A number of quantitative poverty assessments have been undertaken during the past decade in Cambodia. But quantitative surveys traditionally measure poverty in consumption terms, leaving aside other important factors that impact the poor. It is widely recognized that poverty is multidimensional in nature, involving a host of sociological, historical and cultural factors. The Cambodia PPA was meant to incorporate that multidimensional aspect. What follows is a report that utilizes the strength of quantitative assessments in locating where the poor live, with a more qualitative understanding of why people are poor. The two approaches are designed to be complementary in enhancing a better understanding of poverty. At the heart of the PPA's strength is t
학위논문(석사)--서울대학교 대학원 :국제대학원 국제학과(국제통상전공),2019. 8. 김종섭. ; 본 연구의 목적은 글로벌 가치사슬 (global value chain, GVC), 혹은 여러 국가에 걸친 생산 단계의 분화 과정에 참여하여 특정 형태의 중간재 무역이 증가할 때, 숙련도가 다른 한국 노동자들의 임금에 차별적인 영향이 발생하는 가의 여부를 실증적 분석을 통해 검증하는 것이다. 최근 여러 개발도상국과 선진국에서 국가 내 불평등이 심화되는 현상이 관측되고 있으며, 이는 학계 및 정책입안자들 뿐만 아니라 일반인들의 주요 관심 대상이 되었다. 불평등이 정치적 안정성과 사회 통합에 영향을 미친다는 사실은 오랜 시간 인지되었다. 많은 국가 내에서 포퓰리즘과 시위가 늘어나는 등 정치적 갈등이 심화되고 있으며, 세계에서 경제 규모로 각각 1, 2위를 차지하는 미국과 중국 간의 무역 분쟁으로 현실화된 보호무역주의의 재등장은 오늘날 세계화와 불평등 사이의 상관 관계가 정치적으로 더욱 심각한 의의를 가진다는 것을 보여준다. 그러나 국제 생산 네트워크는 여러 국경을 넘나드는 글로벌 공급망 무역을 통해 촘촘하게 이어지는데, 이러한 글로벌 밸류 체인이 확산된 오늘날에는 관세, 쿼터, 그리고 기타 수입·수출 규제와 같은 비관세장벽의 비용이 더욱 높아졌다. 다시 말해 GVC 시대에서는 각 생산 단계를 거치며 수입 중간재가 국경을 여러 번 넘나들면서 관세의 비용이 누적·증폭되며, 전통적으로 내수형으로 여겨지는 농업과 서비스 같은 산업에 속한 생산과 고용 역시 해외 시장에 의존하는 경향이 커지는데, 이는 내수형 산업들조차 직접적으로 수출되는 제조업품 속의 부가가치로 체화되어 간접적으로 부가가치를 수출하기 때문이다. 따라서 과거 시대에 비해 무역 장벽은 고용과 임금에 더욱 부정적인 영향을 미칠 수 있을 뿐만 아니라, 양자간 무역의 직접적인 당사자 뿐만 아니라 간접적으로 국제 공급 사슬 무역에 참여하는 수많은 관련 국가와 산업들 모두에게 영향을 미칠 수 있다. 따라서 현대 사회에서 보호무역의 비용이 유래없이 높아진 만큼, 과연 그러한 정책의 밑바탕이 된 불평등 문제가 정말 무역에서 비롯된 것인지 정밀하게 연구하는 것은 아주 중요한 문제라고 할 수 있다. 1980년대와 90년대 초반까지 주류 경제학자들의 전반적인 의견은 무역이 불평등에 미친 영향이 미미했으며, 고숙련·저숙련 노동자들의 임금 격차가 벌어진 데에는 숙련 편향적 기술 진보와 같은 다른 요인들이 훨씬 중대한 효과를 미쳤다는 것이었다. 그럼에도 불구하고 세계화와 불평등의 관계에 대한 정책 입안자들과 일부 학계의 염려는 계속되어 왔으며, 특히 해외 아웃소싱 혹은 오프쇼어링과 임금 불평등의 관계에 대한 최근의 경험적 연구들은 여러 상반되는 결과들을 도출하였다. 한편, 글로벌 밸류 체인과 생산의 파편화가 확산된 상황에서는 무역의 잠재적인 숙련 편향적 효과를 새로운 GVC와 부가가치 무역 지수들로 연구하는 것이 중요하다. 이는 리카르도나 애덤 스미스 시대처럼 수출 속 부가가치가 거의 100% 국내에서 생산되는 것이 아니라 해외에서 수입한 중간재 혹은 다른 투입 요소가 차지하는 해외창출 부가가치 비중이 매우 커졌기 때문이다. GVC참여가 노동시장의 소득 재분배에 미치는 영향에 대한 최신의 경험적 연구들 역시 서로 상충되는 결과들을 내놓은 점에서, 더욱 정교한 방법론으로 다듬어진 실증 분석의 필요성이 제기된다. 특히 국제 공급 사슬 무역 속에 체화된 기술과 노동은 전통적 무역 이상으로 산업 고도화나 추가적인 노동 수요와 공급의 이동을 유발할 수 있기 때문에, 같은 GVC무역이라도 산업 혹은 국가에 따라 다른 영향을 미칠 수가 있다. 글로벌 가치 사슬에 가장 활발하게 참여하는 국가 중 하나인 한국의 사례가 중요한 또다른 이유는, 많은 경제학자들이 대학교와 같은 고등 교육에 투자를 해서 고숙련 노동의 비중을 높이는 것이 고숙련·저숙련 노동자 간의 임금 불평등을 해소할 수 있는 효과적 방안으로 제시하고 있고, OECD에서 가장 높은 비율의 고숙련 노동자를 보유하고 있는 한국의 경우 대학 교육 이수자의 지속적인 증가가 있었음에도 불구하고 임금 불평등이 해소되기는커녕 심화되었다는 점이다. 따라서 GVC와 임금 불평등의 구조를 연구하는 것은 GVC참여를 통해서 한국과 비슷한 방식으로 산업들의 기술 구조를 고도화하고자 하는 개발도상국들에게 좋은 참고가 될 수 있을 것이다. 한국의 예는 또한 선진국들에게도 중요한 의의를 가질 수 있다. 한국은 선진국 중에서 특이하게도 강건한 제조업 기반을 유지하고 있으며 반면에 서비스 산업이 상대적으로 낮은 비중을 차지하고 있다. 이런 산업 구조를 가지고 있음에도 GVC참여가 숙련 편향적인 효과를 보인다면, 최근 미국과 같은 선진국들이 보호무역을 통해 억지로 자국으로 (점점 낮은 부가가치를 차지하는) 생산·조립 단계 공정을 되돌리려는 "리쇼어링"을 유도하더라도 그들이 원하는 불평등의 개선 효과가 없을 수도 있다는 점을 함의한다. 산업 구조, 국가의 위치와 규모 등 수많은 요인에 따라 GVC참여가 노동 시장에 미치는 영향이 상이할 수 있는 바, 본 연구는 최근 축적된 국제 생산 분업에 대한 전반적인 선행 연구 분석과 함께 한국의 오프쇼어링, GVC관련 무역, 해외직접투자, 그리고 개발 및 산업 고도화 등의 다방면적인 질적 특성을 살펴봄으로써 이질적인 여러 종류의 GVC참여 방식이 국내 노동자들의 숙련도에 따라 임금에 어떤 상이한 영향을 미칠 수 있는지에 대한 가설을 설정한다. 본격적인 양적 회귀분석에 앞서 질적인 분석을 겸하는 이유는 GVC 무역 내에 체화된 업무와 숙련도를 알아야 노동 시장에 미치는 영향을 보다 정확히 파악할 수 있는 상황 속에서, 현재의 부가가치기준 무역 데이터조차 가치사슬 내의 정확한 산업 고도화 방향과 직무의 구성을 알기 어렵기 때문이다. 연구 가설들을 검정하기 위해 먼저 한국고용노동패널데이터 (KLIPS)에서 추출한 7,689명의 개인과 총 31,974개의 관측치로 이루어진 표본을 구성한 후 2018년 발표된 가장 최신 형태의 경제협력개발기구 (OECD) – 세계무역기구 (WTO) 부가가치 기준 무역 (TiVA) 지표들을 병합한다. 이 실증 분석 모형은 2005년부터 2015년까지 64개국간의 부가가치 무역을 추정하는 TiVA의 36개 산업 수준 지표들을 2009년부터 2017년까지의 개인 수준의 한국 노동자 데이터와 연결한다. 교육 수준으로 측정된 노동의 숙련 수준을 각 노동자가 속한 산업의 세 종류의 GVC 참여 지수 (총 참여율, 전방 참여도, 후방 참여도)와 함께 교차항에 넣어 상호 작용 효과 존재 여부를 살펴본다. 실증 분석을 위해 우선 변형된 Mincer 형태의 임금 모형에 종속변수인 각 개인 수준의 임금과 핵심 독립 변수인 노동 숙련도와 GVC참여율로 구성된 교차항과 함께 다양한 통제 변수와 고정 효과를 넣은 후, 패널 회귀분석을 실시한다. 이처럼 산업 수준 GVC 무역 지표를 개인 수준 임금 데이터와 통합시키는 방법론은 산업 수준 GVC 교역 지수를 산업 수준 임금 데이터와 연결 지은 기존 선행 연구에 비해서 동시적 인과관계로 인해 발생할 수 있는 내생성 편의 문제를 어느 정도 통제할 수 있다는 점에서 상당한 이점을 가진다. 실증 분석 결과 전반적으로 산업 수준에서의 GVC참여가 여러 숙련도로 나뉜 개인 노동자 수준의 임금에 유의미한 차등적인 효과를 보이는 것으로 나타났다. 우선 교차항을 고려하지 않았을 때 전방, 후방 및 총 GVC참여율 모두 다른 변수들을 통제했을 때에도 통계적으로 매우 유의미하게 임금을 높이는 것으로 보였다. 하지만 이와 동시에 GVC참여는 고숙련 노동자들에게 상대적으로 더욱 큰 긍정적 임금 효과를 주는 숙련 편향적 효과가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 여러 종류의 GVC참여 중에서도 전방 참여가 가장 큰 숙련 편향성을 나타내는 것을 드러냄으로써, 본 연구는 GVC참여의 종류를 구분하는 것이 매우 중요하다는 점을 확인하였다. 이는 한국의 노동 시장에 대한 선행 연구들이 거의 다루지 않은 부분일 뿐만 아니라, 최근에 세계 단위로 분석한 연구와 정 반대의 결과를 보여주기 때문에 기존 연구에 상당 부분 기여한다고 할 수 있다. 본 논문의 결과는 또한 동일한 형태의 GVC무역도 국가의 개별적 특성에 따라 체화된 숙련수준과 생산활동의 구성비에 따라 노동시장에 미치는 영향이 다를 수 있다는 점을 시사한다. 한편, 결과의 강건성 검증을 위해 다른 형태의 통제 변수와 모형, 그리고 대안적인 핵심 설명 변수로 시간 래그 변수와 총수출액 대비 부가가치 수출액의 비율(VAX Ratio)을 사용했을 때에도 전반적인 회귀 분석 결과는 유사하게 나오는 것으로 확인하였다. 본 연구는 한국의 경우 글로벌 공급 사슬 무역에 참여하는 것이 적어도 미시적인 수준에서 노동 시장에 숙련 편향적인 효과를 가져온다는 것을 밝히면서도, 동시에 모든 종류의 GVC참여가 노동자들의 전반적인 임금 수준에 긍정적인 영향을 미친다는 점을 보여줌으로써, 최근 불평등을 해소하는 정책으로 확산되는 보호무역주의는 최적의 해결책이 아니라는 경제학의 관점을 경험적 분석을 통해 확인하였다. 