in the fish hepatocytes using classical estrogen sensitive biomarkers (e.g. ERα and ER-mediated egg-yolk precursor vitellogenin (Vtg) and egg shell zona radiata (zrp)) complemented by determination of cytotoxicity (cell membrane stability and metabolic activity), AhR-mediated responses (ahr, cytochrome P450 1a (cyp1a), enzymatic activity of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD)). Characterisation of chemicals additional MoA in the cells were performed using novel analytical tools such as high-density oligonucleotide salmonid microarray in combination with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Results from the studies demonstrated primary hepatocytes ability to facilitate detection of ER-mediated responses, biotransformation and cell growth-related gene expression by ER-agonists and acute toxic chemicals during short-term exposures (<96h). The bioassays ability to remain unaffected by variable parameters (robustness) and sensitivity was not affected by seasonal variations in ER sensitivity (Vtg gene and protein expression), but was dependent on individual donor-physiology variability in exposure studies with the model ER-agonist 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2). The cell-batch variability was however reduced when optimal exposure time and data normalization was applied, yielding a concentration-dependent Vtg gene and protein expression. In addition to individual donor-physiology, bioassay related factors such as hepatocyte culturing conditions and normalization procedures were identified as possible cause to the observed variability. The variability within the bioassay may be reduced through protocol harmonization (e.g. same-species culturing conditions, cell density, media supplements), resulting in a more robust and reproducible assay for assessing ER active compounds. The primary hepatocytes suitability as a screening tool for ER-agonists were further displayed in measured classical biomarker genes, identifying ER signalling and its associated pathways as the main target of the ER-agonist in the cells. Exposure to the ER-agonist caused similar transcriptional responses in vitro as previously reported in vivo, suggesting the hepatocytes to facilitate relevant biomarker responses in screening of ER-active compounds. The suitability of the in vitro model in transcriptional and sub-cellular characterization of anti-estrogenic binary and ternary mixtures (AhR-agonist (β-naphtoflavone (BNF), ER-agonist (17 β-estradiol (E2)), partial ER-antagonist (hydroxytamoxifen (OHT))) were performed to better understand how compounds with dissimilar mode of action (MoA) contributed to combined anti-estrogenic effects. The findings displayed significantly increased anti-estrogenic effect in the combined mixture of BNF, OHT and E2, indicative of the individual compounds MoA to contribute to the total anti-estrogenic effect in the primary hepatocytes. The results suggested that the compounds in the mixture induce nuclear receptor-mediated cross-talk involving AhR-mediated transcription of increased cyp1a metabolism of the ER-agonist and binding and inhibition of further ER activity by the ER-antagonist. The combined mixture's anti-estrogenic effect is therefore suggested due to the compounds differently acting MoA as they have the same effect (e.g. reduction of Vtg protein) but through differently acting pathways. To further assess the primary hepatocyte bioassay ability to identify complex and previous un-described ER-agonists, a broad range of uncharacterised mixtures (UCM)-related compounds of naphthenic acids and hydrocarbons were screened for potential estrogenicity. Few compounds induced weak estrogenic activity in the primary hepatocytes as the majority of the tested compounds had a narcotic MoA and reached their water solubility before eliciting any ER-activity. Auxiliary endpoints such as EROD activity could not explain the compounds weak estrogenicity and further supported their narcotic MoA. The potential estrogenicity might however be masked by the compounds highly variable physico-chemical properties that may have affected their bioavailability in the in vitro system. The present work has demonstrated that the primary rainbow trout hepatocyte model is a versatile, multi-endpoint tool for screening ER-agonists using both single biomarker and global gene expression approach. The bioassay provided reproducible results that demonstrate its sensitivity, robustness and responsiveness in ecotoxicological screening of chemicals that modulate the activity of the ER and downstream cellular events. These findings may contribute to a better