Suchergebnisse

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is the top destination for Russian food exports, grains in particular. Focusing on Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, this chapter shows that Russia's food trade with MENA countries is strongly affected by bilateral political relations. Russia banned most food imports from Turkey over a political conflict in 2016. In the same year, improved intergovernmental cooperation with Saudi Arabia resulted in a diversification of Russia's food exports to the Gulf country, and in 2019, Iran's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) led to increasing food trade with Russia. Food imports in MENA countries are usually managed by powerful state trading enterprises (STEs), which recurrently disapprove food products originating from Russia based on non-adherence to food quality standards. Our analysis shows that Russia is successfully working to open additional destination markets, while simultaneously impeding imports of food products that it aims to produce domestically.

From the beginning of the colonial period to the recent conflicts in the Middle East, encounters with the Muslim world have helped Americans define national identity and purpose. Focusing on America's encounter with the Barbary states of North Africa from 1776 to 1815, Robert Allison traces the perceptions and mis-perceptions of Islam in the American mind as the new nation constructed its ideology and system of government.""A powerful ending that explains how the experience with the Barbary states compelled many Americans to look inward . . . with increasing doubts about the institution of sla

Insufficiency of water resources in the Middle East Region represents vital factors that influence the stability of the region and its progress. Expectations indicate that the condition will be dimmer and more complicated, especially in Iraqi territory. Iraq, which is situated in the Middle East, it covers an area of 433,970 square kilometers and populated by about 32 million inhabitants. Iraq greatly relies in its water resources on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as a surface water resources, and several productive groundwater aquifers in which from the hydrogeological point of view divided into several major aquifer units including Foothill, Al-Jazira, Aquifer System, Mandali-Badra-Teeb, Mesopotamian and Desert Aquifer system. Recently, Iraq is suffering from water shortage problems. This is due to external and internal factors affecting the water quality of water resources; they are controlled and uncontrolled factors. The uncontrolled factors are climate change and its consequences, such as reduction of precipitation and temperature increasing. The controlled factors have a significantly negative influence on water resources, but their effects involve more specific regions. The controlled factors are mainly represented by building dams and irrigation projects within the upper parts of the Tigris and Euphrates catchments, Al-Tharthar Scheme, waste water, solid wastes and wastes from wars, which has a significant effect on surface water in Iraq because about 80% of the water supply to Euphrates and Tigris Rivers come from Turkey. In addition, the pressures resulting from the high demand for water resources, and the continued decline in their quantity rates have led to major changes in the hydrological condition in Iraq during the past 30 years. The decrease in surface water levels and precipitation during these three decades reflects the drop in the levels of water reservoirs, lakes, and rivers to the unexpected levels. The level of main country's water source, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers has fallen to less than a third of its natural levels. As storage capacity depreciates, the government estimates that its water reserves have been reduced precariously. According to the survey from the Ministry of Water Resources, millions of Iraqi people have faced a severe shortage of drinking water. Since of the importance of water for human life and the need to monitor temporal and spatial changes in quality and quantity, there is a need to develop a general Iraqi Water Quality Index (Iraq WQI) to monitor surface water and groundwater and classify it into five categories, very good, good, acceptable, bad and very bad, in terms of suitability for domestics, irrigation and agriculture depending on the Iraqi and WHO standards for drinking water. In addition, strict establishment for the regular quantitative monitoring surface water and groundwater setting and processes. Prospects are more negative for all riparian countries. This implies that solving these problems requires actual and serious international, regional, and national cooperation to set a prudent plan for water resources management of the two basins. Iraq being the most affected country should seriously set a prudent, scientific, and strategic plan for the management and conservation of its water resources. ; Validerad;2020;Nivå 1;2020-11-18 (johcin)

Presenting an analysis of higher education in eight countries in the Arab Middle East and North Africa, Degrees of Dignity works to dismantle narratives of crisis and assert approaches to institutional reform. Drawing on policy documents, media narratives, interviews, and personal experiences, Elizabeth Buckner explores how apolitical external reform models become contested and modified by local actors in ways that are simultaneously complicated, surprising, and even inspiring. Degrees of Dignity documents how the global discourses of neoliberalism have legitimized specific policy models for higher education reform in the Arab world, including quality assurance, privatization, and internationalization. Through a multi-level and comparative analysis, this book examines how policy models are implemented, with often complex results, in countries throughout the region. Ultimately, Degrees of Dignity calls on the field of higher education development to rethink current approaches to higher education reform: rather than viewing the Arab world as a site for intervention, it argues that the Arab world can act as a source for insight on resilient higher education systems. ; This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Awards to Scholarly Publications Program, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council, an agency of the Government of Ontario.