본 논문에서 무역과 노동 경제학이 가장 많은 부분을 차지하지만, GVC와 관련된 연구가 여러 학제간 교류가 활발한 간학문적인 분야라는 점과 최근의 무역 전쟁 및 불평등 문제가 정책적으로도 중대한 사안인만큼, 본 연구에 포함된 여러가지 이론 및 실증 분석의 결과들은 정치학, 국제관계학, 정치경제학, 사회학, 교육학, 행정학, 그리고 경영학과 같은 다양한 분야의 연구자들에게 유용한 결과를 제시한다. ; The main objective of this study is to elucidate how exposure to globalization in the form of participation in global value chains (GVCs), or the fragmentation of different stages of production across national and regional borders, has affected the wages of workers with different skill levels in the labor market of South Korea. The rise of income inequality within many developed and developing countries has once again captured the interest of academia, the public, and politicians. It has long been known that inequality affects political stability and social cohesion. Nowadays, political tensions run high in many nations, and as can be seen from various social phenomena such as the rise of populism, civil protests, and protectionism in the form of an ongoing trade war between the world's two largest economies, the U.S. and China, the potential relationship between globalization and inequality continues to have ever more serious political implications. However, the costs of trade barriers such as tariffs, quotas, and other non-tariff barriers such as import or export restrictions are now higher than ever, due to the importance of cross-border supply chain trade that links international production networks. In an era of GVCs, tariffs are escalated because inputs must cross borders multiple times, while production and employment in many seemingly domestic-oriented industries such as agriculture and services actually depend on foreign markets, because their value-added is indirectly embodied as inputs in manufactured exports. Thus, trade restrictions may lead to significantly greater negative impacts on wages and employment than in previous eras. Moreover, barriers aimed bilaterally at one country can affect numerous other countries that participate in production sharing. In light of the high costs of protectionism in the contemporary world, an examination of whether trade actually has adverse distributional effects is crucial. Until the 1980s and early 90s, the consensus of neoclassical economists was that trade only had a minor impact on inequality while skill-biased technical or technological change and other factors were far more important drivers of divergences in the income of high and low skilled workers. Nevertheless, public suspicion and concern over the relationship has been unabated, and more recent literature on the relationship between offshoring and income inequality has shown conflicting results. At the same time, the expansion of global value chains and fragmentation of production increases the importance of studying the potential effects of a skill bias in trade with new GVC and value added trade indicators, since nowadays foreign intermediate goods and services are significantly embodied in the final product exports of a country, unlike the age of David Ricardo or Adam Smith, when exports were only domestically produced. Empirical findings regarding the relation between GVC participation and its distributional impacts on labor have been mixed, furthering the case for continued empirical investigation. The case of Korea, one of the most heavily integrated developed countries in GVCs, is also important because many economists have suggested that more investment in the tertiary education of unskilled workers can alleviate income inequality, but Korea has been experiencing a rise in inequality in spite of having the largest proportion of high skilled workers among OECD countries when following ISCED classifications. As such, a careful examination of how GVCs affect wage inequality can provide useful insights for developing countries that want to consistently upgrade their industries akin to the path that Korea has followed. Likewise, Korea's case has important implications for developed nations: Korea is an outlier among developed nations because it has a remarkably robust manufacturing sector as compared to services, yet, the existence of a skill bias of global supply chain trade in spite of this may imply that current high income economies tempted to engage in protectionism to "re-shore" overseas production back into national borders (such as the U.S.) might not achieve the distributional results they intended. The lower value-added assembly stages of manufacturing coming back would not necessarily contribute to reducing inequality in the home country. A careful examination of the literature on the labor market impacts of international production sharing, as well as the qualitative characteristics of Korea's offshoring, GVC-related trade, foreign direct investment, and development - industrial upgrading trajectory are factored into the formulation of several hypotheses on how heterogeneous types of GVC participation might impact workers of different skills in Korea. This is to complement the limitations of value added trade data in showing the composition of business functions as well as direction of industrial upgrading, as finding the specific mix of tasks and skills