mechanistic understanding of well-characterised and novel MOA related to single and combined chemical exposures in the in vitro fish model. The global gene expression was a good unbiased tool when characterizing the MoA of ER-active chemicals in the primary hepatocytes as it unravelled relevant in vivo ER-mediated responses, hence displaying the model's potential to become a (eco)toxicological tool in ER-agonist screening. ; Regulatorisk kjemikalielovgivning har i de senere årene blitt strengere, noe som krever mer toksikologisk vurdering. Den økte toksikologisk testingen har ført til en sterkere innsats for å implementere de 3Rer (forbedring, reduksjon og erstatning) gjennom å identifisere egnede alternativer til dyreforsøk. Vurdering av alternative metoder som cellebaserte in vitro metoder (f.eks kontinuerlige cellelinjer, vev-skiver og primære kulturer) har vist seg å være lovende, men for tiden er det få validerte alternative metoder for fisk. Dette arbeidet evaluerer primære regnbueørret (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytters egnethet som et økotoksikologisk verktøy i screening av enkeltstoffer og blandinger av kjemikalier med modulerende egenskaper på østrogenreseptor (ER)-aktivitet med hjelp av endepunkter som cytotoksisitet, østrogenrespons og biotransformasjon (f.eks aryl hydrokarbon reseptor (AhR)-aktivitet). Sensitivitet, reproduserbarhet og reaksjonsevne for metoden ble vurdert ved å se på responsvariasjon knyttet til sesong, donorfisk og analysemessige variasjoner, og potensielle faktorer som påvirker bioassayets reproduserbarhet ble identifisert. Hepatocytt-modellens egnethet for å karakterisere miljørelevante konsentrasjoner av østrogener, anti-østrogener og organiske forbindelser ble vurdert ved bruk av både enkelt endepunkter og analyse genuttrykk etter eksponering for enkeltstoffer og blandinger av disse med tilsvarende eller ulik virkningsmekanisme (MoA). Østrogenisitet og anti-østrogenisitet av kjemikalieblandinger ble vurdert i fiskehepatocytter ved hjelp av klassiske østrogensensitive biomarkører (f.eks ERα og ER-mediert eggeplomme forløper vitellogenin (Vtg) og eggeskallkomponenten zona radiata (ZRP)) supplert med bestemmelse av cytotoksisitet (cellemembranstabilitet og metabolsk aktivitet), arylhydrocarbon reseptor (AhR)-medierte responser (Ahr, cytokrom P450 1a (CYP1A), og enzymatiske aktivitet til etoksyresorufin-O-deetylase (EROD)). Karakterisering av kjemikalier for ytterligere MoA i cellene ble utført ved bruk av nye analyseverktøy som oligonukleotid mikromatrise for laksefisk i kombinasjon med kvantitativ real-tid polymerase kjedereaksjon (qPCR). Resultater fra studien viste primære hepatocytters evne til å å påvise ER-medierte reaksjoner, biotransformasjon og cellevekst knyttet til genekspresjon etter korttidseksponering (<96h) for ER-agonister og akutt giftige kjemikalier. Bioassayets evne til å forbli upåvirket av variable parametere (robusthet) samt assayets sensitivitet for å detektere østrogene stoffer ble ikke påvirket av sesongvariasjoner i ER respons (Vtg gen og protein ekspression), men var avhengig av variasjoner i individuell donor-fysiologi i eksponeringsstudier med ER-agonist 17α etinyløstradiol (EE2). Celle-batch variabilitet ble imidlertid redusert når optimal eksponeringstid og data-normalisering ble anvendt, hvilket ga en konsentrasjonsavhengig ekspresjon av Vtg gen og protein. I tillegg til individuell donor-fysiologi, ble bioassayrelaterte faktorer som hepatocytters dyrkingsforhold og normaliserings-prosedyrer identifisert som mulig årsak til den observerte variasjonen. Variabiliteten i den biologiske metoden kan reduseres ved protokoll-harmonisering (for eksempel av samme arts dyrkningsbetingelser, celletetthet, mediets kosttilskudd), som resulterer i et mer robust og reproduserbart assay for vurdering av ER-aktive forbindelser. Primære hepatocytters egnethet som et screeningverktøy for ER-agonister ble videre vist i målte klassiske biomarkør-gener, som identifiserer ER signalisering og tilhørende signalveier som det viktigste målet for ER-agonist i cellene. Eksponering for ER-agonister forårsaket lignende transkripsjons-responser in vitro som tidligere rapportert in vivo, noe som bekrefter metodens og biomarkørresponsenes egnethet i screening av ER-aktive forbindelser. In vitro-modellen ble videre brukt i transkripsjon og sub-cellulær karakterisering av antiøstrogeners responser. Både enkeltstoffer og binære blandinger (AhR-agonist (β-naphtoflavone (BNF), ER-agonist (17 β-østradiol (E2)), og delvis ER-antagonist (hydroxytamoxifen (OHT))) ble testet for å bedre forstå hvordan forbindelser med ulik