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Abstract This article explores the relationship between positivism and nationalism in 19th century France and Mexico, arguing that positivism cannot be understood without considering it in close relation to the rise of collectivistic and civic nationalism in each society. To elite intellectuals in both France and Mexico, positivism seemed to resolve the apparent chaos generated by the political‐conceptual revolution that nationalism had given rise to, and to provide the background to an historical narrative that served nationalist aims, by seeming to assure the ultimate triumph of the nation.

Liberalism as Utopia challenges widespread perceptions about the weakness of Mexico's nineteenth-century state. Schaefer argues that after the War of Independence non-elite Mexicans - peasants, day laborers, artisans, local merchants - pioneered an egalitarian form of legal rule by serving in the town governments and civic militias that became the local faces of the state's coercive authority. These institutions were effective because they embodied patriarchal norms of labor and care for the family that were premised on the legal equality of male, adult citizens. The book also examines the emergence of new, illiberal norms that challenged and at the end of the century, during the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, overwhelmed the egalitarianism of the early-republican period. By comparing the legal cultures of agricultural estates, mestizo towns and indigenous towns, Liberalism as Utopia also proposes a new way of understanding the social foundations of liberal and authoritarian pathways to state formation in the nineteenth-century world

In this article I will attempt to present how some western historianswho deal with the Balkan past perceived Macedonia as it wasduring the last century of the Ottoman rule. The focus of this paper willbe on how 19th century Ottoman Macedonia is represented in the generalhistory books on the Balkans written in the west. In writing this paperI made use of those works that have been, up to now, most widelyused by the historians, as well as the ordinary people, who like and appreciatehistorical literature. The main accent in this article is stressedon several issues namely - the territory, the population, political history,economical and social life. In this instance I made use of booksdealing with the history of the Balkans published after WWII, i.e., afterthe creation of the modern Macedonian state. One should bear in mindthat Macedonia was not authors primary focus of research and writing,and for this reason the mistakes that appear, and which we all makewhen we write, are understandable, but not acceptable. We must notethat, despite all the criticism that might be directed at them, they havemade an honest attempt, to their best of their knowledge and ability, toportray the situation in Ottoman Macedonia in the 19th century, payingattention not to favor any one side.Key words: OTTOMAN MACEDONIA, TERRITORY, MRO,POPULATION, HISTORY

AbstractThe impact of railroad development on land tenure and use in 19th‐century Mexico has long been central to interpretations of Mexico's rural history, in particular of the grievances culminating in the Revolution (1910–20). The prevailing interpretation, that railroads displaced Mexican peasants and smallholders from the land, has intuitive appeal but lacks empirical support. This article treats the question of the railroads' impact by studying the terms of the railroads' acquisition of land in southern Mexico. It argues that railroads failed to displace owners and occupants of the land, despite the governments's new laws and handpicked agents intended to oust recalcitrant residents with minimal delay and expense.