embodied in GVC trade is crucial to understanding labor market impacts. To test these hypotheses, a panel data set consisting of 7,689 individuals and 31,974 individual-year observations is constructed by merging and matching data from the Korea Labor Income Panel Survey (KLIPS) with the updated 2018 version of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) – World Trade Organization (WTO) Trade in Value Added (TiVA) indicators, which are derived from the Inter-Country Input-Output (ICIO) database. This empirical model links the 36 industry-level indicators of TiVA, which covers 64 economies for 2005-2015, with the micro-individual level data of Korean workers from 2009-2017. The skill level of labor, measured in terms of educational attainment, is interacted with three different types of GVC participation indices (total, forward, and backward) of the respective industries in which the workers are employed each year. The wages of each individual worker, the dependent variable, are regressed on this product term of skills and GVC participation, using a variation of the Mincerian human capital wage equation along with various controls and fixed effects appropriate for this multi-dimensional panel data analysis. This approach of investigating the relationship between industry-level cross-border production sharing indicators on individual-level variables has a significant methodological advantage compared to many earlier studies using industry-level wage variables. Combining the two different levels can mitigate endogeneity concerns that may arise due to simultaneity bias. Overall, the findings of this study show that differences in GVC integration at the industry level indeed have heterogeneous effects on wages of individual workers classified in different skill groups. While all three types of GVC participation have positive effects on wages when controlling for other variables, the direction and magnitude of coefficients for each group of workers suggests the existence of a "skill-bias," in which increased GVC participation has a relatively favorable impact toward higher skilled employees as opposed to low or mid-skilled workers. This skill bias is strongest for forward participation, which underlines the importance of distinguishing between different types of GVC participation, a factor which was neglected in previous empirical studies combining sector-level GVC indicators with individual-level labor data. The fact that these results directly contrast with a recent cross-country study that found skill-biased effects for backward GVC trade rather than forward supply chain linkages, suggests that the country-specific business functions, skills, and tasks embodied within intermediate inputs trade affect the causal relationship between both types of GVC participation and labor market impacts, in line with this dissertation's analysis of Korea's specific position in GVC trade and development trajectory. Moreover, robustness checks show that the results are generally stable when estimated with complementary or alternative specifications of variables and models, including time lags and the Value Added Exports (VAX) ratio. At the same time, although there is a skill bias of global supply chain trade, this research shows that overall wages of workers are positively affected through all types of GVC trade, hence leading to the suggestion that the current protectionist sentiment spreading in the global economy is not the optimal answer to deal with inequality. Although the study mostly draws insights from and fills in the gap in contemporary international trade literature and labor economics, the multi-disciplinary relevance of the findings with respect to global value chains and within-country income inequality should be of interest to scholars and policymakers of many fields, including political science, international relations, political economy, sociology, educational studies, public policy, and business management among others. ; Abstract i Table of Contents v List of Tables and Figures vii I. Introduction 1 1. Background and Research Motivation 1 2. Overview of the Study 12 II. Literature, Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses 17 1. Literature Review 17 1.1. Global Value Chains (GVCs) 17 1.1.1 Concept, History and Terminology 22 1.1.2 GVCs and Value Added Trade Data 33 1.1.3 Importance of Trade in Value Added 42 1.1.4 The Role of Services 44 1.2. Labor Market Impacts of Trade and Offshoring 46 1.2.1 Benefits of Trade 51 1.2.2 Traditional Trade and Inequality 53 1.2.3 Trade in Tasks and Wage Effects 59 1.3 Traditional Proxy Measures of Offshoring Trade 64 1.3.1 Broad and Narrow Offshoring 64 1.4. Second Generation Offshoring Statistics 68 1.4.1 Vertical Specialization 70 1.4.2 VAX Ratio 73 1.5. The GVC Participation Index 76 1.5.1 Backward Participation (Foreign VA in Gross Exports) 78 1.5.2 Forward Participation (Domestic VA in Exports to third countries) 79 1.5.3 Total GVC Participation 79 1.5.4 Data Limitation: Absence of Business Functions and Tasks 81 1.6 Additional Labor Market Impacts of GVC Participation 83 1.6.1 The Smile Curve and Industrial Upgrading 85 1.6.2 Higher growth, development and productivity 