virkning (MoA) bidro til kombinert anti-østrogen effekt. Resultatene viser betydelig økt antiøstrogen effekt i den kombinerte blandingen av BNF, OHT og E2, en indikasjon at de enkelte forbindelsers MoA bidrar til den anti-østrogene effekten av blandingen i de primære hepatocyttene. Videre antydet resultatene at forbindelsene i blandingen induserte nukleær reseptor-formidlet krysstale (cross-talk) mellom AhR og ER, som for eksempel AhR-mediert transkripsjon av økt CYP1A og videre metabolisme av ER-agonist og inhibering av ytterligere ER aktivitet av ER-antagonist. Den anti-østrogene effekten av kjemikalieblandingen er derfor foreslått å komme av at forbindelsene som har ulike MoA påvirker samme endepunkt (f.eks reduksjon av Vtg protein), men gjennom forskjellige signalveier. For å vurdere primære hepatocytter bioassays evne til å identifisere kompliserte og tidligere ikke beskrevne ER-agonister, ble et bredt spekter av stoffer relatert til ukarakteriserte blandinger (UCM) av naftensyrer og hydrokarboner screenet for potensiell østrogenitet. Få forbindelser viste svak østrogenaktivitet i de primære hepatocytter da de fleste av disse hadde en narkotisk MoA og nådde grensen for vannløselighet før de utløste noen ER-aktivitet. Understøttende endepunkter som EROD aktivitet kunne ikke forklare forbindelsenes svake østrogenitet og ga støtte til en narkotisk MoA. En østrogen effekt kan heller ikke totalt utelukkes siden de vurderte forbindelsene hadde svært varierende fysikalsk-kjemiske egenskaper som kan ha påvirket den biologiske tilgjengeligheten av forbindelsene i in vitro-systemet. Arbeidet har vist at modellen av primære regnbueørret hepatocytter er et allsidig, multi-endepunkt verktøy for screening av ER-agonister ved hjelp av både enkle biomarkører og global genekspresjon. Bioanalysen ga reproduserbare resultater som demonstrerer dens følsomhet, robusthet og reaksjonsevne i økotoksikologisk screening av stoffer som modulerer aktivitet av ER og nedstrøms cellulære hendelser. Disse funnene kan bidra til en bedre mekanistisk forståelse av godt karakteriserte og nye MoAs knyttet til enkeltstoffer og kombinerte kjemiske eksponeringer i in vitro fisk-modeller. Den globale genekspresjonen var et godt objektivt verktøy til å karakterisere MoA av ER-aktive kjemikalier i primære hepatocytter og identifiserte relevante in vivo ER-medierte reaksjoner. Resultatene i dette arbeidet viser modellens potensial til å bli et viktig (øko)toksikologisk verktøy i screening av potensielle ER-modulerende stoffer. ; Norges Forskningsråd

2010/2011 ; La tesi è uno studio interdisciplinare e comparativo sul regime di protezione delle minoranze autoctone in Slovenia e Svezia. L'ipotesi di ricerca è che i due paesi abbiano scelto dei regimi di protezione molto efficaci ed avanzati che sperimentano un grado relativamente basso di tensione interetnica. Grazie ai loro sistemi fortemente sociali, hanno sviluppato un sistema di protezione delle minoranze nazionali che si spinge, per certi versi, oltre agli standard esistenti all'interno della UE. Ad esempio, il diritto all'istruzione ed all'informazione nella madre lingua – che nella maggior parte dei paesi difettano di base legale – risultano ben assicurati. Inoltre, entrambi includono i Rom tra le minoranze territoriali, creando così dei prerequisiti per un'effettiva non discriminazione. La bontà del regime di protezione viene valutata, da un lato, attraverso l'analisi dei vari campi di tutela, prendendo in considerazione sia le fonti legali che le politiche pubbliche volte ad implementarle; dall'altro, attraverso la rilevazione delle opinioni dei membri delle minoranze stesse. L'analisi degli standard esistenti mostra che entrambi i paesi possiedono un sistema di protezione relativamente completo, sebbene vengano sottolineate notevoli differenze tra un settore e l'altro. A tal riguardo, sono stati utilizzate varie fonti – legislazione esistente, report ufficiali, discussioni con esperti – al fine di redigere un tabella di valutazione riassuntiva per ogni singolo campo di protezione. L'affermazione viene poi ridimensionata alla luce dei risultati della ricerca empirica, condotta tramite questionari strutturati: le minoranze nazionali esprimono un giudizio positivo limitatamente a certi campi di tutela, ma danno, nel complesso, valutazioni poco generose sul sistema generale di protezione, tanto che emergono chiaramente sentimenti di esclusione. Le fonti dell'opera comprendono: analisi della letteratura rilevante, analisi della legislazione, analisi delle statistiche nazionali, visione di progetti e studi settoriali in corso, discussioni informali con