Suchergebnisse

Introduction: With an ongoing economic crisis, Portugal and many other countries are looking into ways to increase efficiencies in all sectors. With almost 10% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) spent in Healthcare, there is a need to improve the use of resources. A Voluntary Electronic Patient Record (VEPR) is an online record of health and healthcare related data provided by the patient himself, available to him, and his authorized health care providers and relatives, in a ubiquitous way anywhere/everywhere. According to some authors through VEPRs, every health institution could have an easier access to a summary of the patient's most important health data if needed and authorized. Just like Portugal, Australia, for example, is currently preparing a health care reform and the implementation of a Personally Controlled Electronic Health Record (PCEHR) system is also being studied. Surveys to general practitioners and consumers of eHealth are being conducted in order to evaluate the quality and sustainability of Australia's health care and to develop change and adoption strategies for the PCEHR system. VEPRs can be provided by private companies, hospitals and health organizations or health departments of governments themselves. In Portugal there is at least one VEPR free of charge provided by a private company. This has raised issues of security of data and risks, and has not been approved by the data protection agency, possibly due to considerations on its massive use as well as the ethical issues of linking it to national health data from the NHS. In addition to this private VEPR, Portugal also provides some health online services: eAgenda and eRNU ("Registo Nacional de Utentes") since 2009. Currently, eAgenda allows patients to schedule for doctor´s appointments and to ask for prescriptions renewal. The online health service, eRNU, allows users to check their general practitioner, the health institution in which they are registered, the health services it provides and its opening schedule. VEPR can be efficient, allowing better sharing of information between health care providers through the online availability of health information. It can be convenient; provide easy access to timely and accurate information no matter where the patient is or when he needs it. It is empowering as it enables the patient to be more active and involved with his own health care. To ensure the privacy of the patient's health information, a security program is required to allow only the appropriately authorized individuals to access the VEPR and to save the record's data in case of a technical breakdown occurs. On the other hand, although everyone can have a VEPR, this is normally restricted to younger, more info-included citizens as access to the internet is not universal and there is a natural difficulty in older generations to use IT and Internet. This, however, can be mitigated and will only have a tendency to dissipate in future. Aims: 1. To assess the state of the art about VEPR; 2. To assess the state of the art about VEPR in Portugal; 3. To assess users expectancies towards VEPR in Portugal; 4. To help developing and set in motion a VEPR adjusted to Portuguese population's health challenges. Methodology: This is a transversal study with a qualitative and quantitative approach. To elaborate this paper, a literature review was made in order to identify sources of information about VEPR and current state of the art on this field. It was established a cooperation with the Portuguese Ministry of Health as it was the only way to indirect and directly collect data about the portuguese VEPR, eAgenda and eRNU. A questionnaire composed of 14 questions, made anonymous, was created using Lime SurveyTM, named "Inquérito para utilizadores dos serviços eAgenda e eRNU", permission obtained and it was then sent to eAgenda and eRNU users through their e-mail addresses. Data was processed using Microsoft Office Excel 97-2003 and statistically analyzed resorting to Epi Info 7. Because the last question was an open question, the related data was processed manually. Results: Currently, eAgenda and eRNU serve about 4% of the portuguese population. The typical user is female, married, completed high school, has children and age median 38, 5 years old. Own and household appointments scheduling were the more frequently selected as the most useful functionalities as well as those that most contributed to improvement on health care delivery. Waiting time reduction was the most frequent selected advantage of eAgenda and eRNU. Conclusions: It is to be concluded that eAgenda and eRNU are well suited for the portuguese population as only 3,28% of the inquired users pointed eAgenda and eRNU services has not having any advantage. More studies are still required to understand the patterns of use and to promote the online services so that more people, not only 4% of the overall portuguese population, may take advantage of their benefits.

In the interwar period, National Democracy (ND) journalists presented their own views regarding the postulates of the emerging feminist movement of that time. Women's position in social life was perceived in terms of the Catholic Church's teaching. ND journalists followed the existing stereotypes regarding femininity and masculinity patterns. They advocated the traditional role of women in the social domain. According to ND journalists, the rejection of this traditional model could have had a destructive impact on the entire national community. Therefore, women striving to get away from the traditional image, willing to devote themselves to a professional career at the cost of their family life, were perceived in a particularly negative way. In the public discourse on femininity, National Democracy took the conservative standpoint, which is also shared by representatives of modern national and nationalistic thought in Poland. ; W okresie międzywojennym publicyści Narodowej Demokracji zaprezentowali własne stanowisko wobec postulatów kształtującego się wówczas ruchu feministycznego. Pozycję kobiety w życiu społecznym pojmowano zgodnie z wytycznymi Kościoła katolickiego. Publicyści endeccy akceptowali istniejące stereotypy określające wzorce kobiecości i męskości. Opowiadano się za tradycyjną rolą kobiety w życiu społecznym. Zdaniem publicystów endeckich odrzucenie tradycyjnego modelu mogło destrukcyjnie wpłynąć na całą wspólnotę narodową. Szczególnie negatywnie postrzegano kobiety, które odbiegały od tradycyjnego wizerunku i poświęcały się karierze zawodowej kosztem życia rodzinnego. W dyskursie publicznym dotyczącym kwestii kobiecej Narodowa Demokracja zajmowała stanowisko konserwatywne. Tożsame stanowisko zajmują przedstawiciele współczesnej myśli narodowej i nacjonalistycznej w Polsce. ; The publication was financed from the National Science Centre resources granted under Decision No. DEC-2013/09/B/HS5/00016. Tekst został opracowany w ramach projektu badawczego "Myśl polityczna Stronnictwa Narodowego (1928–1939)" finansowanego ze środków Narodowego Centrum Nauki na podstawie decyzji numer DEC-2013/09/B/HS5/00016. ; dawidowicz.aneta@gmail.com ; Aneta Dawidowicz – doktor habilitowana w dziedzinie nauk społecznych w dyscyplinie nauki o polityce, doktor nauk humanistycznych w zakresie nauki o polityce, zatrudniona na stanowisku adiunkta w Zakładzie Myśli Politycznej na Wydziale Politologii Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. Jej zainteresowania badawcze koncentrują się wokół polskiej myśli politycznej, biografistyki, historii prasy, publicystyki politycznej, komunikowania politycznego. Jest autorką publikacji książkowych i artykułów naukowych. 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Ossolińskich, 2002, ISBN 83-04-04565-6. ; Kępa Ewa, Patriotyzm kobiet – ewolucja i przeobrażenia Matki Polki w kulturze współczesnej [Women's patriotism – evolution and transitions of the Mother-Pole in the contemporary culture], [in:] Patriotyzm a wychowanie [Patriotism vs. education], ed. Elwira Jolanta Kryńska, Joanna Dąbrowska, Agnieszka Szarkowska, Urszula Wróblewska, Białystok : Trans Humana, 2009, pp. 556–566. ; Kraft Claudia, Państwo wobec rodziny – polityka państw europejskich w XIX i XX wieku – Polska na tle europejskim [The State towards the family – the policies of European countries in the 19th and 20th centuries], [in:] Rodzina – prywatność – intymność. Dzieje rodziny polskiej w kontekście europejskim [Family – privacy – intimacy. The history of the Polish family in the European context], ed. Dobrochna Kałwa, Adam Walaszek, Anna Żarnowska, Warsaw : Instytut Historii PAN, Instytut Historyczny UW, 2005, pp. 105–121. ; Krzywicka Irena, Kontrola współczesności. 