The article surveys the work of Russian and foreign researchers, which aims at defining such concepts as "ethnic group," "nation" and "people" in the context of nation-building in a heterogeneous society. The article briefly describes the main features of nation-building as they are seen from the standpoint of nationalism, multiculturalism, politics of identity and republican citizenship. The author offers an approach to interpreting nation-building in Singapore on the basis of analyzed concepts and viewpoints.Key words: nation-building, ethnicity, nation, nationalism, multiculturalism, politics of identity, republican citizenship, Singapore ; В статье дан реферативный обзор работ отечественных и зарубежных исследователей, посвященных вопросам определения таких понятий, как «этнос», «нация» и «народ», в контексте проблемы нациестроительства в гетерогенном обществе. Кратко изложены основные особенности нациестроительства с позиций национализма, мультикультурализма, политики идентичности и республиканского гражданства. На основе проанализированных концепций сделана попытка определить подход к проблеме нациестроительства в Сингапуре.Ключевые слова: нациестроительство, этнос, нация, национализм, мультикультурализм, политика идентичности, республиканское гражданство, Сингапур.
Kazakhstan, like most of the multi-ethnic post-Soviet states, in the course of state building, faced the problem of rallying the peoples living in the Republic. Two interrelated projects were being implemented on the political agenda of Kazakhstan: the construction of state institutions and the formation of a civil nation. In a multi-ethnic state, the project of a civil nation is difficult due to the attempts of the titular ethnic group to obtain additional advantages, which causes tension in interethnic relations. The identification of the population, often, occurs by ethnicity, therefore, the policy of civic identity in Kazakhstan is opposed to the "Kazakhization" of language, culture, and social practices. Nevertheless, the process of unification of the nation is successfully developing in the Republic, initiated by the political elite of Kazakhstan. Achievement of national unity was declared a strategic priority in the development of the country. The article analyzes the factors affecting collective identity in the Republic of Kazakhstan: demographic diversity, language policy, state symbols. The article concludes that Kazakhstan is building its statehood based on the domination of the Kazakh ethnic elite, while pursuing a policy of uniting different ethnic groups into a single Kazakh nation. ; Казахстан, как и большинство полиэтничных постсоветских государств, в ходе государственного строительства столкнулся с проблемой сплочения народов, проживающих в Республике. В политической повестке Казахстана реализовывались два взаимосвязанных проекта: строительство институтов государства и формирование гражданской нации. В полиэтничном государстве проект гражданской нации затруднен из-за попыток титульного этноса к получению дополнительных преимуществ, что вызывает напряженность в межэтнических отношениях. Идентификация населения, нередко, происходит по этнической принадлежности, поэтому политике гражданской идентичности в Казахстане противопоставляется «казахизация» языка, культуры, социальных практик. Тем не менее, в Республике успешно развивается процесс объединения нации, инициатором которого является политическая элита Казахстана. Стратегическим приоритетом в развитии страны было заявлено достижение национального единства. В статье проанализированы факторы, влияющие на коллективную идентичность в Республике Казахстан: демографическое разнообразие, языковая политика, государственные символы. В статье сделан вывод о том, что Казахстан строит свою государственность, основываясь на доминировании казахской этнической элиты, при этом проводя политику объединения разных этносов в единую казахстанскую нацию.
Acta Slavica Estonica is an international series of publications on current issues of Russian and other Slavic languages, literatures and cultures. This volume is part of the subseries Studia Russica Helsingiensia et Tartuensia, XIV, and unites scholars from Estonia, Finland, Russia, Ukraine, Germany, and Canada who belong to the tradition of the Tartu Lotman school. This collective monograph explores the development of national myth on the basis of a variety of materials from Russian culture, beginning from the Late Middle Ages and finishing with the Soviet epoch. The main part of the study is devoted to the Imperial period — the epoch during which the notion of nation arises. Analyzing the mechanisms used to construct national ideology, the authors especially stress the participation of literature and art in nation building: the role of the press, theatre, writers and their works in their dependence upon historical matters and political conjuncture.