Palestiinalaispakolaiset ovat eläneet pakolaisleireillä jo seitsemän vuosikymmentä. Heidän pakolaisuutensa juontuu vuodesta 1948, jolloin Israelin valtion perustamisen yhteydessä enemmistö alueen palestiinalaisesta väestöstä joutui pakenemaan kotiseuduiltaan. Vuosikymmenten aikana pakolaisleirit ovat tulleet osaksi Lähi-idän maisemaa, ja niillä on kasvanut ja elänyt jo useita palestiinalaissukupolvia. Leirien pitkästä historiasta huolimatta niitä on kuitenkin pidetty väliaikaisina; määritelmällisesti leiri on aina olemassa vain rajatun ajanjakson ja palestiinalaisten kansallisissa narratiiveissa, jotka painottavat paluuta Palestiinaan, niitä ei ole ajateltu pysyvinä asuinpaikkoina. Käytännössä leirit kuitenkin muodostavat olosuhteet, joissa palestiinalaispakolaiset elävät arkeaan ja rakentavat tulevaisuuttaan. Pitkän historiansa, ainutlaatuisen institutionaalisen viitekehyksen sekä palestiinalaisten poliittiseen kamppailuun linkittyvien merkitysten takia leirit luovat omanlaisensa puitteet niillä asuvien pakolaisten elämälle. Tässä tutkimuksessa en silti tarkastele vain leirejä itsessään vaan lähestyn niiden kautta sitä, miten niillä asuvat palestiinalaiset neuvottelevat tulevaisuudentoiveitaan. Tämä etnografiaan pohjaava tutkimus on toteutettu Libanonissa, Jordaniassa ja Länsirannalla usealla eri pakolaisleirillä. Valitsin monikenttäisen lähestymistavan sillä lähtöoletuksella, että pakolaisuuden konteksti vaikuttaa merkittävästi siihen, miten tulevaisuuksia kuvitellaan. Palestiinalaispakolaisten asemamassa onkin merkittäviä eroja näillä kolmella alueella: Libanonissa he elävät ilman kansalaisuutta ja sen tuomia oikeuksia, Jordaniassa enemmistö pakolaisista on samanaikaisesti sekä maan kansalaisia että pakolaisia ja Länsirannalla palestiinalaispakolaiset joutuvat muiden länsirantalaisten tavoin kohtaamaan Israelin väkivaltaisen miehityspolitiikan. Näiden kontekstuaalisten erojen ja niiden vaikutusten ymmärtäminen on ollut tutkimuksen keskiössä. Tutkimuksen lähtöoletuksena on lisäksi ontologisen hermeneutiikan mukaisesti se, että tulevaisuuden tarkastelu ei ole mahdollista ilman, että ymmärtää menneen, nykyisyyden ja näiden välisen suhteen. Tästä syystä käyn läpi eri kentillä asuvien palestiinalaisten historiaa ja etenen leirien nykyolosuhteiden tarkasteluun. Nämä ajallisuudet luovat pohjan pakolaisten tulevaisuudentoiveiden ymmärtämiselle. Palestiinalaispakolaisten historia on täynnä väkivaltaa, pakenemista ja jatkuvaa epävarmuutta, ja pakolaisleirit ovat tilana tiivistäneet pakolaisuuteen liittyvät vaikeudet niin historiallisesti kuin nykyäänkin. Materiaaliset olosuhteet, ahtaus, suhde ympäröivään paikkaan ja yhteisöön sekä leirin identiteetilliset ja poliittiset konnotaatiot ovat kaikki vaikuttaneet siihen, miten tähän tutkimukseen osallistuneet palestiinalaispakolaiset kokivat elinolosuhteensa. Leirien ei koettu pystyvän tarjoamaan toivottua elintasoa, mutta samanaikaisesti ne muodostivat merkityksellisen yhteisön, johon liitettiin useita positiivisia ominaisuuksia. Leirit muodostivat myös osan pakolaisten poliittista identiteettiä: ne muistuttivat niillä asuvien pakolaisuudesta ja muodostivat linkin Palestiinaan ja siten ylläpitivät vaatimusta paluuoikeudesta. Kuitenkin, näistä positiivisista puolista huolimatta, elettyinä tiloina leirit eivät pystyneet luomaan toivottuja puitteita arjelle. Tässä tutkimuksessa painottuu myös se, että Libanonissa, Jordaniassa ja Länsirannalla tarjolla olleet mahdollisuudet eivät useinkaan riittäneet toivotun tulevaisuuden saavuttamiseen. Maastamuutto olikin monelle tapa kuvitella parempaa tulevaisuutta niin itselle kuin perheelle, erityisesti Libanonissa ja Länsirannalla. Parempaa tulevaisuutta neuvoteltiin useita eri reittejä, ja tässä tutkimuksessa keskityn erityisesti koulutuksen, työn ja naimisiinmenon tarjoamiin mahdollisuuksiin. Vaikka myös kansalliset tulevaisuudet, Palestiina ja paluuoikeuden toteutuminen nousivat esiin näissä neuvotteluissa, ilmenivät ne kuitenkin abstraktimmalla tasolla ja eri aikajanalla, kuin tulevaisuudet, joilla haettiin parempia mahdollisuuksia saavuttaa henkilökohtaiset elämäntavoitteet ja helpotusta arjessa kohdattuihin vaikeuksiin. Palestiinalaispakolaisten tulevaisuuskäsitysten erityisyys on juuri henkilökohtaisen ja kansallisen tulevaisuuden välille muodostuvassa ristivedossa. Kansallisen narratiivin mukaan pakolaisten (erityisesti leireillä asuvien) oletetaan sisukkaasti odottavan paluuta, kestävän pakolaisuuden haasteet ja taistelevan kansallisten tavoitteiden puolesta. Samanaikaisesti pakolaiset kuitenkin pyrkivät parantamaan arkeaan, elinolosuhteitaan ja mahdollisuuksiaan tarjolla olevin keinoin. Etnografiassani painottui erityisesti tämä henkilökohtainen puoli ja se, että kansallisten tavoitteiden saavuttamisen ei koettu pystyvän tarjoamaan parannusta pakolaisuuden historian muovaamiin nykyolosuhteisiin riittävän nopealla aikataululla. Väitänkin, että henkilökohtaisten tulevaisuuksien ensisijaisuus heijastaa leireillä asuvien palestiinalaisten kohtaamia vaikeuksia: heidän asemansa ja tulevaisuutensa ei ole tarpeeksi turvattu, jotta he voisivat odottaa ja keskittyä kansallisten tavoitteiden ajamiseen. Sen sijaan palestiinalaispakolaiset ovat pakotettuja tarttumaan tällä hetkellä tarjolla oleviin vaihtoehtoihin ja pyrkimään niihin suuntiin, joissa