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The need to interconnect people and services grows everyday. Companies are aware of the need to unite and offer common services as a way to win new users and simplify their management. Similarly, governments and institutions see the need to migrate their services to the digital world to cover the ever increasing demand for e-management, which streamlines procedures and saves costs. Identity Management Systems offer users tools and mechanisms to help them in the task of controlling credentials and personal information. These mechanisms range from the credential management and privacy assurance to Single Sign-On among others. From the point of view of Service Providers, Identity Management Systems allow the simplification of user management, since they assume the delegation of the authentication process and credential storage. The integration of heterogeneous authentication and authorization protocols as well as identity information from different sources are not trivial given the wide variety of technologies available. Their integration thanks to identity management mechanisms allow us to move toward new richer and safer scenarios, with new services and online procedures that simplify and streamline people's lives. IdM must be leveraged as a key technology of the Future Internet, tackling problems like the integration of heterogeneous services and technologies from an IdM perspective as well as backward compatibility and a new access control infrastructure that are required by IdM solutions. On a higher level, Identity federations are based on the establishment of trust agreements between organizations that allow any user in the federation to access resources and services of any federated organization thanks to a unique digital identity, which is common to the whole federation. This federated identity, valid for all federated services, simplifies the credential control by the user and the user management by service providers. This thesis studies the existing identity management mechanisms and the most popular identity federations to establish common features and open challanges in order to define new and better mechanisms that enable rich and powerful identity management and trust control functions over them. The main focus is to analyse, design, and validate solutions that enable digital identity management through the interoperability of authentication and authorization infrastructures at different levels, from the improvement of identity management and trust control mechanisms to the interfederation level. For each of these approaches the following methodology has been followed 1. Analysis of the technological context and related state of the art. 2. Proposal and design of an interoperability solution to improve existing mechanisms. 3. Design and implementation of the necessary software based on development in an iterative incremental model. 4. Validate the designed solutions by means of analytical models and prototype implementations, taking into account such important factors as functionality, security, feasibility, usability or performance, as well as measuring its impact on the user experience through different metrics. The results of this thesis can be grouped in three blocks according to the objectives in which the work has been focused: • To improve Identity Management capabilities: we have analyzed the main authentication and authorization protocols in the area of IdM, in order to propose advanced mechanisms for IdM architectures, being the main features: partial identities, anonymity functions, better privacy and access control policies (including Deductive Policies). This latter contribution was sent as proposal to XACML 3.0 standardization group. Finally, we have defined SWIFT architecture using formal language, and used it as base for the complete implementation of a functional prototype of the architecture to its validation. • To improve Trust Management: we have implemented the WS-Trust library to use it in the implementation of the GEMBus Security Service based on Security Token Service. To improve the trust management, we have proposed an interoperability solution to integrate WS-Trust and OAuth security standards that have enabled the interaction between heterogeneous authorization technologies. Finally, a complete GEMBus pilot has been deployed to validate the architecture and the interoperability proposal. • To improve interfederation interoperability: we have reviewed the main identity federations in the area of in the area of education, research and government institution, identifying the main requisites and open challenges in the identity federation interoperability problem. We have analyzed and compared eduGAIN and STORK~2.0 federations, in order to define the required interoperability mechanisms to reach their integration, as result we have proposed the introduction of the eduPEPS. Finally, we have validated the integration proposed thought the eduPEPS implementation and the deployment of complete testbed. La necesidad de interconectar personas y servicios crece cada día. Los usuarios demandan mecanismos que garanticen la privacidad y la seguridad en el uso de los sistemas informáticos, al tiempo que requieren que todos los servicios estén conectados y disponibles. Por otra parte, las instituciones públicas y privadas, así como las empresas trabajan intensamente en aumentar el uso y la calidad de sus redes y servicios, siempre estudiando nuevas formas de mejorar sus recursos y crear otros nuevos. Debido a las diversas opciones de federaciones de identidad con diferentes mecanismos de autenticación, se realiza un gran esfuerzo en homogeneizar e integrar las infraestructuras de autenticación y autorización existentes (AAI). Los Sistemas de Gestión de Identidad (IdM, abreviatura del término inglés Identity Management) ofrecen a los usuarios herramientas y mecanismos para ayudarles en la tarea de controlar sus credenciales e información personal. Estos mecanismos incluyen desde la gestión de la privacidad y la seguridad, hasta el mecanismos más complejos como el Single Sign-On, entre otros. Desde el punto de vista de los Proveedores de Servicios, los Sistemas de Gestión de Identidad permiten simplificar la gestión de los usuarios gracias a la delegación del proceso de autenticación y el almacenamiento de credenciales. La integración de protocolos de autenticación y autorización heterogéneos, así como la interoperabilidad de información de identidad de diferentes fuentes no son tareas triviales debido a la gran variedad de tecnologías disponibles. Su integración gracias a los mecanismos de gestión de identidad permite avanzar hacia nuevos escenarios más ricos y seguros, con nuevos servicios y procedimientos online que simplifican y agilizan la vida de las personas. La gestión de la identidad debe aprovecharse como una tecnología clave para el Internet del futuro. En un nivel superior, las federaciones de identidad se basan en el establecimiento de acuerdos de confianza entre organizaciones que permiten a cualquier usuario de la federación acceder a los recursos y servicios de cualquier organización federada gracias a una identidad digital única común. Esta identidad federada, válida para todos los servicios dentro de la federación, simplifica el control de credenciales así como la gestión de usuarios por los proveedores de servicios. Esta tesis estudia los mecanismos existentes de gestión de identidad así como las federaciones de identidad más populares para establecer características y necesidades comunes, definiendo sobre ellas nuevos y mejores mecanismos que permitan una gestión de la identidad y un control de la confianza más rico y potente. El objetivo principal es analizar, diseñar y validar soluciones que permitan la gestión de la identidad digital a través de la interoperabilidad de infraestructuras de autenticación y autorización a diferentes niveles, desde la mejora de los mecanismos de gestión de la identidad y del control de acceso, hasta el nivel de interconexión de federaciones. Para cada uno de estos enfoques se ha seguido la siguiente metodología 1. Análisis del contexto tecnológico y del estado del arte relacionado 2. Propuesta y diseño de una solución de interoperabilidad que mejore los mecanismos existentes. 3. Diseño e implementación del software necesario basando el desarrollo en un modelo incremental iterativo. 4. Validación de la solución propuesta a través del desarrollo de un prototipo completo de la arquitectura teniendo en cuenta factores importantes como la funcionalidad, la seguridad y el rendimiento, para demostrar su viabilidad técnica, así como medir su impacto en la experiencia de usuario a través de diferentes métricas. Los resultados de esta tesis pueden agruparse en tres bloques según los objetivos en los que se ha centrado el trabajo: • Para mejorar las capacidades de gestión de la identidad se ha llevado a cabo un análisis de los principales protocolos de autenticación y autorización en el área del la gestión de la identidad con el fin de contribuir en la propuesta de mecanismos avanzados como las identidades parciales, anonimato, mejoras en la privacidad y en las políticas de control de acceso (incluyendo las políticas distribuidas propuestas como extensión al estándar XACML3.0). Se ha realizado una descripción en leguaje formal de la arquitectura SWIFT así como un prototipo funcional de la arquitectura para su validación. • Para mejorar la gestión de la confianza: se ha implementado la librería WS-Trust para usarla dentro de Servicio de Seguridad de la solución GEMBus. Para mejorar este servicio de gestión de la confianza centrado en el intercambio de tokens de seguridad se ha propuesto una solución de interoperabilidad entre los estándares WS-Trust y OAuth 2.0. Finalmente, se ha validad la arquitectura GEMBus y la solución de interoperabilidad propuesta a través de un piloto completo. • Para mejorar la interoperabilidad entre federaciones de identidad se ha realizado un análisis completo de la federaciones más importantes en las áreas de educación, investigación y instituciones gubernamentales, identificando los principales requisitos y desafíos relativos a su interoperabilidad. Se usado como base las federaciones de eduGAIN y STORK 2.0 para analizar, comparar y definir los mecanismos de interoperabilidad necesarios para conseguir su integración, proponiendo como resultado la incorporación de una entidad intermedia denominada eduPEPS. Finalmente, se ha realizado la validación de la solución propuesta a través de la implementación y despliegue de un tesbed completo de ambas federaciones y el eduPEPS.