93 1.6.3 Empirical Analyses on GVCs and Employment 96 1.6.4 Cross-country Analyses on GVCs and Wages 97 1.7 Korea and Global Value Chains 101 1.7.1 Korea's Prominent Role in GVC Trade 101 1.7.2 Factors underlying Korea's GVC participation 114 1.7.3 Korea's Export-Led Growth and Industrial Upgrading Path 116 1.7.4 Shifting to Higher Value Added Activities and Offshoring Assembly 122 1.7.5 Empirical Literature on the Labor Market Impacts of Globalization in Korea 128 2. Hypotheses Formulation 144 2.1. Model Predictions 144 2.2. Summary of Hypotheses 153 III. Data and Empirical Methodology 155 1. Data Sources and Sample 155 1.1. OECD-WTO Trade in Value Added (TiVA) Indicators 155 1.2. Korea Labor Income Panel Survey (KLIPS) 158 2. Econometric Analysis 161 2.1. Baseline Panel Regression Wage Equation Model 161 3. Variable Construction 163 3.1. Constructing Variables from KLIPS 163 3.2. Skills and Educational Attainment Variables 166 3.3. Constructing GVC Trade Variables from OECD TiVA 170 3.4. Alternative GVC Measures for Robustness Checks 172 3.5. Matching GVC Industries with KLIPS 174 IV. Results and Interpretation 177 1. Main Specification 177 1.1. Total GVC Participation 180 1.2. Forward GVC Participation 187 1.3. Backward GVC Participation 192 2. Further Robustness Checks 195 2.1. International ISCED Definition of Skills 196 2.2. Robustness to Endogeneity and Simultaneous Equation Bias 198 2.3. Individual Fixed Effects 199 2.4. Alternative Specifications: Time-Lagged GVC Trade Variables 202 2.5. Alternative Specifications: Value Added Export (VAX) Ratio 208 V. Conclusion 218 1. Contribution to Economics Literature 218 2. Contribution to Policy-Making and Other Academic Fields 222 3. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research 223 List of References (Bibliography) 228 국문 초록 (Abstract in Korean) 260 ; Master
International audience ; Cet article aborde la manière dont l'économie islamique peut apporter des remèdes aux crises environnementales et financières. La première partie de l'article traite de la question des crises environnementales et financières (1). Les crises environnementales sont analysées à travers les questions du réchauffement climatique, de la déforestation et de la pollution maritime, ainsi que de la perte de biodiversité (1.1). Les crises financières sont étudiées à travers l'endettement, en tant que cause et conséquence des dépressions, dans un contexte alimentant la spéculation où, les marchés financiers malades sont perfusés à la liquidité (1.2). Cette première partie présente un constat permettant d'établir un diagnostic. La seconde partie fait office de prescription et se consacre aux remèdes offerts par l'économie islamique : l'abandon de l'usure et de la spéculation ; l'attachement aux principes de justice, de compassion, de recherche de bien commun, ainsi que de responsabilité ; mais également le devoir de partage des richesses et de modération (2.1). La mise en oeuvre des principes de l'économie islamique est exposée à travers les apports de la finance islamique à la stabilité financière et les exemples des mécanismes de la zakāh et du waqf qui répondent à l'adoption des valeurs de partage et de durabilité, pour être profitable à l'humanité et à l'environnement (2.2). Ainsi, grâce à un mécanisme de prélèvement comme la zakāh et un instrument de distribution comme le waqf, l'économie islamique offre des remèdes permettant de financer intégralement les objectifs de développement durable (ODD) sans avoir à recourir à plus d'endettement.
International audience ; Cet article aborde la manière dont l'économie islamique peut apporter des remèdes aux crises environnementales et financières. La première partie de l'article traite de la question des crises environnementales et financières (1). Les crises environnementales sont analysées à travers les questions du réchauffement climatique, de la déforestation et de la pollution maritime, ainsi que de la perte de biodiversité (1.1). Les crises financières sont étudiées à travers l'endettement, en tant que cause et conséquence des dépressions, dans un contexte alimentant la spéculation où, les marchés financiers malades sont perfusés à la liquidité (1.2). Cette première partie présente un constat permettant d'établir un diagnostic. La seconde partie fait office de prescription et se consacre aux remèdes offerts par l'économie islamique : l'abandon de l'usure et de la spéculation ; l'attachement aux principes de justice, de compassion, de recherche de bien commun, ainsi que de responsabilité ; mais également le devoir de partage des richesses et de modération (2.1). La mise en oeuvre des principes de l'économie islamique est exposée à travers les apports de la finance islamique à la stabilité financière et les exemples des mécanismes de la zakāh et du waqf qui répondent à l'adoption des valeurs de partage et de durabilité, pour être profitable à l'humanité et à l'environnement (2.2). Ainsi, grâce à un mécanisme de prélèvement comme la zakāh et un instrument de distribution comme le waqf, l'économie islamique offre des remèdes permettant de financer intégralement les objectifs de développement durable (ODD) sans avoir à recourir à plus d'endettement.