ricercatori e interviste con 'testimoni qualificati', essenziali nel ricostruire un quadro sintetico della situazione data la carenza di letteratura in materia. La tesi si articola in 3 parti distinte. La prima intende fornire una cornice teorica sul tema della protezione delle minoranze nazionali, attraverso la presentazione delle definizioni più illustri elaborate dalla letteratura internazionale e di alcuni concetti chiave nel dibattito, come origine, natura, manifestazione esterna del fenomeno, differenze nel concetto di ethnos tra nord e centro Europa, etc… Nel secondo capitolo viene brevemente analizzata la storia della protezione delle minoranze per soffermarsi poi sui principali documenti elaborati all'interno della UE, dell'OSCE e del Consiglio d'Europa al fine di individuare alcuni standard universalmente riconosciuti da tutti i membri UE. La seconda parte si concentra sulla protezione delle minoranze territoriali in Slovenia (capitolo terzo) e Svezia (capitolo quarto): vengono analizzate la struttura etnica del paese, le caratteristiche delle varie minoranze e le politiche governative adottate, prendendo in considerazione anche l'evoluzione storica di queste ultime. I campi di tutela analizzati nel dettaglio sono: istruzione, uso della lingua, partecipazione e rappresentanza politica, vita culturale, informazione e media, cooperazione transfrontaliera. Di seguito vengono sottolineati i punti forti e quelli deboli dei rispettivi sistemi. La terza parte presenta le caratteristiche fondamentali dei due regimi in chiave comparativa (capitolo quinto) ed i risultati della ricerca sul campo (capitolo sesto), che è stata limitata a due minoranze per paese al fine di rendere più agevoli delle considerazioni comparative: una minoranza tipo transnazionale, i Rom, e due minoranze di confine, gli ungheresi in Slovenia e i finlandesi tornedaliani in Svezia. Il questionario, somministrato attraverso un metodo di campionamento di tipo snowball, o meglio, respondent driven, indaga sulle seguenti tematiche: percezione della tutela nel campo del linguaggio; percezione della tutela nel campo dell'istruzione; percezione della tutela percepita nel campo della partecipazione politica e della rappresentanza; percezione della tutela nel settore della vita culturale; percezione della tutela nel settore dei media e dell'informazione; percezione della tutela nel campo della cooperazione transfrontaliera; percezione della tutela globale; percezione dello status della minoranza rispetto alla maggioranza; percezione dell'uguaglianza dei diritti in confronto alla maggioranza e alle altre minoranze. Non è stato possibile raccogliere un numero sufficiente di risposte da parte di tutte le minoranze nazionali presenti nei due paesi a causa sia delle grandi difficoltà incontrate nel reperire soggetti disposti a collaborare che a causa dei tassi di risposta molto bassi. L' indagine svolta tra le suddette minoranze sembra suggerire che l'affermazione secondo la quale entrambi i paesi hanno un buon sistema di protezione deve essere circoscritta: anche se la protezione globale appare sufficiente, le minoranze nazionali non sembrano essere soddisfatte dell'implementazione dei loro diritti, se i risultati vengono comparati con quelli della tabella riassuntiva teorica. I Rom, paradossalmente, pur avendo un punteggio più basso sia a livello empirico che teorico, sembrano essere relativamente più soddisfatti dei loro diritti. Questo può essere dovuto al fatto che essi considerano effettivamente la recente introduzione di leggi ed atti in favore della loro minoranza come un importante progresso. Se le minoranze prese in considerazione danno valutazioni piuttosto positive per quanto riguarda alcuni settori di tutela, la sensazione di essere tutelati non sembra essere data semplicemente dalla somma di tali valutazioni ma ne include altre che hanno ha che fare con la dimensione sociale, in particolare il rapporto con la maggioranza, lo status all'interno della società, l'attenzione data alla minoranza da parte delle politiche di Stato. L'ipotesi di ricerca iniziale è quindi solamente in parte confermata: dall'analisi emerge un modello gerarchico nel trattamento delle minoranze nazionali, suscettibile di creare nuovi confini e tensioni tra a) le varie minoranze nazionali, b) le minoranze nazionali e altre minoranze, c) diversi sottogruppi della stessa minoranza. ; The dissertation is a comparative and interdisciplinary study dealing with the protection systems of autochthonous minorities in Slovenia and Sweden in a comparative key. Slovenia and Sweden were chosen as a focus of the research because of some similarities