Ageing-in-place is the preferred way of living for older persons in an ageing society and can be facilitated through support for (instrumental) activities of daily living and support for physical activity. In addition, home in which older adults dwell can be modified in terms of architectural and technological solutions. Dementia syndrome poses additional challenges when designing, constructing or retrofitting housing facilities that support ageing-in-place. For instance, this is evident in relation to the support of (instrumental) activities of daily living, the creation of safe and secure living conditions, the optimisation of well-being, and the execution of care tasks.At present, there is a quantitative and qualitative shortage in the number of modified dwellings that support ageing-in-place in general, and for people with dementia, in particular. In order to solve the apparent gap between demand (i.e., the needs of people with dementia related to ageing-in-place) and supply (i.e., the supply of architectural and technological solutions to facilitate ageing-in-place), the domains of building and health care should cooperate more in the creation of such modified dwellings. Also, more research is needed on how housing facilities for people with dementia should be designed and built. This dissertation provides solutions to these challenges based on a theoretical and practical framework, which integrates the domains of building and health care.The research sets out to investigate the contribution of various aspects of housing facilities in relation to the needs of older adults with dementia and their family carers, in order to support ageing-in-place. Second, an integrated design for a home for people with dementia is proposed. In this dissertation housing facilities comprise architectural solutions, including the indoor environment and related building services, and emerging technological solutions, including ambient intelligence.MethodologyAn integrated approach, combining the domains of building and health care, was chosen for the research. This is reflected in the way the studies are structured and in the way that demand and supply are taken into account. A combined framework of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) by the World Health Organization, and the Model of Integrated Building Design (MIBD) by Rutten is used for structuring and retrieving information.Moreover, to investigate demand and supply, a combination of research methodologies has been chosen. Apart from literature study, these approaches include qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, such as interviews using topic lists, focus group sessions, observations of existing homes, behavioural observations using numerical scales and physiological measurements.Summary of investigationsThe first step in research was to examine more closely the type of housing facilities in which people with dementia live in the various countries of the European Union and how family care is related to the type of housing facilities for older adults, and for people with dementia in particular. The applicability and implementation of research findings, of which the majority stems from Anglo-Saxon countries, as well as a person's living career, may differ from country to country in accordance with traditions and culture. Furthermore, political choices on a national level regarding ageing in place, dementia and ensuing legislation may also vary in this way.Thereafter, architectural and technological solutions were investigated. An overview was made of existing design principles and design goals, as well as environmental interventions implemented in the home. These environmental interventions included home modifications, assistive devices, object modifications and task simplifications. Each of these environmental interventions was studied in relation to a specific activity of daily living or a general function it supports.Existing research on dementia and housing facilities has no specific focus on the indoor environment and related building systems, whereas this domain is germane to ageing-in-place. Thus in this dissertation, the indoor environment and related building systems were studied in relation to the hindrance or support these environmental factors have on people with dementia and their family carers. Special focus was on the effects of the indoor climate and lighting systems on well-being and behaviour, as these two areas of research are most promising for future interventions in order to positively influence behavioural problems. At the same time, promising applications within the domain of lighting are not fully understood. Therefore, two clinical-controlled trials were conducted in a group setting to study the effects of ambient bright light and high colour temperature dim light on behaviour and circadian rhythmicity.Apart from architectural solutions, there are numerous technological solutions available to support ageing-in-place. Aspects of ambient intelligence technologies were explored in the context of daily living and care support, as the application of such technologies is relevant to concerns about privacy, ethics, and the inclusion of people with dementia. The contribution of ambient intelligence technology was also studied in the field among community-dwelling users of the Unattended Autonomous Surveillance system. This system is applied as a means to support ageing-in-place by improving safety and security and supporting carers.The studies on architectural and technological solutions were followed up with a design study of a conceptual dwelling for people with dementia, which incorporates the integrated view on the demand in relation to ageing-in-place and the supply of adequate housing facilities. This conceptual dwelling is an example of how the combined framework of ICF-MIBD may be used. The design is based on the most important and succinct architectural and technological solutions identified in this dissertation.Main findingsIn the European Union, living in the community is the most prevalent type of living condition for people with dementia. The Netherlands is one of the countries in which national policies explicitly stimulate ageing-in-place for older adults in general, and where care support for family carers is facilitated at the municipal level. Unfortunately, this support does not sufficiently cover modifications to the home environment.This dissertation identified a large number of environmental interventions, which find their origin in design goals and principles for dementia, and conventional home modification practice. At the moment, environmental interventions for dementia are not offered in a structural way, which means that these solutions do not yet match the needs of people with dementia and their family carers.The studies in this dissertation on the indoor environment revealed that people with dementia may have an altered sensitivity for indoor environmental conditions compared to other older adults, which may be a cause of problematic behaviour and may have a negative effect on safety and security. There are a large number of building-related solutions, particularly within the domain of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and lighting systems. These solutions can be implemented to decrease the incidence of problem behaviours, improve the comfort and well-being of people with dementia, and support with (instrumental) activities of daily living. The two lighting studies, which are part of this dissertation, showed that ambient bright light with a high colour temperature may lead to improvements in behavioural outcomes and circadian rhythmicity. These improvements are not seen in low colour temperature lighting conditions. Higher illuminance levels are a crucial factor in establishing successful light therapy. Increasing colour temperature may contribute to the effectiveness of lighting in improving behavioural outcomes and circadian rhythmicity.This dissertation shows that ambient intelligence technologies can contribute to an increase in safety and security among clients and their family carers. People with dementia may have difficulty understanding the technology, which has implications to the way technology is designed and installed. Moreover, the use of ambient intelligence technologies is not a substitute for adequate (care) support. Additional home modifications and assistive devices are also needed. In this dissertation, privacy-related issues and ethical dilemmas were not found to be a concern in practice.The design for the dwelling for people with dementia demonstrated that integration of architectural and technological solutions can be achieved. Such a dwelling can be an added value to family carers, as a spouse with dementia is (i) more independent and (ii) is being monitored and supported by technology, (iii) feels more comfortable and (iv) expresses fewer behavioural problems.Recommendations for research and practiceThe combined framework of ICF and MIBD, which can be used for analysis and evaluation, as well as for design purposes, was shown to be a valuable tool for structuring and retrieving information. It allows for both an integrated view and an integrated process for the design and construction of new homes or retrofitting existing dwellings. During the research, extensions to the combined framework have been incorporated and proposed, for instance, to include legislation and assistive technologies.Systematic and large-scale studies should be conducted on the efficacy of environmental interventions identified in this dissertation, as evidence is often based on small-scale and non-controlled studies. Additional research is also needed for the study of optimal indoor environmental conditions and related building systems. The application of ceiling-mounted lighting systems calls for more research on the details of the lighting equipment, in particular, threshold illuminance levels and spectral composition of the light. Future evaluation studies of technologies that are used to support ageing-in-place should focus on the integration of such systems within the context of family and professional care and a person's home environment.Policies and legislation dealing with dementia and housing facilities should widen their scope to include ageing-in-place in the own home environment. This dissertation shows how demand and supply can brought closer to one another. In order to improve the current situation, it is essential that all people involved have access to relevant information. Family carers and people with dementia should have easy access to usable and understandable information about architectural and technological solutions, which can support ageing-in-place. The dissemination of knowledge should also address professional carers, professionals from the domain of building and technology, and policy makers and civil servants. This knowledge can help bridge the gap between demand and supply. Moreover, working with persons with dementia calls for a paradigm shift in the way designers and contractors operate. Civil servants at the municipal level should increase their skills and knowledge in order to adequately support people with dementia and their family carers in implementing architectural and technological solutions as people with dementia wish to age-in-place.Concluding remarksAgeing-in-place is possible for people with dementia by examining their care-based needs in relation to their home environments. To achieve this, architectural and technological solutions have been proposed in an integrated manner, which may also contribute to a lessened burden on family carers.Whether a modified dwelling is supportive in relation to ageing-in-place, and, if so, for how long, depends on the specific needs of people with dementia. There may come a time, as the dementia progresses, when architectural and technological solutions no longer offer support and institutionalisation becomes inevitable.

Police are required to obey the law. While that seems obvious, courts have lost track of that requirement due to misinterpreting the two constitutional provisions governing police conduct: the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Fourth Amendment forbids ""unreasonable searches and seizures"" and is the source of most constitutional constraints on policing. Although that provision technically applies only to the federal government, the Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in the wake of the Civil War, has been deemed to apply the Fourth Amendment to the States.

This book contends that the courts' misinterpretation of these provisions has led them to hold federal and state law enforcement mistakenly to the same constitutional standards. The Fourth Amendment was originally understood as a federalism, or "states' rights," provision that, in effect, required federal agents to adhere to state law when searching or seizing. Thus, applying the same constraint to the States is impossible. Instead, the Fourteenth Amendment was originally understood in part as requiring that state officials (1) adhere to state law, (2) not discriminate, and (3) not be granted excessive discretion by legislators. These principles should guide judicial review of modern policing. Instead, constitutional constraints on policing are too strict and too forgiving at the same time. In this book, Michael J.Z. Mannheimer calls for a reimagination of what modern policing could look like based on the original understandings of the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments.

Having an eviction record "blacklists" tenants from finding future housing. Even renters with mere eviction filings—not eviction orders—on their records face the harsh collateral consequences of eviction. This Note argues that eviction records should be sealed at filing and only released into the public record if a landlord prevails in court. Juvenile record expungement mechanisms in Illinois serve as a model for one way to protect people with eviction records. Recent updates to the Illinois juvenile expungement process provided for the automatic expungement of certain records and strengthened the confidentiality protections of juvenile records. Illinois protects juvenile records because it recognizes that a young person's behavior does not define how he or she will act as an adult. Similarly, evictions due to foreclosure, discrimination, or retaliation, for example, do not predict a tenant's future behavior. Reliance on these records is misplaced. Sealing eviction records at the point of filing and holding private screening companies accountable for reporting sealed records would protect tenants who are currently haunted by the ghost of eviction without ever having been evicted.