International audience ; Cet article aborde la manière dont l'économie islamique peut apporter des remèdes aux crises environnementales et financières. La première partie de l'article traite de la question des crises environnementales et financières (1). Les crises environnementales sont analysées à travers les questions du réchauffement climatique, de la déforestation et de la pollution maritime, ainsi que de la perte de biodiversité (1.1). Les crises financières sont étudiées à travers l'endettement, en tant que cause et conséquence des dépressions, dans un contexte alimentant la spéculation où, les marchés financiers malades sont perfusés à la liquidité (1.2). Cette première partie présente un constat permettant d'établir un diagnostic. La seconde partie fait office de prescription et se consacre aux remèdes offerts par l'économie islamique : l'abandon de l'usure et de la spéculation ; l'attachement aux principes de justice, de compassion, de recherche de bien commun, ainsi que de responsabilité ; mais également le devoir de partage des richesses et de modération (2.1). La mise en oeuvre des principes de l'économie islamique est exposée à travers les apports de la finance islamique à la stabilité financière et les exemples des mécanismes de la zakāh et du waqf qui répondent à l'adoption des valeurs de partage et de durabilité, pour être profitable à l'humanité et à l'environnement (2.2). Ainsi, grâce à un mécanisme de prélèvement comme la zakāh et un instrument de distribution comme le waqf, l'économie islamique offre des remèdes permettant de financer intégralement les objectifs de développement durable (ODD) sans avoir à recourir à plus d'endettement.
This livable cities guidance note aims to support cities in developing member countries (DMCs) of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to effectively respond to the crisis in the immediate term, and to 'build back better' in the short- and medium-term while continuously adapting to a 'new normal' with respect to human behaviors, social interactions, and business practices. The note is anchored on the core principles outlined under ADB's Strategy 2030 Operational Plan for Priority 4: Making Cities More Livable (OP4)1, and also considers the public health and economic impacts of the pandemic. Related sector and thematic areas (e.g., transport, education, health, regional cooperation and integration) are covered by similar notes in the ADB's COVID-19 guidance series.
Many international survey projects contain items on corruption that facilitate comparative analyses of individual-level determinants of perceived and experienced corruption, yet such data remain under-used. To encourage more and better use of the wealth of available survey projects, this article presents a comprehensive review of the largest collection of extant cross-national data suitable for research on corruption in Europe. I examine a total of 1129 items on corruption stemming from 21 international survey projects and their 89 survey waves that cover 45 European countries during the period 1989–2017. Within three decades, the number of corruption items has grown remarkably, rising from just one in 1989 to nearly a hundred in 2017. This article shows the trends: a considerable increase in experiential items; greater differentiation between forms of corruption; a move from items on 'what government has done' to items on 'what ordinary people can do'; and inclusion of items on corruption in private sector. Researchers interested in understanding perceptions and experiences of corruption, as they are shaped by social contexts, are offered an opportunity of exploring the availability of corruption items in international survey projects in a systematic manner in order to analyzed patterns of corruption, its causes and consequences. Concluding part of the paper contains some remarks on the challenges of using survey data on corruption in a comparative framework.
Indonesia has achieved an impressive 84% electrification ratio, but faces significant challenges in reaching the remaining 16% of its households. This report describes Indonesia's electrification environment and identifies barriers to achieving universal electricity access. Principles drawn from international best practices such as government commitment, enabling institutional environments, adequate and sustainable financing, and stakeholder coordination are discussed in the context of Indonesia's energy sector. The report gives recommendations for establishing service standards, streamlining financing, setting appropriate targets, and monitoring and evaluation, as well as near-term steps to help achieve universal electricity access.
International audience Polanyi (1944, [1957] 1968) has distinguished three 'patterns of social integration,' namely 'reciprocity', 'redistribution' and 'exchange.' This triad has provided the starting point for most subsequent discussion. Our purpose is to introduce a further type of coordination, the 'destructive mode of coordination'. This mode achieves coordination by intimidation, threat, and the use of non-institutionalized coercive means. Resources and human efforts are allocated in order to appropriate what other people produce. Two simple examples provide an introductory illustration, traffic circles (roundabouts) and prisons. Appropriation through pirating provides a further example of destructive coordination. More specifically, biopiracy (blood patenting) is discussed in order to clarify the relationship between destructive coordination and the institutionalization of property rights. Finally, we focus on the role of destructive coordination as a transitional mechanism that is supported by the institutional vacuum ultimately yielding to other modes of coordination.
This international comparison based on an in-depth field survey - with monographs of thirty companies and twelve training institutions - will give a new dimension and concrete understanding of the relationship between training and employment, work organization and education. Indeed, it clearly highlights major social characteristics in each country, with significantly different roles of Central Government and Local Authorities, big business and small businesses as well as trade-unions. Therefore the issue of centralization and decentralization in relation to labor flexibility can be approached in an original manner. It shows in particular the interest to pay attention to the size of firms and the characteristics of the organization of production. The Construction Industry is particularly interesting for its structural productive flexibility, a constituent and constitutive dimension due to ever changing localization of production sites. This study investigates its transformations, divergent or convergent, in a period of continuous crisis and brutal opening to international competition, during the Thatcher decade that provoked unprecedented restructurings. The search for greater flexibility has proved to be the center of these changes with the downgrading of existing wage protections and struggles around the training of skilled workers and weakening of their status. ; Cette comparaison internationale fondée sur les monographies de trente entreprises et douze établissements, offre une dimension nouvelle et concrète à la compréhension des relations formation et emploi, organisation du travail et éducation. Elle met clairement en évidence les grandes caractéristiques sociétales de chaque pays, les rôles sensiblement différents de l'Etat central et des Autorités locales, du grand patronat et des petites entreprises ainsi que des syndicats. Les dynamiques de centralisation et de décentralisation liées à la flexibilisation du travail se posent donc différemment en France et au R.-U. Ce livre démontre tout l'intérêt de prendre en compte la taille des entreprises et les caractéristiques de l'organisation productive, le BTP étant particulièrement intéressant par sa flexibilité structurelle due à la mobilité de ses lieux de production. Cette étude a permis d'en étudier les transformations, convergentes ou divergentes, sous l'impact d'une profonde crise et d'une mise en concurrence internationale particulièrement brutale au RU au cours de la décennie Thatcher et qui a entraîné un mouvement de restructuration sans précédent. La recherche d'une flexibilité accrue s'est révélée être au centre de ces changements avec le contournement des protections salariales existantes et des transformations profondes de la formation et des qualifications.