mahdollisuudet parempaan elämään ovat tarjolla. ; Palestinian refugee camps have been housing Palestinians for seven decades. They were formed after 1948, when in the process of establishing Israel as a Jewish state the majority of Palestinians living in Mandatory Palestine were dispossessed. Over these decades, the camps have become a durable part of the Middle Eastern landscape, and several generations of refugees have already been born, and are living, in them. Despite the fact that Palestinian camps have also been framed as temporary, not only by definition but also in the national narratives stressing the right to return to Palestine, in practice the camps have become sites where lives are lived and futures built. Due to their long history, unique institutional framework, and strong connotation as centers of Palestinian political struggle, Palestinian refugee camps have their own specificities that affect how they frame the life of their dwellers. Yet, this dissertation is not an ethnography of the camps per se; the aim is rather to look through them in order to explore the manifold futures that are negotiated by the Palestinian refugees dwelling in them, and especially by those just reaching adulthood. This ethnographic study has been conducted in several refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, and the West Bank. A multi-sited approach was adopted with the presumption that the context of refugeeness affects the ways in which futures are imagined. Palestinian refugees have been positioned differently in these places: as stateless and excluded in Lebanon, as refugee-citizens in Jordan, and as being among their own people yet enduring the difficulties of the oppressive Israeli occupation in the West Bank. Understanding these contextual specificities in the different host sovereigns has hence been central to the aims of this work. In this dissertation I argue, in line with ontological hermeneutics, that it is not possible to explore the future without first addressing the differing pasts and present conditions of the refugees. Therefore, to understand these differing experiences of Palestinian refugees living under the three host sovereigns, I start by looking at the histories that form the present realities through which Palestinians look to, have hopes for, and plan for their futures. The histories of Palestinian refugeeness have witnessed violence, multiple displacements, and enduring uncertainty. In all the fields that were included in this research it was the camp that embodied the difficulties of being a refugee. The material living conditions, crowdedness, camp community, and relations with the surrounding area and society, as well as the identificational and political connotations, have all affected how the camps have been experienced as places of dwelling by my interlocutors. In many ways they were considered inadequate in terms of providing the hoped-for standards of living, yet simultaneously they formed a significant community that was viewed from a positive perspective, though more so in the West Bank and Jordan than in Lebanon. Nevertheless, while the camps functioned as a marker of Palestinian refugeeness, and were even equated with Palestine and the right of return, as everyday spatialities they left much to be desired. Similarly, this research shows that the possibilities available to the refugees under the host sovereigns were not usually enough for my interlocutors to achieve their aspirations. Hence many – especially in Lebanon and the West Bank, though for different reasons – have come to consider that emigration could fulfil their hopes and provide better conditions for them and their families. Better futures were negotiated via different routes – education, employment, and marriage being the ones explored here. While both return and the national future of Palestine also emerged in these negotiations, they were situated in a different, more abstract timeframe, not one that could provide better possibilities or enhancements in the deprived conditions faced in everyday life. The specificity of Palestinian refugees' negotiations on the future nevertheless emerges from this discrepancy between the national and the personal. On the level of national discourse, Palestinian refugees (especially those living in camps) are people steadfastly waiting for the return, enduring life in the camp and fighting for the national cause. However, on the level of the everyday, they are – as is anyone – aiming to improve their situation with the means available and, as became evident in my ethnography, in the present situation and in light of past experiences those means direct their attention somewhere other than to the political objectives they hold as Palestinian refugees. This, I claim, reflects the difficulties that Palestinian refugees living in the camps face: they are not in a secure enough position to have the luxury of "waiting out" or to concentrate on the political in its national manifestation. Rather, they are forced to negotiate the options at hand, to reach out in those directions where possibilities are available.