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Ciberespacio: la última frontera. Aquí es donde empieza la nueva misión de los juristas en buscar nuevas formas de ejercicio de los derechos humanos. Afortunadamente, no es una misión de ciencia ficción, sino un desafío real, actual y lleno de oportunidades. Consideramos que es el mejor momento para proponer esta tesis e iniciar un trabajo de investigación sobre la dinámica del derecho en la era de las nuevas tecnologías. La tesis está fundamentada en la investigación de este nuevo espacio donde ha entrado el ser humano, titular de los derechos y libertades fundamentales. Como cualquier entorno nuevo, despierta la curiosidad, la necesidad de explorar, pero también la necesidad de estar seguro. El ser humano está programado genéticamente para proteger su vida, integridad y libertad en cualquier entorno, tanto físico como virtual. La ciberseguridad es un tema nuevo, que empezó a fomentar los debates solo desde 1988. Estados, empresas privadas y especialistas se dieron cuenta rápidamente de la necesidad de regular este campo, incluso adaptando el derecho internacional a las nuevas realidades. Los conflictos, eventos frecuentes en la sociedad humana, han migrado rápidamente del espacio físico al espacio virtual, al igual que las armas. Los virus informáticos, las aplicaciones invasivas y el software de espionaje sustituyen a las armas y herramientas de guerra clásicas. Las medidas de seguridad propuestas e implementadas por las autoridades estatales con responsabilidades en el ámbito de la seguridad nacional, así como por empresas privadas que desarrollan programas para combatir ciberataques, basados en medidas de ciber espionaje o hack-back1, se adaptan a los nuevos desafíos tecnológicos, pero evitan solucionar problemas importantes para el individuo como el respeto a sus derechos fundamentales, cuyo reconocimiento y regulación le han costado años de lucha y fundamentación filosófico-legal. En este contexto, cuando la vida del ciudadano se traslada, cada vez más al espacio virtual con todos sus elementos - banca por internet, telemedicina, información e investigación de fuentes digitales, comercio electrónico, citas virtuales, realidad virtual - se deben proponer medidas para proteger el ciberespacio que pueden ser diseñadas en correlación directa con las medidas de seguridad aplicadas en el entorno offline. Si el entorno offline está claramente determinado, y hay actores con papeles muy claros (estados, territorios administrativos, instituciones con responsabilidades en el campo de la seguridad y protección de los ciudadanos, etc.), el espacio virtual sigue siendo una jungla, sin límites conocidos y con incipientes formas de órganos de control, que deberían proteger a los usuarios vulnerables para no ser víctimas de los manipuladores digitales. En este momento, las Naciones Unidas a través de sus comisiones y grupos de expertos, ha asumido el papel de garante de los derechos humanos en el ciberespacio, interpretando las disposiciones de los tratados internacionales y elaborando recomendaciones, para ciber conflictos y alianzas entre Estados y grandes empresas con control tecnológico sobre Internet, tanto en términos de contenido como de conexiones informáticas. A nivel de la Unión Europea, el papel de las instituciones comunitarias, bien definido en el proceso de desarrollo y aplicación de las normas jurídicas, permite diseñar un marco jurídico coherente para la política de ciberseguridad, asegurando un sistema de protección eficaz basado en la cooperación entre los Estados miembros, al mismo tiempo con una protección efectiva de los derechos individuales en el entorno virtual. La tradición democrática de los estados europeos contribuye a la identificación de soluciones viables con respecto a la libertad del ciberespacio y la importancia del individuo en la sociedad. El surgimiento y el fortalecimiento del papel de ENISA en la política europea de ciberseguridad, ofrece la ventaja de estandarizar, centralizar y explotar de manera coherente los datos comunicados por los Estados miembros con el fin de desarrollar normativas bien fundamentadas. Asimismo, esta tesis estudia algunas categorías de derechos fundamentales para descubrir la forma en que se ven influenciados por la nueva realidad de la vida cotidiana. El entorno en el que se ha estudiado y conceptualizado estos derechos a lo largo de la historia, hasta la confirmación en diversos instrumentos de derecho internacional, ha cambiado profundamente. Las amenazas comienzan a ser diversas, y para los juristas no especializados en informática, es un gran reto identificar las brechas en los mecanismos informáticos que garanticen y protejan los derechos fundamentales cuando el individuo actúa en el entorno online. Es posible que la generación de juristas nativos digitales se haga cargo del trabajo de los juristas adaptados digitalmente y sea capaz de construir un sistema legal aplicable a este nuevo entorno de vida del individuo. Esto será posible solo dentro de 10 años, cuando la nueva generación creada en la era de las nuevas tecnologías, posea la capacidad de analizar y proponer soluciones legales. La investigación se centra en el derecho a la privacidad y los elementos que lo componen, siendo considerado como uno de los derechos fundamentales más vulnerables en el entorno online. Los derechos derivados, como el derecho al nombre, la identidad, el honor, la dignidad y la integridad física se están transformando y adquiriendo nuevos valores en la era de las nuevas tecnologías. Algunos de estos derechos se transforman, se trasladan al ciberespacio, se adhieren al ser virtual y se convierten en derechos digitales, propios del nuevo entorno social. En el contenido de la tesis se desarrolló un capítulo dedicado a esta nueva categoría de derechos en el que se intenta establecer sus contenidos y las formas de manifestación. Con respecto a los mecanismos necesarios para garantizar el ejercicio de los derechos y libertades fundamentales, el trabajo analiza los distintos niveles de protección: desde el nivel supranacional (internacional), hasta el regional y nacional, específico de cada Estado. Los mecanismos institucionales y jurisdiccionales están organizados en gran medida de acuerdo con las mismas reglas, guiándose por las regulaciones internacionales sobre derechos humanos, en particular, continuando con las regulaciones a nivel regional y estatal. En el nuevo contexto tecnológico, es necesario revisar dichos mecanismos para que mantengan la misma eficiencia deseada en el momento de su creación. Un punto importante de la investigación consiste en el análisis de las restricciones aplicadas a los derechos humanos bajo el imperio de la Ley. Sin referirse a las injerencias ilegales, sino analizamos la injerencia permitida por la ley, especialmente en nombre de la seguridad colectiva. Seguidamente, se muestran los debates y análisis destinados a establecer el punto de equilibrio entre la importancia de un derecho fundamental u otro. Tanto el derecho a la vida privada como el derecho a la seguridad se consideran fundamentales, pero no absolutos. Desde esta perspectiva, se deben establecer límites claros para que la protección de uno no afecte la integridad del otro. Los Estados a veces imponen medidas excesivamente restrictivas del derecho a la privacidad en nombre de la seguridad nacional, y el ciberespacio es el entorno adecuado para tales prácticas. Cualquier práctica de este tipo, situada a uno de los dos extremos, ya sea muy invasiva en la esfera personal o ineficaz desde una perspectiva de seguridad, debe ser reevaluada y relacionada con los derechos humanos, tanto desde una perspectiva individual como colectiva. Por ejemplo, el derecho a la vida privada o el derecho a la seguridad del ser humano puede, dentro de límites razonables, restringir el derecho de otra persona a expresarse o manifestar ciertas necesidades mentales en el espacio digital. Teniendo en cuenta los objetivos propuestos al principio, aplicando los métodos de investigación correspondientes y analizando la literatura, el marco normativo vigente y la jurisprudencia en derechos humanos, esta tesis identifica y enfatiza la interacción entre los derechos humanos fundamentales y los efectos sociales de las nuevas tecnologías, incluyendo las consecuencias sobre los derechos conexos. En este contexto particularmente dinámico, el mayor desafío para la nueva generación de juristas será adaptar el marco legal actual, a las nuevas realidades del mundo digital. Dado que las normas de derecho que rigen nuestra vida cotidiana han evolucionado lentamente y durante un largo período de tiempo, la rápida evolución tecnológica y la migración del individuo al espacio virtual requieren una urgente adaptación del marco legal a las nuevas realidades para que la Ley pueda mantener su misión de guardián del bienestar público. Además, esta nueva pandemia, origina y causa inciertos ampliamente cuestionado en el entorno online, ha provocado una restricción en masa de los derechos humanos similar a la última guerra mundial. Se ha restringido el derecho a la: libertad de circulación, manifestación, reunión, expresión, educación, trabajo e incluso el derecho a buscar la felicidad. Por la limitación de estos derechos la gente, por temor al enemigo invisible e incomprendido, aceptó sin oposición la mayor parte todas estas injerencias de las autoridades en su vida privada y en el conjunto de sus libertades fundamentales. Solo pequeños grupos de activistas continúan luchando por defender sus derechos fundamentales. No sabemos si este evento global llamado pandemia COVID 19 reescribirá la historia de los derechos fundamentales, pero es cierto que su impacto en el ámbito de las libertades individuales ha tenido un efecto muy fuerte e inquietante con respecto a otra transformación, incluida la revolución tecnológica. En