This international comparison based on an in-depth field survey - with monographs of thirty companies and twelve training institutions - will give a new dimension and concrete understanding of the relationship between training and employment, work organization and education. Indeed, it clearly highlights major social characteristics in each country, with significantly different roles of Central Government and Local Authorities, big business and small businesses as well as trade-unions. Therefore the issue of centralization and decentralization in relation to labor flexibility can be approached in an original manner. It shows in particular the interest to pay attention to the size of firms and the characteristics of the organization of production. The Construction Industry is particularly interesting for its structural productive flexibility, a constituent and constitutive dimension due to ever changing localization of production sites. This study investigates its transformations, divergent or convergent, in a period of continuous crisis and brutal opening to international competition, during the Thatcher decade that provoked unprecedented restructurings. The search for greater flexibility has proved to be the center of these changes with the downgrading of existing wage protections and struggles around the training of skilled workers and weakening of their status. ; Cette comparaison internationale fondée sur les monographies de trente entreprises et douze établissements, offre une dimension nouvelle et concrète à la compréhension des relations formation et emploi, organisation du travail et éducation. Elle met clairement en évidence les grandes caractéristiques sociétales de chaque pays, les rôles sensiblement différents de l'Etat central et des Autorités locales, du grand patronat et des petites entreprises ainsi que des syndicats. Les dynamiques de centralisation et de décentralisation liées à la flexibilisation du travail se posent donc différemment en France et au R.-U. Ce livre démontre tout l'intérêt de prendre en compte la taille des entreprises et les caractéristiques de l'organisation productive, le BTP étant particulièrement intéressant par sa flexibilité structurelle due à la mobilité de ses lieux de production. Cette étude a permis d'en étudier les transformations, convergentes ou divergentes, sous l'impact d'une profonde crise et d'une mise en concurrence internationale particulièrement brutale au RU au cours de la décennie Thatcher et qui a entraîné un mouvement de restructuration sans précédent. La recherche d'une flexibilité accrue s'est révélée être au centre de ces changements avec le contournement des protections salariales existantes et des transformations profondes de la formation et des qualifications.
[spa] La tesis doctoral titulada "Fotografía y educación en la prensa de guerra republicana en España (1936-1939)" está centrada en la denominada prensa de guerra o prensa de trincheras (soldier newspapers en el mundo anglosajón). Entendemos por prensa de guerra aquella producida por y para los soldados de un ejército durante un conflicto bélico. En nuestro caso acotamos a la prensa de guerra ilustrada, publicada por el ejército republicano en España durante la Guerra Civil española. Esta tesis tiene como principal objetivo analizar cómo, a través de los artículos educativos y culturales, se usó la imagen para educar e influir en los soldados republicanos. La labor educativa realizada por el gobierno republicano en los frentes durante la Guerra Civil española ha sido estudiada con anterioridad por diferentes historiadores de la educación, que han hecho uso, entre otras fuentes, de la prensa de guerra para documentar experiencias y el proyecto educativo desarrollado durante la contienda. Esta tesis, sin embargo, pretende ofrecer un enfoque distinto y a la vez complementario en el estudio de la educación en el frente. Aquí se propone analizar los usos de la imagen de esta prensa de guerra como recurso educativo usado por el propio gobierno republicano para influir a sus combatientes ideológica y moralmente. La metodología empleada es el método histórico adaptado al campo de la historia de la educación, junto con aportaciones de otras disciplinas como la sociología o la semiótica para la interpretación de las fotografías que, como constructos sociales que son, son manifestaciones subjetivas de una realidad. A pesar de gozar de la apariencia de veracidad, puesto que lo que muestran existió, en realidad estos textos visuales nos muestran un momento que el fotógrafo, o quien encargó la fotografía, decidió inmortalizar y que, en muchas ocasiones, está teatralizado o coreografiado para transmitir una determinada visión de lo que reflejan. Las fuentes utilizadas han sido las publicaciones que dentro del conjunto de prensa de guerra no tenían periodicidad diaria y superaban al menos el 15% de ilustración. Otras fuentes complementarias han sido los documentos oficiales, sobre todo Decretos de la época. En referencia a la heurística, señalamos que el acceso a la prensa de guerra republicana se ha realizado a través del Centro Documental de la Memoria Histórica (CDMH), el Archivo General Militar de Ávila (AGMA) y la Hemeroteca Municipal de Madrid (HMM). Las tres colecciones son complementarias entre sí, ya que en muchas ocasiones conservan las mismas cabeceras, pero diferentes números. En cualquier caso, muchas de las publicaciones están incompletas y de otras sólo se conserva uno o dos números. Como principales resultados de la tesis se apunta que la fotografía de temática educativa y cultural aparecida en la prensa de guerra nos permite conocer qué estrategias visuales se diseñaron para promocionar determinados valores y actitudes entre los soldados republicanos. Teniendo en cuenta la alta tasa de analfabetismo entre la tropa, el uso de la imagen como recurso de trasmisión directo fue de gran utilidad y creemos que las imágenes que aparecen en la prensa de guerra fueron expresamente pensadas y seleccionadas para producir el efecto deseado. Se crearon discursos visuales que vinculan la capacitación cultural de los soldados con su capacitación política, moral y militar. ; [cat] La tesi doctoral titulada "Fotografía y educación en la prensa de guerra republicana en España (1936-1939)" es centra en la anomenada premsa de guerra o premsa de trinxeres (soldier newspapers en el món angle-saxo). Entenem per premsa de guerra la produïda per i per als soldats d'un exèrcit durant un conflicte bèl·lic. En el nostre cas acotem a la premsa de guerra il·lustrada, publicada per l'exèrcit republicà a Espanya durant la Guerra Civil espanyola. Aquesta tesi té com a principal objectiu analitzar com, mitjançant els articles educatius i culturals, es va fer ús de la imatge per educar i influir els soldats republicans. La tasca educativa duta a terme pel govern republicà en els fronts durant la Guerra Civil espanyola ha estat estudiada amb anterioritat per diferents historiadors de l'educació, que han fet ús, entre altres fonts, de la premsa de guerra per documentar experiències i el projecte educatiu desenvolupat durant el conflicte. Aquesta tesi, en canvi, pretén oferir un enfocament diferent i alhora complementari pel que fa a l'educació al front. Aquí ens proposem analitzar els usos de la imatge d'aquesta premsa de guerra com a recurs educatiu emprat pel mateix govern republicà per influir els seus soldats ideològicament i moralment. La metodologia emprada ha estat