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gabbur-2microwatershedwas conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 550ha in Koppaltalukand district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 86per cent is covered by soils, 17 per cent byrock outcrops and 3 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11soil series and 21soil phases (management units) and 4land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m)in available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%)lands.  An area of about 8 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and71 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 30per cent has soils that are slightly to moderately acid (pH 5.5- 6.5), 25 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3),21 per cent are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4)and2 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in11 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 1 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 51 per cent area,26per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and high (>1.0 ppm) in about 2 per cent.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm)in 57 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 10 per cent area.  Available manganeseand copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershedwere assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24 (4) 21 (4) Pomegranate 18 (3) 167 (30) Maize 24 (4) 21 (4) Guava 18 (3) 167 (30) Bajra 43 (8) 172 (31) Jackfruit 18 (3) 167 (30) Red gram 18 (3) 26 (5) Jamun - 179 (33) Bengalgram - 75 (14) Musambi 18 (3) 167 (30) Groundnut 38 (7) 251 (46) Lime 18 (3) 167 (30) Sunflower 18 (3) 26 (5) Cashew 24 (4) 209 (38) Cotton - 45 (8) Custard apple 43 (8) 323 (59) Chilli 24 (4) 21 (4) Amla 43 (8) 323 (59) Tomato 24 (4) 21 (4) Tamarind - 23 (4) Drumstick 18 (3) 129 (23) Marigold 24 (4) 21 (4) Mulberry 18 (3) 318 (58) Chrysanthemum 24 (4) 21 (4) Mango - 18 (3) Jasmine 24 (4) 21 (4) Sapota 18 (3) 167 (30) Crossandra 24 (4) 21 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared for the4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder,fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 87 (55.77%) men and 69 (44.23%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 4.3, semi medium farmers' was 3.8 and large farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 24 (15.38%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 70 (44.87%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (32.69%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (7.05 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gabbur-2 had 30.77 per cent illiterates, 28.21 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.33 per cent of them had middle school education, 21.79 per cent of them had high school education, 7.69 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.64 per cent of them did ITI and 2.56 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 78.95 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 13.16 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers, 2.63 per cent were general labourers and 2.63 per cent were in private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 42.95 per cent of the household members, 23.72 per cent were agricultural laborers, 7.05 per cent were general labour, 1.28 per cent had household industry, 4.49 per cent were in private, 19.87 per cent were students and 0.64 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 98.72 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions and only 1.28 per cent of the households participated in self help group.  The results indicate that 2.63 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 92.11 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 5.26 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 86.84 per cent of the households possess TV, 68.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 68.42 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.95 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.2696, mixer grinder was Rs.1444, bicycle was Rs. 1038, motor cycle was Rs.31000 and mobile phone was Rs.1005.  About 10.53 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 23.68 per cent of them possess plough, 21.05 per cent of them posses sprayer, 97.37 per cent of them possess weeder and 23.68 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.15500, plough was Rs.1692, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3077, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2888, and the average value of weeder was Rs.33. 2  The results indicate that, 23.68 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 10.53 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.63 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 5.26 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.57, average own labour (women) available was 1.31, average hired labour (men) available was 6.72 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.36.  The results indicate that, 44.74 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 39.47 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, only 1.92 per cent of the population migrated from the micro watershed, which included 5.26 per cent of landless farmers and 4.44 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The results indicate that, the average distance of migration was 800 kms and average duration was 5 months.  