The review analyses one of the most recent works by Serhii Plokhii, a renowned Ukrainian historian. In The Cossack Myth, Plokhii provides a complex analysis of the political and intellectual mechanisms involved in the construction of the Ukrainian nation, which served as a major impetus for the destruction of the Russian Empire in 1917 and the Soviet Union in 1991. Plokhii speculates that the source of the ideas that stimulated these processes was an anonymous essay from the beginning of the 19th century entitled The History of the Rus. According to the author, this work appeared exclusively as a result of how the repressive policies of the Russian government impeded the rights of the Ukrainian Cossacks and the local gentry. The ideas underlying this literary composition seemingly fuelled sentiments of opposition among Ukrainian intellectuals in the pre-revolutionary and Soviet periods, and became the basis for the modern ideology of the Ukrainian nation. However, in his search for opposition among Ukrainian elites, the author seems to overlook many bifurcations, discontinuities, and the 'Russian trace' that all took part in the process of Ukrainian nation-building. ; В рецензии дан анализ одной из последних работ Сергея Плохия, известного украинского историка. В «Казацком мифе» Плохий постарался провести комплексный анализ политических и интеллектуальных механизмов строительства украинской нации, послуживших главным толчком к уничтожению Российской империи в 1917 г. и Советского Союза в 1991 г. Плохий доказывает, что интеллектуальным источником, стимулировавшим эти процессы, стало анонимное сочинение начала XIX в. «История русов». По мысли автора, данное сочинение появилось исключительно в результате репрессивной политики российского правительства, направленной против прав украинского казачества и местного дворянства. Заложенные в сочинении идеи подпитывали оппозиционные настроения украинских интеллектуалов дореволюционного и советского периодов, а также стали основной для идеологии современной Украины. В поисках оппозиционности среди украинской элиты Плохий упускает имевшие место развилки и разрывы, а также «русский след» в процессе конструирования украинской нации.
Contrary to the secularist approach, civilizational values including religion still play a significant role in realizing tasks of social and political development. The analysis of such mega-countries as Brazil, India, China and Russia shows why cultural and religious values retain their public value and how they can be applied in the process of modernization and nation-building. ; Вопреки концепциям сторонников секулярной парадигмы, цивилизационные, в т.ч. религиозные ценности остаются востребованными при решении задач общественно-политического развития. Рассматриваемые казусы сверхкрупных стран (Бразилия, Индия, Китай, Россия) показывают, почему культурно-религиозные ценности сохраняют свое публичное значение и как они могут быть востребованы в ходе модернизации и национального строительства.
In Sweden, the agricultural sector uses an estimated 3.7 TWh per year as electricity or fuel. About 34% of this total is estimated to be used in the production of beef, pork, eggs and milk, including the spreading of manure. Some energy is also used for harvesting ley and cereals as feed, which is not included. Most of the energy used is in the form of electricity (approx 63%). All these estimates are based on a 1981-1984 survey by Nilsson & Påhlstorp (1985). Most of the technical equipment is still the same today on farms of comparable size and production methods. However, herds of pigs and cattle are larger now, and therefore new equipment is being used. The average Swedish dairy farm is 39% larger (49 cows) than the EU-15 average (35.5 cows) and herd size is growing rapidly. The climate in winter at the study farms is not as cold as that in central Europe or northern Sweden, although air temperature was below 0ºC for about 3 months in 2006 (average -0.1ºC, Dec-Feb.) In the period June-August, the average temperature was 17.8ºC in 2005 and 19.1ºC in 2006. It only exceeded 30ºC for a period longer than three hours on seven occasions. Because of the climate, it is necessary to have artificial heating in buildings for sows (farrowing section). In all other buildings the animals produce enough heat themselves to keep the house warm. When breeding cattle or dry sows some farmers accept a low inside temperature. Swedish animal welfare legislation requires more space per animal than most other countries. Slatted floors in lying areas are only permissible for fattening steers. Cages for laying hens have to include a sand-bath, nest and perches. Another