el mètode històric adaptat al camp de la història de l'educació, juntament amb aportacions d'altres disciplines com la sociologia o la semiòtica per a la interpretació de les fotografies que, com constructes socials que són, són manifestacions subjectives d'una realitat. Encara que gaudeixin d'aparença de veracitat, donat que el que mostren va existir, en realitat aquests texts visual ens mostren un moment que el fotògraf, o qui va encarregar la fotografia, decidí immortalitzar i que, en moltes ocasions està teatralitzat o coreografiat per transmetre una determinada visió del que reflecteixen. Les fonts emprades han estat aquelles que dins el conjunt de la premsa de guerra no tenien periodicitat diària i superaven un mínim del 15% d'il·lustració. Altres fonts complementàries han estat els documents oficials, sobretot Decrets de l'època. Pel que fa a l'heurística, assenyalem que l'accés a les fonts s'ha realitzat mitjançant el Centre Documental de la Memòria Històrica (CDMH), l'Arxiu Militar General d'Àvila (AGMA), i l'Hemeroteca Municipal de Madrid (HMM). Les tres col·leccions són complementàries entre si, donat que en moltes ocasions conserven les mateixes capçaleres, però diferents números. En tot cas, moltes publicacions estan incompletes i d'altres es conserven només un o dos números. Com a principals resultats de la tesi s'apunta que la fotografia de temàtica educativa i cultural publicada en la premsa de guerra ens permet conèixer quines estratègies visuals es dissenyaren per promocionar determinats valors i actituds entre els soldats republicans. Donada l'alta taxa d'analfabetisme entre les tropes, l'ús de la imatge com a recurs de transmissió directa fou de gran utilitat i creiem que les imatges publicades a la premsa de guerra foren expressament dissenyades i seleccionades per produir l'efecte desitjat. Es crearen discursos visuals que vinculen la capacitació cultural dels soldats amb la seva capacitació política, moral i militar. ; [eng] The doctoral thesis entitled "Fotografía y educación en la prensa de guerra republicana en España (1936-1939)" (Photography and Education in the Republican War Press in Spain (1936-1939)), focuses on the so-called war press or trench press (also soldier newspapers in the Anglo-Saxon world). We understand as war press the one produced by and for the soldiers of an army during a war. In our case, we refer to the illustrated war press published by the Republican army in Spain during the Spanish Civil War. The main objective of this thesis is to analyse how, through educational and cultural articles, the image was used to educate and influence the Republican soldiers. The educational work carried out by the Republican government on the fronts during the Spanish Civil War has been previously studied by different historians of education, who have used, among other sources, soldier newspapers to document experiences and the educational project developed during the war. This thesis, however, aims to offer a different, and at the same time complementary approach to the study of education on the front. Here we propose to analyse the uses of the image of these soldier newspapers as an educational resource used by the Republican government itself to influence its combatants ideologically and morally. The methodology used is the historical method adapted to the field of the history of education, together with contributions from other disciplines such as sociology or semiotics for the interpretation of the photographs which, as the social constructs that they are, are subjective manifestations of reality. Despite enjoying the appearance of veracity, since what they show existed. These visual texts show us a moment that the photographer, or whoever commissioned the photograph, decided to immortalize and that, on many occasions, is theatricalized or choreographed to convey a certain vision of what they reflect. The sources used have been the publications that, within the whole war press, were not daily and exceeded at least 15% of illustration. Other complementary sources have been the official documents, especially the Decrees of the time. Regarding heuristics, we point out that access to the Republican war press has been made through the Historical Memory Documentary Centre (CDMH), the General Military Archive of Avila (AGMA) and the Municipal Newspaper Library of Madrid (HMM). These three collections are complementary to each other, as they often have the same headings, but different numbers. In any case, many of the publications are incomplete and of others, only 6 one or two issues are preserved. The main results of the thesis are that the educational and cultural photography that appeared in the soldier newspapers allows us to know what visual strategies were designed to promote certain values and attitudes among Republican soldiers. Taking into account the high rate of illiteracy among the troops, the use of the image as a resource for direct transmission was very useful and we believe that the images that appear in the soldier newspapers were expressly designed and selected to produce the desired effect. Visual discourses were created that link the cultural training of soldiers with their political, moral, and military training.
Esta tesis analiza la práctica del skate en Gran La Plata (Ensenada, Berisso y La Plata), Argentina, a la vez que indaga en sus relaciones con el campo de la Educación Física. La investigación ha profundizado en modos, características, sentidos y significados que tiene el skate para quienes lo practican, así como para una parte del resto de la sociedad. Estas prácticas son realizadas por sujetos en su mayoría jóvenes, aunque también por niños y adultos. Para ello hemos utilizado un abanico de conceptos y estrategias metodológicas que pusieron en diálogo a la antropología, la sociología, las ciencias de la educación y la Educación Física. De modo más específico, los postulados de la Praxiología Motriz fueron empleados para analizar la lógica interna y la lógica externa. La relación de los sujetos con los espacios (plazas, skateparks, y en particular con el espacio público) se destacó como un importante eje analítico en la tesis. Asimismo, fueron estudiadas las relaciones con los materiales, con el tiempo y con los otros participantes. La metodología utilizada fue cualitativa y de corte interpretativo. Los instrumentos de construcción de datos fueron entrevistas, observación participante y fuentes secundarias (tales como documentos, páginas de internet, redes sociales y videos). Desde el surgimiento del skate como práctica recreativa y de tiempo libre, han existido formatos de competición que lo vincularon con el mundo del deporte; actualmente se observa que la organización de torneos ha fortalecido el avance del skate como práctica deportiva (vertiente que se ve potenciada por su inclusión en los próximos Juegos Olímpicos de Tokyo 2020). En este contexto se han generado intensos debates que retomamos y analizamos en los capítulos de la tesis. Comprender al skate como deporte permitió además ampliar la discusión en torno al propio concepto deporte y a sus alcances. Otro de los ejes analíticos lo constituyó el relevamiento de cómo se lleva adelante la enseñanza en el skate. Desde esos resultados, se introducen algunas sugerencias pedagógicas intentando contribuir a la enseñanza de esta práctica, a la vez que podría colaborar a reflexionar sobre la enseñanza de otras prácticas corporales en el campo