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"The globalization of science and technology can be conceptualized on different levels: as the spread of scientific and research institutions (Drori et al 2003), the diffusion of technologies throughout the world - and perhaps especially the developing world, (Inkster 1991), or the increasingly dense interconnections which characterize contemporary research collaborations. At the root of these three levels, however, is a fundamental question as to whether science and technology transcend - and thus shape - social change, irrespective of local contexts. On the side of those who argue against such a transcendence, instances of 'local knowledge' have been invoked, as well as practices of using technologies differently in different parts of the world. These counterexamples are important, but they also overlook wider macro-level changes. This essay will consider globalization on all three levels. First, it will trace the emergence of international science policy and scientific communication. Second, it will examine the diffusion of new technologies at the hand of the examples of information and communication technologies, specifically television and telephony - including mobile telephony (Schroeder 2007; World Bank 2008). Finally, it will illustrate the increasing connectivity of global research in the 21st century with reference to knowledge production that is supported by computer networks, not just for communication, but also in the new electronic infrastructures for research dissemination and collaborative data resources and tools. The essay will conclude with some reflections about how scientific knowledge and technology can meet global challenges, especially in relation to the increasing resource scarcity and instability of the environment, in the 21st century." (author's abstract)

Cognition, or scientific knowledge, is the fulcrum of Gellner's philosophy of history. Science, for Gellner, is central to understanding the rise of the West and also to his defence of Enlightenment rationality against postmodernism and other forms of relativism. This way of thinking has recently been challenged, first, by global historians who locate the 'great divergence' in the 19th century rather than earlier, and second, by those who assign to the Enlightenment a pernicious role and argue that rationality and scientific knowledge are inextricably bound to particular social contexts, for good or ill. Gellner's ideas can be defended against these challenges, but this requires, first, distinguishing between rationality and science and, second, tracing the course of science and technology outside of the West. Once this defence is in place, Gellner's ideas about the relation between cognition on one side and production and coercion can also be re-examined: here, too, his account requires revision since the idea that rationality 'trumps' the other two orders needs to be specified on the ground: in everyday life, for example, scientific knowledge is rather remote, and so often does not supersede other social dynamics. This also relates to other tensions in the relation between science, technology and everyday life: as Gellner noted, technology yields rubber as well as iron cages, but consumer technologies are now in some respects on a path towards unsustainable growth. Separating this problem from cognition is a further task. These refinements to Gellner's ideas provide a basis for rethinking the connection he makes between liberalism and modern cognition.

AbstractThe era of knowledge economies is inextricably linked with the current wave of globalization, which is asymmetrically benefiting Northern countries and thereby exacerbating the enormous wealth and quality of life gap with their Southern counterparts. Meanwhile, scientists, governments, and commercial institutions in the South are searching for effective ways to respond. Rather than insisting on developing indigenous technologies when abundant and well-proven technologies already exist, scientists can help choose the right ones and learn how to use them in specific contexts. As science and scientists are crucial in knowledge economies, they are increasingly figuring prominently in government decision-making. The wealth of nations in the era of knowledge economies is not based in their reserve of raw materials, but in their knowledge, research, technology, and innovation capacity. In short, for the Third World in particular, human capacity building is essential. In recent decades, a few Third World nations have experienced numerous world class scientific and technological achievements. This paper examines a few such national cases as well as makes assessments of necessary measures for nations of the South to advance with science and technology in service of socioeconomic development at the present juncture.