difference is that sows can only be kept in crates occasionally and can never be tied up. The purpose of this study was to collect data on energy use on modern farms of a size and with a level of technical equipment that could be expected to be in use for the next 10-15 years. The data obtained were then added to data from Nilsson & Påhlstorp (1985).The survey was conducted on 16 farms with buildings mainly constructed during the past 10 years and with modern equipment. All these farms except one were in the south of Sweden (Skåne, Halland, Lat. 55-56ºN) and the last one 180 km south-east of Stockholm (Lat. 58ºN). The study was structured as follows: - Four complete dairy farms were studied in detail and another three were studied because they had interesting technical equipment that was not installed on the first four farms. - Three farms with pigs were studied. One had an FTS-system (Farrowing To Slaughter in the same pen), one a farrowing-growing system (Farrowing to approx. 25 kg/11 weeks in the same pen), and one had fattening pigs (approx. 25-110 kg). - Two farms with laying hens were studied. One had furnished cages and the other had laying hens on floors. - Two broiler houses were studied. - Four different types of grain dryers were studied: batch drier, circulating batch drier, continuous drier and batch-in-bin drier with multiple stirring augers. To measure electricity use, electricity meters of the type used by power companies were installed. These meters distinguishing between feeding, ventilation, light, manure handling and, for some plants, cleaning/disinfection, heating, milking and packing of eggs. When all these were measured there was still some more electricity that was impossible to measure or to distribute to the right category. This was categorised as Miscellaneous. Meters were also installed for estimating the power (W) used at one piglet farm and at two dairy farms. The data were processed and are included in the appendices in order to allow estimations to be made for other farms and evaluations to reduce the use of energy (power). In milk production, energy use was between 930 and 1540 kWh/cow per year (0.125-0.203 kWh/L milk). The functions that used most energy were milking and feeding, which together used 65-75% of total energy. On farms that used a wheel loader and tractor for mixing Total Mixed Ration (TMR), energy consumption was higher than on those farms that used electrical engines for mixing. One litre of diesel was set to 9.8 kWh. Production of piglets (approx. 25 kg) used 689 kWh/sow per year, which means about 28.7 kWh/25 kg pig (assuming 24 piglets/sow & year). During the fattening period (25-110 kg), energy use was 20 kWh per pig. The total energy requirement to produce finishing pigs from birth to 110 kg was thus 48.7 kWh/110 kg pig or 1163 kWh/sow per year, assuming a sow produces 24 piglets per year. This can be compared with the FTS-system, which uses 2431 kWh/sow per year. This difference is not completely caused by different breeding systems but is more likely to be due to difference in buildings, and therefore to a greater need for energy for lighting and ventilation, and a higher temperature in the farrowing unit. The farm that used less energy heated the breeding areas with a heat-pump, while another used diesel as fuel. Most energy was used for heating (including the use of heat lamps). If the building for dry sows needs mechanical ventilation and artificial light, then this leads to a greater use of energy. Egg production with laying hens in furnished cages used 3.1 kWh/year per hen, while a system with free hens used 5.0 kWh/year per hen. Light and ventilation fans used most energy, but were also the functions that showed the greatest differences between the systems. The difference in energy used for light is most probably due to the higher light intensity and to the two extra hours of light each day in the system with free layers. In broiler production, the largest use of energy was heating (84%), followed by light (10.7%) and ventilation (3.6%). The energy needed to produce one broiler (1.5 kg) was an estimated 0.91 kWh. This value is an average of five batches due to large variations between batches. The use of electricity differed from 6% to 20% between similar houses. All the grain driers except the batch-in-bin drier used between 4.2 and 9.1 kWh per 1000 kg of grain during 2005 and 2006. Due to bad weather conditions the use of energy was 30% higher in 2006. The batch-in-bin dryer used 12.0 kWh per 1000 kg of grain 2006. Due to different technical standards the values are not directly comparable, but the data are valid for the separate functions.