This is a study of the key role of Hugh Blair, a Scottish Enlightened scholar and minister, in the understanding and teaching of rhetoric in a quarrelsome 19th-Century Mexico. His role as a master of multiple rhetorical forms, including legal prose, literary production and the sermon, emphasized effective communication to a broadening public audience in an age of expanding citizenship. First his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, and then several selections of his sermons, were introduced in Spanish to the Mexican public. Somewhat surprisingly, his works were highly celebrated and widely recommended, by persons on the whole political spectrum, with virtually no discussion of Blair's political concerns or religious faith. His approach was useful, it was made clear, in a more fluid society aimed at modernization, but simultaneously contained a top-down view of life in society which seriously restricted sensitivity to the voice of common people. This article discusses his general acclaim and those limitations within the context of local and Atlantic history, taking into account the critical views of some of the numerous authors who have studied Blair's work and his enormous influence during the 19th century. In the perspectives offered, his impact can be judged more critically in terms of an undoubtedly changing Mexican political culture, but one simultaneously opening and closing admission to effective citizenship. ; This is a study of the key role of Hugh Blair, a Scottish Enlightened scholar and minister, in the understanding and teaching of rhetoric in a quarrelsome 19th-Century Mexico. His role as a master of multiple rhetorical forms, including legal prose, literary production and the sermon, emphasized effective communication to a broadening public audience in an age of expanding citizenship. First his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, and then several selections of his sermons, were introduced in Spanish to the Mexican public. Somewhat surprisingly, his works were highly celebrated and widely recommended, by persons on the whole political spectrum, with virtually no discussion of Blair's political concerns or religious faith. His approach was useful, it was made clear, in a more fluid society aimed at modernization, but simultaneously contained a top-down view of life in society which seriously restricted sensitivity to the voice of common people. This article discusses his general acclaim and those limitations within the context of local and Atlantic history, taking into account the critical views of some of the numerous authors who have studied Blair's work and his enormous influence during the 19th century. In the perspectives offered, his impact can be judged more critically in terms of an undoubtedly changing Mexican political culture, but one simultaneously opening and closing admission to effective citizenship. ; Este es un estudio del papel clave de Hugh Blair, un ilustrado académico y ministro escocés, en el entendimiento y la enseñanza de la retórica en el México contencioso del siglo XIX. Su papel como maestro de múltiples formas retóricas, incluida la prosa legal, la producción literaria y el sermón, enfatizó la comunicación efectiva a un público creciente en una era de ciudadanía en expansión. Primero, sus conferencias sobre Retórica y Bellas Letras, y luego varias selecciones de sus sermones, fueron presentadas al público mexicano en español. Por sorprendente que parezca, sus obras fueron muy celebradas y ampliamente recomendadas por personas de todo el espectro político, prácticamente sin discusión de las preocupaciones políticas o la fe religiosa de Blair. Su enfoque fue útil, quedó claro, en una sociedad más fluida dirigida a la modernización, pero al mismo tiempo contenía una visión de arriba hacia abajo de la vida en sociedad que restringía sensibilidad a la voz del pueblo común. Este artículo analiza la aclamación general y esas limitaciones en el contexto de la historia local y atlántica, teniendo en cuenta las opiniones críticas de algunos de los numerosos autores que han estudiado la obra de Blair y su enorme influencia durante el siglo XIX. En las perspectivas ofrecidas, su impacto puede juzgarse más críticamente en términos de una cultura política mexicana cambiante, indudablemente, pero una que al mismo tiempo abría y restringía admisión a la ciudadanía efectiva.

This book describes the remarkable path which led to the Swiss Franc becoming the strong international currency that it is today. Ernst Baltensperger and Peter Kugler use Swiss monetary history to provide valuable insights into a number of issues concerning the organization and development of monetary institutions and currency that shaped the structure of financial markets and affected the economic course of a country in important ways. They investigate a number of topics, including the functioning of a world without a central bank, the role of competition and monopoly in money and banking, the functioning of monetary unions, monetary policy of small open economies under fixed and flexible exchange rates, the stability of money demand and supply under different monetary regimes, and the monetary and macroeconomic effects of Swiss Banking and Finance. Swiss Monetary History since the Early 19th Century illustrates the value of monetary history for understanding financial markets and macroeconomics today

Este es un estudio del papel clave de Hugh Blair, un ilustrado académico y ministro escocés, en el entendimiento y la enseñanza de la retórica en el México contencioso del siglo XIX. Su papel como maestro de múltiples formas retóricas, incluida la prosa legal, la producción literaria y el sermón, enfatizó la comunicación efectiva a un público creciente en una era de ciudadanía en expansión. Primero, sus conferencias sobre Retórica y Bellas Letras, y luego varias selecciones de sus sermones, fueron presentadas al público mexicano en español. Por sorprendente que parezca, sus obras fueron muy celebradas y ampliamente recomendadas por personas de todo el espectro político, prácticamente sin discusión de las preocupaciones políticas o la fe religiosa de Blair. Su enfoque fue útil, quedó claro, en una sociedad más fluida dirigida a la modernización, pero al mismo tiempo contenía una visión de arriba hacia abajo de la vida en sociedad que restringía sensibilidad a la voz del pueblo común. Este artículo analiza la aclamación general y esas limitaciones en el contexto de la historia local y atlántica, teniendo en cuenta las opiniones críticas de algunos de los numerosos autores que han estudiado la obra de Blair y su enorme influencia durante el siglo XIX. En las perspectivas ofrecidas, su impacto puede juzgarse más críticamente en términos de una cultura política mexicana cambiante, indudablemente, pero una que al mismo tiempo abría y restringía admisión a la ciudadanía efectiva.