estas condiciones, nos queda una única opción o desafío: defender al individuo, con todos sus atributos, en una sociedad dinámica, caracterizada por transformaciones atípicas. ; Spațiul cibernetic – ultima frontieră. Aici începe misiunea juriștilor în căutarea noilor forme de exercitare a drepturilor omului. Din fericire, nu este o misiune science- fiction, ci este o provocare reală, actuală și plină de oportunități. Consider că am ales cel mai bun moment pentru a propune această teza și a iniția o muncă de cercetare asupra dinamicii dreptului în era noilor tehnologii. Această eră este abia la început. Lucrarea de față pornește de la cercetarea acestui nou spațiu în care a pătruns ființa umană deținătoare a drepturilor și libertăților fundamentale. Ca orice mediu nou, stârnește curiozitatea, nevoia de a explora dar și nevoia de a fi în siguranță. Ființa umană este programată genetic să își protejeze viața, integritatea și libertatea în orice mediu s-ar afla, atât fizic cât și virtual. Securitatea spațiului cibernetic este o temă nouă, se discută despre acest subiect abia din anul 1988. Statele, companiile private și specialiștii au conștientizat rapid necesitatea reglementării acestui domeniu, inclusiv prin adaptarea dreptului internațional la noile realități. Conflictele, evenimente frecvente în societatea umană, au migrat rapid din spațiul fizic în spațiul virtual, la fel și armele. Virușii informatici, aplicațiile intruzive, softurile de spionaj iau locul clasicelor arme și unelte de război. Măsurile de securitate propuse și implementate de autoritățile statale cu atribuții în domeniul securității naționale, cât și de companiile private care dezvoltă programe de combatere a atacurilor cibernetice, bazate pe spionaj cibernetic sau măsuri de tipul hack-back se adaptează noilor provocări tehnologice, dar ocolesc teme importante pentru individ cum ar fi respectarea drepturilor sale fundamentale, a căror recunoaștere și reglementare au costat ani buni de luptă și fundamentare filosofico-juridică. În contextul în care viața cetățeanului migrează din ce în ce mai mult către spațiul virtual, cu toate elementele ei – internet banking, telemedicină, informare și cercetare din surse digitale, comerț electronic, virtual dating, virtual reality – măsurile de protecție a spațiului cibernetic trebuie gândite în directă corelare cu măsurile de securitate aplicate în mediul off-line. Dacă mediul off-line este clar determinat și există actori cu roluri clare (state, teritorii administrative, instituții cu atribuții în domeniul securității și siguranței cetățeanului etc.), spațiul virtual este încă o junglă, fără limite cunoscute și cu organisme XIV de supraveghere în stadiu incipient de dezvoltare care ar trebui să poată proteja utilizatorii vulnerabili în cazul în care devin victime ale unor manipulatori digitali. La acest moment Organizația Națiunilor Unite, prin comisiile și grupurile de experți, și-a asumat rolul de garant al drepturilor omului în spațiul cibernetic, interpretând prevederile tratatelor internaționale și elaborând recomandări pentru conflictele cibernetice și parteneriatul dintre state și marile companii care dețin controlul tehnologic asupra Internetului, atât din perspectiva conținutului cât și al conexiunilor informatice. La nivelul Uniunii Europene, rolul instituțiilor comunitare, fiind bine definit în ceea ce privește elaborarea și implementarea normelor de drept, permite creionarea unui cadru legal coerent în ceea ce privește politica de securitate cibernetică, asigurarea unui sistem efectiv de protecție bazat pe cooperarea dintre statele membre, dar și protecția efectivă a drepturilor individuale în mediul online. Tradiția democratică a statelor europene contribuie la identificarea unor soluții viabile în ceea ce privește libertatea spațiului cibernetic și importanța individului în societate. Apariția și întărirea rolului ENISA în politica europeană de securitate cibernetică oferă avantajul uniformizării, centralizării și exploatării coerente a datelor raportate de statele membre în vederea elaborării unor reglementări corect fundamentate. Teza studiază și categoriile de drepturi fundamentale din perspectiva modului în care acestea se văd influențate de noua realitate a vieții cotidiene. Mediul în care aceste drepturi au fost studiate și conceptualizate de-a lungul istoriei până la momentul proclamării lor în diverse instrumente de drept internațional, s-a schimbat profund. Amenințările încep să fie altele decât cele cunoscute, iar pentru juriști, eminamente atehnici, este o mare provocare identificarea breșelor din mecanismele de garantare și protecție a drepturilor fundamentale atunci când individul acționează în mediul online. Este posibil ca generația juriștilor nativi digitali să preia munca juriștilor adaptați digitali și să poată construi un sistem legal aplicabil acestui nou mediu de viață al individului, dar acest lucru va fi posibil abia peste 10 ani când noua generație, născută în epoca noilor tehnologii, va avea capacitatea de a analiza și propune soluții juridice. Cercetarea s-a focalizat cu precădere asupra dreptului la viață privată și a elementelor care îl compun, considerat fiind ca unul dintre cele mai vulnerabile drepturi fundamentale în mediul on line. Drepturile derivate, precum dreptul la nume, la identitate, la onoare, la demnitate, la integritate fizică se transformă și capătă noi valențe în era noilor tehnologii. O parte dintre aceste drepturi se transformă, migrează în spațiul cibernetic, se atașează ființei virtuale și devin drepturi digitale, specifice noului mediul de viață socială. În cuprinsul tezei a fost dezvoltat un capitol dedicat acestei noi categorii de drepturi în care se încearcă stabilirea conținutului și a formei de manifestare. În ceea ce privește mecanismele de garantare a exercițiului drepturilor și libertăților fundamentale, lucrarea analizează diversele niveluri de protecție: de la nivelul suprastatal (internațional), la cel regional și cel național, specific fiecărui stat. Mecanismele instituționale și jurisdicționale se organizează în mare parte după aceleași reguli fiind ghidate de reglementările internaționale în materia drepturilor omului, cu precădere, continuând cu reglementările la nivel regional și statal. În noul context tehnologic, inclusiv aceste mecanisme necesită o revizuire astfel încât să își poată păstra eficiența dorită la momentul creării lor. Un punct important al lucrării îl reprezintă analiza restrângerilor aplicate drepturilor omului sub imperiul legii. Așadar nu ne referim la ingerințele aflate în sfera ilegalului, ci la ingerințele permise de lege, în special în numele securității colective. Aici apar dezbaterile și analizele care vizează stabilirea punctului de echilibru între importanța unui drept fundamental sau al altuia. Atât dreptul la viață privată, cât și dreptul la securitate sunt considerate fundamentale, dar nu absolute. Din această perspectivă, trebuie stabilite limite clare astfel încât protejarea unuia să nu afecteze integritatea celuilalt. Uneori statele stabilesc măsuri restrictive exagerate asupra dreptului la viață privată în numele securității naționale, iar spațiul cibernetic este mediul propice pentru acest gen de practici. Orice practică de acest gen, aflată la una dintre cele două extreme, fie intrusivă în sfera personală, fie ineficientă din perspectiva securității, trebuie reevaluată și corelată cu drepturile omului, atât din perspectivă individuală cât și colectivă. De exemplu, dreptul la viață privată sau dreptul la securitate al ființei umane poate restrânge, în limite rezonabile, dreptul altei persoane de a se exprima sau de a-și manifesta anumite nevoi psihice în spațiul digital. Ținând cont de obiectivele propuse, cu aplicarea metodelor de cercetare asumate și analizând literatura de specialitate, cadrul normativ în vigoare și jurisprudența referitoare la drepturile omului, această teză identifică și subliniază interacțiunea dintre drepturile fundamentale ale ființei umane și efectele sociale ale noilor tehnologii, inclusiv consecințele asupra drepturilor conexe. În acest context deosebit de dinamic, cea mai mare provocare pentru noua generație de juriști va fi adaptarea cadrului legal în vigoare la noile realități ale lumii digitale. În condițiile în care normele de drept care ne guvernează viața de zi cu zi au avut o evoluție lentă și extinsă pe o perioadă lungă de timp, evoluția tehnologică rapidă și migrarea individului în spațiul virtual impun o adaptare urgentă a cadrului legal la noile realități astfel încât norma de drept să își poată păstra misiunea de gardian al binelui public. Mai mult, această nouă pandemie, cu origini și cauze incerte, aprig dezbătute în mediul online, a determinat o restrângere în masă a drepturilor omului poate la fel de acerbă cu cea provocată de ultimul război mondial. Ne-au fost restrânse pe rând dreptul la libertatea de mișcare, dreptul la întruniri, dreptul la manifestări, dreptul la exprimare, dreptul la educație, dreptul la muncă și inclusiv dreptul la căutarea fericirii. Iar oamenii, de teama inamicului nevăzut și neînțeles, au acceptat în cea mai mare parte toate aceste ingerințe ale autorităților în viața lor privată și în cercul libertăților lor fundamentale. Grupuri mici de activiști continuă lupta de apărare a drepturilor lor fundamentale. Nu știm dacă acest eveniment global numit pandemie va rescrie istoria drepturilor fundamentale, dar cert este că impactul lui asupra sferei libertăților individuale a avut un efect mult mai abrupt și mai intrusiv decât orice altă transformare, inclusiv cea tehnologică. În aceste condiții, ne rămâne o singură opțiune: aceea de a apăra individul, cu toate atributele sale, într-o societate dinamică, caracterizată de transformări atipice. ; Cyberspace - the last frontier. This is where the mission of the lawyers begins: to search new forms of human rights