The results indicate that, job/wage/work was the main purpose for migration.  The results indicate that, 66.67 per cent of the households opined that their quality of life improved as a result of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Gabbur-2 micro watershed possess 91.77 ha (84.24%) of dry land and 17.18 ha (15.76%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.01 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 22.30 ha (96.50%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (3.50%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.12 ha (11.45%) of dry land and 16.37 ha (88.55%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 64.35 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 72,977.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 399,832.71. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 431,586.03 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 228,620.69 for dry land and Rs. 617,500 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 141,682.60 for dry land and Rs. 389,067.76 for irrigated land. In case of large famers, the average land value was Rs. 258,000 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 7 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 3 functioning and 3 defunctioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 21.05 per cent of the farmers, open well was the source of irrigation for 7.89 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 17.57 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.43 meters. 3  The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.81 ha and 20.43 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (24.21 ha), paddy (7.77 ha), navane (4.66 ha), groundnut (2.43 ha), bajra (2.06 ha), mango (3.36 ha), sugarcane (1.36 ha), brinjal (0.81 ha), ladies finger (0.81 ha) and bengal gram (0.81 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown maize, navane and bajra. Small farmers have grown maize, navane, bajra and Bengal gram. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, paddy, navane, groundnut, mango, sugarcane, brinjal and ladies finger. Large farmers have grown maize only.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gabbur-2 micro watershed was found to be 99.75 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 99.40 per cent, and large farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 97.37 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 97.37 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 5.41 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 13.51 per cent availed loan from friends/relatives, 35.41 per cent availed loan from money lender, 35.14 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank and 10.81 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicate that, landless, marginal, small, semi medium and large farmers have availed Rs.81000, Rs.47500, Rs.46125, Rs.79636 and 135000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was social functions which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 15 per cent of the households borrowed for agricultural production, 25 per cent of the households borrowed for the purpose of construction of house or cattle shed, 5 per cent have borrowed for health care and another 5 per cent have borrowed for purchase of vehicle.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 81.82 per cent of the households partially paid their loan and 18.18 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. 4  The results indicate that, around 93.33 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 6.67 per cent of the households said that the credit was easily accessible.  The results indicate that, around 18.18 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 13.64 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirements, 13.64 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 4.55 per cent opined that the interest rate was higher in non-institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 24971.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28026.25. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 3054.83, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27364.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7646.45. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 594.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39.  The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 100090.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 310099.43. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 210008.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.1.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 29944.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95589. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 65644.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.19.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53586.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80670.20. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 27083.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 35169.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 68570.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.95.  The total cost of cultivation for Ladies finger was Rs. 31310.