Preface.General Introduction.I. GERMAN IDEALISM.Prologue to the German Idealists.A. Fichte.Fichte: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview.The Science of Knowledge selections.Philosophical Bridges: Fichte's Influence.B. Schelling.Schelling: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview.System of Transcendental Idealism'selections.Philosophical Bridges: Schelling's Influence.C. Hegel.Hegel: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview.The Logic'selections.Philosophy of Mindselections.Philosophy of History'selections.Philosophical Bridges: Hegel's Influence.D. Schopenhauer.Schopenhauer: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview.On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason'selections.The World as Will and Idea'selections.Philosophical Bridges: Schopenhauer's Influence.Philosophical Bridges: The Influence of German Idealism.Coda: German Idealism Today.II. BRITISH IDEALISM.Prologue to the British Idealists.A. Bradley.Bradley: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview.Appearance and Reality: A Metaphysical Essay'selections.Philosophical Bridges: Bradley's Influence.B. McTaggart.McTaggart: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview.Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic'selections.Philosophical Bridges: McTaggart's Influence.Philosophical Bridges: The Influence of British Idealism.Bibliography.Study Questions.III. AMERICAN IDEALISM.Royce.Royce: A Biographical History.Philosophical Overview. Self Consciousness, Social Consciousness and Nature. Philosophical Bridges: The Influence of Royse.Philosophical Bri

This article is devoted to the history of the tradition of translations of the Qur'an into Russian from the nineteenth century to the translation by I. Yu. Krachkovsky. The article examines the background to the creation of these translations, their key features and their importance for the development of the Russian tradition of translation and interpretation of the Qur'an. Particular attention is paid to the importance of studying these translations of the Qur'an into Russian in the context of the development of the Russian tradition of Qur'anic interpretation and the Russian school of Islamic studies. The purpose of this study is also to attract Russian and foreign Islamologists and Qur'anologists to a thorough study of the heritage of the Russian tradition of Qur'anic translation and to consider the prospects of its development in the twenty- fi rst century.

Analyses of religion and international politics routinely concern the persistence of religion as a critical element in world affairs. However, they tend to neglect the constitutive interconnections between religion and political life. Consequently, religion is treated as exceptional to mainstream politics. In response, recent works focus on the relational dimensions of religion and international politics. This article advances an "entangled history" approach that emphasizes the constitutive, relational, and historical dimensions of religion — as a practice, discursive formation, and analytical category. It argues that these public dimensions of religion share their conditions of possibility and intelligibility in a political order that crystallized over the long 19th century. The neglect of this period has enabled International Relations to treat religion with a sense of closure at odds with the realities of religious political behavior and how it is understood. Refocusing on religion's historical entanglements recovers the concept as a means of explaining international relations by "recognizing" how it is constituted as a category of social life. Beyond questions of the religious and political, this article speaks to renewed debates about the role of history in International Relations, proposing entanglement as a productive framing for international politics more generally.

The history of translation in 19th century Spain is characterized above all by the fact that it was a period of transition between the concept of translation effective prevalent in the 18th century – restricted to the country's cultural elites – and the contemporary concept, which developed mainly from the second half of the 19th century onwards and continued into the 20th century. In the 19th century, the bourgeoisie embraced culture to an ever-greater extent, increasing public awareness of translations and, consequently, of translators. Thus, the notion that translations 'improved' the originals in order to adapt them to neoclassical norms gradually lost ground over the course of the century. On the other hand, there are other specific areas of research into the history of translation in Spain in the 19th century, some of which merit greater attention from researchers. These include, inter alia, the relationship between translation and exile, especially in the first decades of the century; the disappearance in practice of editorial censorship in the second half of the century and, consequently, the end of self-censorship; the progressive dignification of the status of the translator, prompted by the intellectual protection of authors' and translators' rights on an international scale; the deliberate use of translation as a vehicle for the transmission of new political, artistic and scientific ideas and, lastly, the decisive increase in literacy rates in the Spanish population, which turned literature into a consumer product. Finally, in the 19th century the Spanish translation industry experienced a gradual decline in the almost monopolistic influence that French culture and French as a source language had exerted upon it ever since the 18th century, from the arrival of the Bourbon dynasty onwards.