de la Educación Física. El trabajo de investigación llega a conclusiones que nos permiten también visibilizar que los practicantes de skate en la región se manifiestan a través de acciones políticas en virtud de reclamos que consideran justos, y que se expresan y potencian por la grupalidad. El estudio pone también en evidencia la coexistencia de diferentes modos de práctica del skate, diversidad que se construye tanto en relación a los espacios utilizados (calle o street, y pista), así como en relación a la forma en que lo practican y lo entienden los propios skaters (sea de una manera más "libre" o más reglada y deportiva). En definitiva, se trata de una práctica corporal que exhibe diferentes facetas, mostrando un dinamismo que impide encorsetarla en rígidas conceptualizaciones. Sin lugar a dudas, el skateboarding se ha consolidado como un objeto de estudio reconocido internacionalmente, revelándose como una práctica que, al analizarla, nos permite una mejor comprensión de las sociedades urbanas actuales. ; This thesis analyses the practice of skate in Gran La Plata (Ensenada, Berisso y La Plata), Argentina, while it investigates its connections with the physical education field. The research deepens in ways, characteristics, senses and meanings for the people who practice skate and for a part of the rest of the society. These practices are realized mostly by young people, but also by children and adults. For this we have used a range of concepts and methodological strategies that combine the anthropology, the sociology, the educational sciences and the physical education. In a more specific way, the postulates of Motor Praxiology were used to analyse the internal logic and the external logic. The relations the subjects with the spaces (squares, skate parks and in particular with the public space) stood out as an important analytical axis in the thesis. As well, the relations with the materials were studied with time and other participants. The used methodology was qualitative and interpretive. The data construction instruments were interviews, participant observation and secondary sources (such as documents, websites, social networks and videos). Since the emergence of skateboarding as a recreational and free time practice, there have been competition formats that linked it to the world of sports; it is currently observed that the tournament organization has strengthened the progress of skateboarding as a sports practice (aspect that is enhanced by its inclusion in the next Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games). In this context, intense debates have been generated that we resume and analyze in the thesis chapters. Understanding skateboarding as a sport also allowed us to broaden the discussion about the concept of sport itself and its scope. Another of the analytical axes was the survey of how skate teaching is carried out. From these results, some pedagogical suggestions are introduced trying to contribute to the teaching of this practice, and at the same time it could help to reflect on the teaching of other bodily practices in the field of Physical Education. The research paper reaches conclusions that also allow us to make visible that skateboarders in the region manifest themselves through political actions by virtue of claims that they consider fair, and that they express and strengthen by the group. The study also highlights the coexistence of different modes of skate practice, diversity that is built both in relation to the spaces used (street and park), as well as in relation to the way they practice and understand it the skaters themselves (either in a more "free" or more regulated and sporty way). In short, it is a bodily practice that exhibits different facets, showing a dynamism that prevents being limited to rigid conceptualizations. Without a doubt, skateboarding has established itself as an internationally recognized object of study, revealing itself as a practice that, when analyzed, allows us a better understanding of today's urban societies. ; La présente thèse analyse la pratique du skate à Gran La Plata (Ensenada, Berisso et La Plata), Argentine, et en même temps, étudie ses liens avec le domaine de l'éducation physique. La recherche a mis l'accent sur les façons de faire, les caractéristiques, les sens et les significations du skate pour ceux qui le pratiquent, ainsi que pour une partie du reste de la société. La plupart de ces pratiques sont réalisées par des jeunes, mais aussi par des enfants et des adultes. Dans la cadre de notre recherche, nous avons mis en place un éventail de concepts et d'stratégies méthodologiques permettant de combiner l'anthropologie, la sociologie, les sciences de l'éducation et l'éducation physique. De façon plus spécifique, les postulats de la praxéologie motrice ont été employés dans l'analyse de la logique interne et de la logique externe. Le lien entre les sujets et les espaces (parcs, skateparks et particulièrement les espaces publics) a été soulevé comme un axe important de la thèse. Les rapports entre les sujets et les matériaux, le temps et les autres participants ont aussi été étudiés. La méthodologie employée a été qualitative, permettant une démarche interprétative. Les méthodes de collecte de données ont été des entretiens, l'observation participante, et des sources secondaires (tels que des documents, des pages Web, des réseaux sociaux et des vidéos). Depuis la naissance du skate en tant que pratique récréative et du loisir, différents formats de compétition, qui l'on rattaché au monde du sport, ont vu le jour. Actuellement, l'organisation de tournois a contribué au progrès du skate en tant que pratique sportive (volet qui s'est vu fortifié par l'inclusion du skate aux prochains Jeux olympiques de Tokyo 2020). Plusieurs débats intenses -que nous reprenons et analysons à travers les chapitres de cette thèse-, ont apparu dans ce contexte. Reconnaître le skate en tant que sport a permis d'élargir la discussion par rapport au concept de sport en soi et à son étendue. L étude en ce qui concerne la nature de l'enseignement du skate, a engendré un autre axe analytique. Les résultats obtenus constituent la base pour l'introduction de suggestions pédagogiques, dans le but de contribuer à l'enseignement de la pratique et elles pourraient pousser la réflexion sur la façon d'enseigner d'autres pratiques corporelles de l'éducation physique. Le travail de recherche aboutit à des conclusions qui nous permettent de visualiser que les pratiquants de skate de la région s'expriment à travers des actions politiques potentialisées par le phénomène de groupe, menant de réclamations qu'ils considèrent justes. L'étude souligne aussi la coexistence de modes variés dans la pratique du skate. Cette diversité est attribuée à la relation développée avec l'espace utilisé (rue ou street, ou piste), et à la façon dont le skate et pratiqué et conçu par les pratiquants (soit une façon plus « libre » ou plus sportive et réglementée.) Finalement, il s'agit d'une pratique corporelle qui expose différentes facettes, présentant un dynamisme qui empêche de la limiter à des conceptualisations rigides. Sans aucun doute, le skateboarding s'est consolidé en tant qu'objet d'étude de reconnaissance internationale, s'affirmant comme une pratique dont l'analyse nous permet une meilleure compréhension des sociétés urbaines actuelles. ; Fil: Saraví, Jorge Ricardo. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.