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 113620. The net income from Ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 82309.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.63.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 152187.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 102646.33. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. -49541.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 152187.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 102646.33. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -49541.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 110481.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 477827.40. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 367345.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.32. 5  The results indicate that, 15.79 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.26 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Also around 23.68 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 2.63 per cent of the households opined that green fodder is inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 114,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 82,850, for small farmers it was Rs. 112,442.19, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 271,250, and for large farmers it was Rs.148000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,585.06. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,937.50, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,343.39, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 11,624.01, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 17,500.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 14 coconut, and 830 mango trees in their fields.  42.11 per cent of the households showed interest towards cultivation of horticultural crops.  The results indicate that, households have planted 64 neem trees and 9 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 6,237.99, for irrigation facility Rs. 2,132.65, for improved crop production Rs. 684.32 and for improved livestock management Rs. 2,894.74.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 55.26 per cent of the households for land development, 36.84 per cent for irrigation facility, 5.26 per cent for improved crop production and 5.26 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of investment for 5.26 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, all crops were marketed to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 92.11 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.63 per cent have sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 84.21 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 5.26 per cent have used truck and another 5.26 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of marginal farmers, 56.25 per cent of small farmers and 8.33 per cent of semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 81.58 per cent have shown interest in soil test. 6  The results indicated that, 28.95 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding and 42.11 per cent of the households adopted summer ploughing.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the structures needed full replacement.  The results indicated that 31.58 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government and another 39.47 per cent is constructed by other agencies.  Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 76.32 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 18.42 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 94.74 per cent used fire wood and 10.53 per cent of the households used LPG.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 81.58 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 25 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  97.37 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.63 per cent possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 26.32 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 78.95 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 15.79 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 28.95 per cent, fruits were adequate for 21.05 per cent, milk was adequate for 73.68 per cent and eggs were adequate for 73.68 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 21.05 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 73.68 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 63.16 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 65.79 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.16 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 23.68 per cent and meat was inadequate for 63.16 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 76.32 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (73.68%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.42%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.26%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60.53%), high rate of interest on credit (44.74%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.53%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (60.53%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (63.16%), less rainfall (73.68%) and inadequate extension services (57.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project