manifestation. Fortunately, it is not a science-fiction mission, but a real, current and full of opportunities challenge. We consider that this is the best-chosen moment to propose this paper and to initiate a research work on the dynamics of law under the era of new technologies. Because this era has just begun. This thesis aims to explore this new space where the human being, holder of fundamental rights and freedoms, has entered. Like any new environment, the digital world arouses curiosity, engages the human need to explore but also activates the need to be safe. The human being is genetically programmed to protect his life, integrity and freedom in any type of environment, no matter if is real or virtual. Cybersecurity is a new topic; this topic has been brought in public debates only since 1988. States, private companies and specialists have quickly become aware of the need of regulation in this area, including by adapting international law to new realities. Conflicts, as frequent events in human society, have rapidly migrated from physical to the virtual space. The weapons as well. Cyber viruses, spyware, worms, malware took the place of the classic weapons and tools of war. The proposed security measures were implemented by state authorities with responsibilities in the field of national security, as well as by private companies. The efforts made to develop programs to fight against cyber-attacks, based on cyber espionage or hack-back measures, must be adapted to ever new technological challenges, but not forgetting the important issues for the individual human being, such the respect for his fundamental rights, whose recognition and regulation have cost years of legal struggle and philosophical debates. In this context, where the life of the citizen migrates more and more to the virtual space, with all its elements - internet banking, telemedicine, information and research from digital sources, electronic commerce, virtual dating, virtual reality – protective measures for cyberspace must designed in direct correlation with the security measures applied in the offline environment. If the offline environment is clearly determined, populated with actors playing key roles (states, administrative territories, institutions with responsibilities in the field of XVIII security and safety of citizens, etc.), the virtual space is still a jungle, with unknown limits and incipient supervisory bodies struggling to protect vulnerable users against digital criminals. At this moment, the United Nations, through its commissions and expert groups, has taken on the role of human rights protector in cyberspace, interpreting the provisions of international treaties and developing recommendations for cyber conflicts and partnerships between states and large companies with technological control over the Internet, both in terms of digital content and computer connections. In the European Union, the specific role of the public institutions in the legal area allows drafting a coherent legal framework for cybersecurity policy, ensuring an effective system of protection based on cooperation between Member States, also bringing an effective protection of individual rights in the online environment. Also, the democratic tradition of Member States contributes in finding viable solutions regarding the freedom of cyberspace respecting, in the same time, the social importance of the human being. The creation on ENISA, with its determined role in the European cybersecurity policy, offers the advantage of a coherent approach in standardizing, centralizing and exploiting the data reported by Member States in order to develop well-founded regulations. The thesis also studies some categories of fundamental rights observing the new perspective of human liberty and privacy induced by technology and digitalization of reality. It is obvious that the initial environment where these rights have been studied and conceptualized has radically changed and their legal confirmation in the international law must be adapted to the new reality. The new digital threats to human fundamental rights are different from the known ones, and for the lawyers, who are non-technical by nature, it is a great challenge to identify the gaps in the informatics mechanisms of protecting fundamental rights when the person acts in the online environment. Maybe the generation of digital native lawyers will take over the work of digitally adapted lawyers and will be able to build a legal system applicable to this new living environment of the individual, but this success will be possible only after the next 10 years, when the new generation, born in the age of new technologies, will have the ability to analyze and propose legal solutions. The research focused mainly on the right to privacy and its legal components, being considered as one of the most vulnerable fundamental rights in the online environment. Connected human rights, such as the right to a name and to a nationality, identity, honor, dignity, physical integrity, are transforming and gaining new values in the era of technology. Some of these rights are reinvented and relocated into cyberspace, where they attach to the virtual human being and become digital rights, specific to the digital social environment. In the thesis there we dedicated a chapter to this new category of human liberties, aiming to establish the content and the limits of these new digital rights. Regarding the mechanisms for guaranteeing the exercise of fundamental rights and freedoms, the paper analyzes the various levels of protection: from the supranational (international) level, to the regional and national level, specific to each state. The institutional and jurisdictional mechanisms are largely organized according to the same rules, being guided by international human rights framework, at a global level, and particularly regulated by regional or local specific legal regulations. In the new technological context, these mechanisms need to be revised so that they can maintain their desired efficiency as the moment of their creation. Another important point of this paper is the analysis of the restrictions applied to human rights under the rule of law. So, we are not referring to any illegal interference, but we analyze the limitations allowed by law, especially in the name of collective security. This is the point where debates and analyzes converge in finding the perfect balance between the importance of one fundamental right to another. Both right to privacy and right to security are considered fundamental, but not absolute. From this perspective, clear boundaries must be set so that the exercise of one right does not affect the integrity of the other. Sometimes states impose overly restrictive measures on the right to privacy in the name of national security, and cyberspace is the perfect environment for such practices. Any practice situated at one of the two extremes, either intrusive in the personal sphere or inefficient from a security perspective, must be re-evaluated and correlated with the human rights, both from an individual and a collective perspective. For example, the right to privacy or the right to security of one person may interfere, in reasonable limits, with the right of another person to express himself or herself or to manifest certain psychical needs in the digital space. Fallowing the proposed objectives, applying the specific research methods and analyzing the legal literature, the regulatory framework and the jurisprudence on human rights, this thesis identifies and emphasizes the interaction between fundamental human rights and the social effects of the new technologies, including the consequences on related rights. In this particularly dynamic context, the biggest challenge for the new generation of lawyers will be to adapt the current legal framework to the new realities of the digital world. Given that the rules of law governing our daily lives have a long and slow evolution, this rapid technological revolution and the migration of the individual into virtual space urge for a quick adjustment of the legal framework to new realities so that the rule of law to be able to keep its mission of guardian of the public welfare. Moreover, this new pandemic, with uncertain origins and causes, hotly debated in the online environment, has led to a more severe human rights restriction than the last world war. We have been restricted in our right to freedom of movement, right to public meeting, right to manifestation, right to expression, right to education, right to work and even our right to pursue happiness. Under the fear of the unseen and unknown enemy, people accepted the most part all these interferences from the authorities in their private lives and in their circle of fundamental freedoms. Small groups of activists continue the fight to defend their fundamental rights. We do not know whether this global event called the pandemic will rewrite the history of fundamental rights, but it is certain that its impact on the individual freedoms has already determined a huge and more intrusive impact than any other transformation, including technological. Under these conditions, we have only one challenge: to defend the human individual in this dynamic society, with all its attributes, characterized by atypical transformations. ; Programa de Doctorado en Estudios Avanzados en Derechos Humanos por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: Carlos Ramón Fernández Liesa.- Secretario: María Pilar Trinidad Núñez.- Vocal: Radu Carp