which may be found in relation with minority issues. In spite of their experience of recent migrations, they can be considered as two historically relatively homogeneous states both of which experience a low degree of interethnic tensions (even though it has not always been so). Thanks to their strongly social systems, they in fact developed a system of minority protection which, in some aspects, at least on the paper, goes even beyond E.U. existing standards; among them, the right to information and the right to public education in the mother tongue of minorities- which in most of countries lack legal basis or are simply not applied- are well assured. Moreover, their national minorities have intense relations with the neighbouring mother state. And last but not least, they both include the Roma among their territorial minorities, creating also for them legal prerequisites for the non- discrimination of the members and formal equality for all the legal aspects. Both countries chose a model of integration of their minorities which has resulted quite effective, especially after the latest improvements. Nevertheless, in both countries, even though in different manners, it is still possible to notice a hierarchy of treatment of different kind of minorities, where some fall behind the others in spite of their demands (and recognition) of autochthony. Sweden, for example, did that by excluding ethnic groups that were already present in the country and by denying substantial language rights to those national minorities whose languages were deemed to be non territorial ones, whilst Slovenia did that by introducing a difference between those groups who enjoy single or dual political subjectivity and by breaking the in- group unity of Roma. The thesis can be roughly divided into three main parts. The first part aims to provide a theoretical framework on minority issues and their protection. I first illustrate some definitions of ethnic minority and national minority taken from the literature and international fora as well as some related key arguments present in debates, such as the origin, the nature and the different manifestation of this phenomenon. The difference of perception of the concept ethnos in Central European and Western - North European world will be mentioned. The aim of the first chapter is to provide an almost legal definition to be used as a guide line in the analysis. It will be underlined that minority protection is only an empty concept in absence of a clear and universally or regionally accepted definition. In the second chapter the focus will be on the protection of minorities in Europe in historical perspective, taking into an account four main phases of development: from the peace of Augsburg until World War I; the period between the wars; after World War II until 1989; after 1990. The main documents elaborated within the Council of Europe, the OCSE and the European Union will be analysed, in order to get to point out some existing standards generally recognized by E.U. members even though differently applied. The second part deals with the protection of territorial minorities in Slovenia and Sweden, giving an overview on the ethnic structure of the country, on the main features of the minorities and on the governmental policies pursued since the last century. The content of the chapters will be enriched by the contribute of some minorities' representatives who accepted to be interviewed. In the third and last part, the main characteristics of these two systems will be analysed in a comparative key. Later on, the results of a small field research dealing with the practice of minority protection in the two countries will be presented. The main research hypothesis is that Slovenia and Sweden chose a successful and effective model of minority protection. This statement had to be assessed, on one hand, through the analysis of specific minority policies and, on the other hand, through the collection of opinions and feeling by behalf of minorities' members. The first and second part of the research aim in fact to assess minority protection in Slovenia and Sweden on the paper, analyzing field by field and underlining similarities and differences, strong and weak points of the two models and applicability. We have therefore tried to assess the level of protection for each minority within the two countries, giving an evaluation for each single field with a score ranging from 0 (poor) to 5 (excellent). The evaluation was drawn on the basis of existing laws, degree of application, State reports, relevant literature and discussions with experts. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the in depth analysis, it does not demand to have scientific accuracy due to the too many variables to take into consideration for every single field, but constitutes only a general orientation with regard to the interpretation of minority protection. The analysis of existing standard show that both countries actually have a relatively good protection system, although significant differences can be noted amongst different fields. The third present the results of a small scale survey conducted through questionnaires. The survey has been limited to two minorities for each country: one minority which enjoys the status of autochthonous in both countries, i.e. the Roma; and two minorities, the Tornedalian - Finnish one in Sweden and the Hungarian one in Slovenia, which present some common characteristics – first of all being a border minority - and appear therefore comparable. The aim is to identify the perception of protection by submitting some structured questionnaires to the members of these minorities through a kind of snowball method (in particular, a respondent – driven sampling), in order to find out any discrepancy between the policy goals and the everyday life level and compare the level of protection not only on theoretical but also on practical base. In particular, the questionnaire investigates opinions about the following topics: perceived protection in the field of use of language; perceived protection in the field of education; perceived protection in the field of political participation and representation; perceived protection in the field of cultural life; perceived protection in the field of media and information; perceived protection in the field of cross – border cooperation with the mother state (or with the communities in other states in the case of Roma); overall perceived protection; perceived position of the minority in comparison to the majority; perceived inequality of rights in comparison to the majority and the other minorities. It was not possible to collect a sufficient number of answers from all the protected minorities present in the countries due to the serious difficulties encountered in order to establish initial subjects who may be willing to cooperate and to the very low response rate. Some difficulties have been encountered also with regard to above mentioned minorities, i.e. the Roma, the Hungarians in Slovenia and the Tornedalian- Finnish in Sweden; however, they have shown a more collaborative spirit with regard to the present research. The survey carried out among the above mentioned minorities seems to suggest that the statement according to which both countries have a relatively good protection system has to be circumscribed: even though the overall protection appears as sufficient, the analysed national minorities seem not to be quite satisfied of the implementation of their minority rights. By contrast, Roma in both countries, in spite of having lower scores both at the theoretical and at the empirical level, seem to be relatively more satisfied about their rights. This may be due to the fact that national minorities are more conscious about the rights they should enjoy as historical minorities; whilst the Roma, although not being very satisfied about their condition either, consider the newly introduced laws and acts in their favour as an important progress. If the minorities taken into consideration give positive evaluation regarding certain fields of protection, the overall feeling of protection is not purely given by the sum of such fields but obviously include discretional elements which are more closely linked with a social dimension including the relationship with the majority, the status within the society, the perceived attention and importance given the minority issues by behalf of State policies. The research hypothesis has to be in the end further specified: all analysed minorities evaluate positively certain fields of protection, but surprisingly (of course with many differences among the various groups), when asked explicitly how much protected they feel as a minority, answers are less flattering: in certain sectors they feel indeed excluded from the majority society. The initial research hypothesis appears therefore to be only partly confirmed: from the analysis results the emergence of a hierarchic model with regard to the treatment of national minorities, which is likely to create new boundaries and tensions among the various national minorities, the national minorities and other minorities which did not receive recognition and different subgroups within the same minority. ; XXIV Ciclo