Acknowledgments -- Series Preface -- Introduction -- Appendix 1: The Future of Life Institute: Research Priorities for Robust and Beneficial Artificial Intelligence: An Open Letter -- Appendix 2: Research Priorities for Robust and Beneficial Artificial Intelligence -- Part I: Laying foundations -- 1 Clarke, Roger. (1993). "Asimov's laws of robotics: Implications for information technology (1)." IEEE Computer, 26(12), 53-61 -- 2 Clarke, Roger. (1994). "Asimov's laws of robotics: Implications for information technology (2)." IEEE Computer, 227(1), 57-66 -- 3 Allen, Colin, Gary Varner, & Jason Zinser. (2000). "Prolegomena to any future artificial moral agent." Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 12, 251-261 -- 4 Nissenbaum, Helen. (2001). "How computer systems embody values." Computer, 34(3), 118-119 -- 5 Bostrom, Nick. (2003). "The ethical issues of advanced artificial intelligence." Paper presented at the IIAS 2003, Baden Baden, GE. 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"Robot caregivers: Harbingers of expanded freedom for all?" Ethics and Information Technology, 12.3, 277-288 -- 12 Vallor, Shannon. (2011). "Carebots and caregivers: Sustaining the ethical ideal of care in the twenty-first century." Philosophy & Technology, 24.3, 251-268 -- 13 Sharkey, Noel, & Amanda Sharkey. (2010). "The crying shame of robot nannies: an ethical appraisal." Interaction Studies, 11.2, 161-190 -- 14 van Wynsberghe, Aimee. (2013). "Designing robots for care: Care centered value-sensitive design." Science and Engineering Ethics, 19.2, 407-433 -- 15 Sullins, John P. (2012). "Robots, love, and sex: The ethics of building a love machine." Affective Computing, IEEE Transactions, 3.4, 398-409 -- 16 Malle, Bertram, & Matthias Scheutz. (2014). "Moral competence in social robots." IEEE International Symposium on Ethics in Engineering, Science, and Technology, Chicago -- Part III: Machine ethics -- 17 Moor, James H. (2006). "The nature, importance, and difficulty of machine ethics." Intelligent Systems, IEEE, 21.4, 18-21 -- 18 Anderson, Michael, & Susan Leigh Anderson. (2007). "Machine ethics: Creating an ethical intelligent agent." AI Magazine, 28.4, 15-26 -- 19 Wallach, Wendell, Colin Allen, & Iva Smit. (2008). "Machine morality: Bottom-up and top-down approaches for modelling human moral faculties." AI & Society, 22.4, 565-582 -- 20 McDermott, Drew. (2008). "Why ethics is a high hurdle for AI." North American Conference on Computing and Philosophy. Bloomington, Indiana -- 21 Powers, Thomas M. (2006). "Prospects for a Kantian machine." Intelligent Systems, IEEE, 21.4, 46-51 -- 22 Guarini, Marcello. (2005). "Particularism and generalism: How AI can help us to better understand moral cognition." Machine Ethics: Papers from the 2005 AAAI Fall Symposium -- 23 Bringsjord, Selmer, Konstantine Arkoudas, & Paul Bello. (2006). "Toward a general logicist methodology for engineering ethically correct robots." IEEE Intelligent Systems, 21(4), 38-44 -- 24 Wallach, Wendell, Colin Allen, & Stan Franklin. (2011). "Consciousness and ethics: Artificially conscious moral agents." International Journal of Machine Consciousness, 3.01, 177-192 -- Part IV: Moral agents and agency -- 25 Floridi, Luciano, & Jeff W. Sanders. (2004). "On the morality of artificial agents." Minds and Machines, 14.3, 349-379 -- 26 Johnson, Deborah G., & Keith W. Miller. (2008). "Un-making artificial moral agents." Ethics and Information Technology, 10.2-3, 123-133 -- 27 Suchman, Lucy. (2007). "Agencies in technology design: Feminist reconfigurations." In Hackett, Edward J., Olga Amsterdamska, Michael E. Lynch, & Judy Wajcman (eds.) The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, third edition, excerpt from pp. 139-163 -- 28 Marino, Dante, & Guglielmo Tamburrini. (2006). "Learning robots and human responsibility." International Review of Information Ethics, 6, 46-51 -- 29 Torrance, Steve. (2014). "Artificial consciousness and artificial ethics: Between realism and social relationism." Philosophy & Technology, 27.1, 9-29 -- 30 Murphy, Robin R., & David D. Woods. (2009). "Beyond Asimov: The three laws of responsible robotics." Intelligent Systems, IEEE, 24.4, 14-20 -- Part V: Law and policy -- 31 Solum, Lawrence. (1992). "Legal personhood for artificial intelligences." North Carolina Law Review, 70, 1231-1287 -- 32 Nagenborg, Michael, et al. (2008). "Ethical regulations on robotics in Europe." Ai & Society, 22.3, 349-366 -- 33 Calo, M. Ryan. (2010). "Robots and privacy." Robot Ethics: The Ethical and Social Implications of Robotics, 187-204 -- 34 Lin, Patrick. "The robot car of tomorrow may just be programmed to hit you." Wired Magazine, May 6, 2014 -- 35 Gunkel, David J. (2014). "A vindication of the rights of machines." Philosophy & Technology, 27, 113-132 -- Index.

A new open data platform will accelerate robust and comprehensive research in the agricultural sectorThis post was written by Jenna Fahle (CEGA), Radhika Goyal (UCSD), Vinny Armentano (UCSD), and Craig McIntosh (UCSD).Introduction to the ATAI Data PortalSince 2009, the Agricultural Technology Adoption Initiative (ATAI), co-managed by the Center for Effective Global Action (CEGA) and the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL), has generated robust evidence of the impacts of agricultural technologies, such as stress-tolerant rice or mobile-phone based agricultural extension, on small-scale farmer welfare. Today, ATAI launched a new open data platform to bring together the best evidence from ATAI-funded research in a single portal, making it easily accessible to researchers and policymakers alike. The initiative aims to foster collaboration and evidence-informed decision-making in the agricultural sector, ultimately contributing to the advancement of the most effective agricultural practices and improving farmer welfare.Why make data open?Access to high-quality data has long been recognized as a significant obstacle in social science research. To address this issue, data repositories like the J-PAL Dataverse have emerged, making it easier for researchers, policymakers, and others to access and utilize data from completed research studies. In recent times, the effectiveness of these data repositories has been bolstered by data sharing policies put into place by funders, journals, and research organizations. UC Berkeley's Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS) — incubated at CEGA — champions these and other open data approaches as a standard practice that promotes transparency and reproducibility of evidence, strengthening the scientific ecosystem and bolstering the credibility of research findings.The ATAI Data Portal goes beyond the principles of open data by incorporating data harmonization. Data harmonization involves the collection of data from various sources or, in the case of ATAI, a research portfolio, in a manner that ensures users have a comprehensive and comparable view of the information.Harmonized data holds tremendous value for researchers aiming to extract insights from multiple studies. In the past, researchers had to collect datasets from various sources, investing valuable time in cleaning and integrating the data. Often, the unavailability of raw data hindered such comparisons, and the resulting publicly available data lacked sufficient information for meaningful analyses. However, researchers now have a powerful tool at their disposal. With the ATAI Data Portal, they can access harmonized data, enabling them to conduct meta-analyses and explore the external validity and generalizability of research results more efficiently and effectively. This transformative platform opens up new avenues for robust and comprehensive research in the agricultural sector.The ATAI Data Portal also improves the richness and quality of datasets from ATAI-funded projects in several ways. For instance, a number of ATAI-funded studies contain georeferencing, or latitude and longitude coordinates for agricultural fields, households, or study administrative boundaries. When geographic coordinates are available, the ATAI Data Portal overlays the project dataset with environmental variables — such as temperature, precipitation, night lights, and forest cover –- to expand the richness and utility of the data. (Many predictive models rely on this kind of information as ground truth data.)To maintain the anonymity of the surveyed population, the data linkage employs industry-standard geo-masking techniques. By implementing these measures, the ATAI Data portal ensures that the privacy and confidentiality of the participants are preserved while providing valuable insights into the relationships between agricultural practices and environmental factors.During the data harmonization process, meticulous data cleaning is carried out to ensure data integrity. This includes harmonizing units, eliminating negative values, and removing duplicate records as part of the harmonization effort. These measures contribute to the overall reliability and consistency of the data made available through the ATAI Data portal, fostering more robust and trustworthy research outcomes.Thus, the ATAI Data Portal offers a novel approach in that it features high-quality, harmonized data integrated with environmental variables in an open and accessible format."This portal is a first step in an effort to allow datasets from randomized controlled trials to be put to a broader set of uses. By harmonizing core agricultural variables to the fullest extent possible as well as providing broad access to raw data, the portal will allow the research community to aggregate across studies and geographies in a way not possible in any single study." — Craig McIntosh, ATAI Co-Chair and Professor of Economics at UCSDATAI-data.org launched with seventeen datasets based in Bangladesh, Ghana, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda, and Zambia. The portal will continue to grow as more research teams complete and submit their datasets to ATAI.What comes next?The ATAI Data Portal is a public good that will increase in volume and value over time as more open datasets from ATAI become available and more researchers make use of it. The ATAI Data Portal is open-source and freely available.ATAI has seized an opportunity to institutionalize harmonized, open data and further standardize data collection for agricultural randomized evaluations — making every research step count. We hope that this model is an encouraging approach and tool for researchers working to evaluate the effectiveness of agricultural development programs.For more information and for portal documentation, please visit atai-data.org.Making every research step count: Introducing the ATAI Data Portal was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

Government departments are increasingly transferring their services from office visits to digital online services. This is a global phenomenon called electronic government, or e-government. Transferring public services to the web brings the same challenges to the development and use of these services as all online services face: If your website is not able to please the customer in two seconds, they leave. It is inevitable that to success governments have to take an interest in customer behavior. Finnish Tax Administration (Verohallinto in Finnish) has developed an e-service, MyTax, where citizens and businesses can handle nearly all their tax issues at once. Tax Administration has understood that if the government wants people to pay their taxes, they should provide services which enable it as efficiently and easily as possible. This means providing services that have high usability. Usability should be continuously evaluated, and the system developed based on the perceptions from the usability evaluation. One of the usability evaluation methods is web analytics which is a way of learning how users interact with websites by automatically recording aspects of users' behavior and then combining and transforming the behavior into data that can be analyzed. This thesis inspected web analytics in usability evaluation in the context of MyTax. The aim of the study was to gain insight about aspects that either argue for or criticize the use of web analytics in usability evaluation. The aim was also to inspect what actions should be done after having the results from web analytics in order to improve usability. The study was conducted by scoping review method which is a research approach to review literature. The method was chosen because the goal was to summarize and disseminate research findings of this particular area of study. The purpose was to describe existing literature from web analytics in usability evaluation and reflect the findings with the practical context of My Tax. According to the scoping review results, web analytics can be utilized in every phase of the usability evaluation process and even in other parts of the development process. It can indicate possible usability problems, set priorities to usability testing, be combined to other user behavior data, and verify effectiveness of the design changes made. Web analytics can also offer facts to assist in decision-making and save design and usability testing costs. However, web analytics alone is not enough for usability evaluation as the analytics data does not give insight into why usability problems exist, and other evaluation methods should be used aside. As a result of this thesis, it was possible to give to MyTax development suggestions for possible metrics and KPIs to use when implementing web analytics. Furthermore, it was possible to list use cases where web analytics could be utilized. Privacy policy and GDPR issues to consider were also presented. Overall, the results of this thesis can be used when considering utilizing web analytics in usability evaluation especially in the special domain, e-government services. ; Julkishallinto on siirtämässä yhä enemmän palvelujaan toimistoista verkossa tarjottaviin palveluihin, e-palveluihin. Tätä voi kutsua kansainväliseksi e-hallinnon ilmiöksi. Julkishallinnon palveluiden siirtäminen verkkoon aiheuttaa samoja haasteita palvelukehitykselle kuin kaupallisissa palveluissa: Jos nettisivu ei miellytä asiakasta kahdessa sekunnissa, hän lähtee palvelusta. Julkishallinnon tulee olla kiinnostunut asiakkaiden käyttäytymisestä, mikäli palveluiden halutaan menestyvän. Verohallinto on kehittänyt e-palvelun, OmaVeron, jossa kansalaiset ja yritykset voivat hoitaa lähes kaikki veroasiansa kerralla. Verohallinto on ymmärtänyt, että saadakseen veronmaksajia tarjottavien palveluiden tulee olla helppokäyttöisiä ja tehokkaita. Tämä tarkoittaa, että palvelujen tulee olla käytettäviä. Käytettävyyttä tulisi arvioida jatkuvasti ja kehittää järjestelmää käytettävyyden arvioinnista nousseiden havaintojen perusteella. Yksi käytettävyyden arvioinnin menetelmistä on verkkoanalytiikka, jolla voidaan tehdä havaintoja käyttäjien vuorovaikutuksesta nettisivulla. Verkkoanalytiikka mittaa käyttäytymistä automaattisesti ja muuntaa sen dataksi, jota voidaan analysoida. Tässä pro gradu -tutkielmassa tutkittiin verkkoanalytiikan hyödyntämistä käytettävyyden arvioinnissa OmaVero-palvelun kontekstissa. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää eri näkökulmia, joko kriittisesti tai myönteisesti suhtautuvia, verkkoanalytiikan hyödyntämiselle käytettävyyden arvioinnissa. Tavoitteena oli myös selvittää, mitä toimenpiteitä tulisi suorittaa verkkoanalytiikasta saatujen tulosten jälkeen, jotta käytettävyyttä voidaan parantaa. Tutkimus toteutettiin kartoittavana katsauksena (scoping review), joka on tutkimusmenetelmänä eräs kirjallisuuskatsauksen osa-alue. Menetelmäksi valittiin juuri kartoittava katsaus, koska tavoitteena oli tiivistäen ja hajottaen tutkia aiheesta saatuja tutkimustuloksia. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli kuvailla aiheesta olemassa olevaa kirjallisuutta ja reflektoida saatuja tuloksia OmaVeron kontekstiin. Tutkimustulosten perusteella verkkoanalytiikkaa voidaan hyödyntää jokaisessa käytettävyyden arvioinnin vaiheessa ja jopa muissa kehitysprosessin vaiheissa. Verkkoanalytiikka voi tunnistaa mahdollisia käytettävyysongelmia ja asettaa prioriteetteja käytettävyyden arvioinnille. Verkkoanalytiikkaa voidaan yhdistää muuhun käytettävyysdataan ja hyödyntää tehtyjen muutosten tehokkuuden arviointiin. Verkkoanalytiikka voi lisäksi tarjota faktoja päätöksenteon tueksi ja säästää suunnittelu- ja käytettävyystestien kustannuksissa. On kuitenkin huomioitava, että verkkoanalytiikka ei ole yksinään riittävä käytettävyyden arvioinnissa, sillä datan perusteella ei saada tietoa, miksi jokin käytettävyysongelma esiintyy. Siksi suositellaan käytettäväksi rinnalla muita käytettävyyden arvioinnin menetelmiä. Tutkielman perusteella OmaVeron tapaukseen voitiin antaa ehdotuksia sopivista mittareista, kun verkkoanalytiikkaa otetaan käyttöön. Lisäksi voitiin tarjota käyttötapauksia, joissa verkkoanalytiikkaa voi hyödyntää. Myös yksityisyyden suojan ja GDPR:n vaatimukset otettiin huomioon. Kokonaisuutena tämän tutkielman tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää, kun suunnitellaan verkkoanalytiikan hyödyntämistä käytettävyyden arvioinnissa erityisesti tutkielman erityisalueella eli julkishallinnon e-palveluissa.

Must free self-determination accept limits imposed by law? A first approach, instinctive, is to answer in the negative because the Law would not have vocation to interfere in the intimate relations that one maintains with oneself and which consequently does not concern the society. However, we must face the obvious: the law is legitimate to intervene in the free disposition of oneself because the intimacy is porous, and leaves between the meshes the presence of others, which authorizes the public authorities to intervene punctually in this area a priori dedicated to privacy. It is on the basis of public order that the legislator or judges determine whether free self-determination can flourish without danger for others or for the general interest. This public order, in its classical components ofleadership and protection, nevertheless appears to be struggling to contain the individual wishes that express themselves with conviction. Both the judge and the legislator have accordingly turned to another legal instrument ofa nature to regulate the free disposition of oneself. More recent, the dignity of the human person comes to protect thefree disposition of individuals in situation of weakness; or on the contrary, to limit the free disposition of oneself,protecting the person against his will. The second meaning of dignity is the one that predominates in the hands of thelegislator and the judges, leaving the free disposition of oneself at the mercy of a little nuanced instrument. We musttherefore look for a legal instrument that will ensure social cohesion without extinguishing individual aspirations. Itis a particularly delicate balance to find in that these two objectives are most often diametrically opposed. Research must be oriented towards public order because it is an eminently evolving concept. It is a public order that must beof direction, given the facts that it accompanies, with all the firmness required, individuals in the discovery of the options that are most favorable to them and that it is not intended to to protect at all costs the free disposition ofoneself. Its adaptability to the circumstances of the case is made possible by the application of the principle of proportionality in concreto. This new public order would finally be nothing but an empty shell, without the objectiveof the common good, which makes it possible to discriminate between the licit and unlawful uses of free self determination.Framed by the public order of direction of the person, the latter can express himself without endangering the individual or the society. ; La libre disposition de soi doit-elle accueillir des limites imposées par le Droit ? Une première approche, instinctive,est de répondre par la négative car le Droit n'aurait pas vocation à s'ingérer dans les rapports intimes que l'on entretient avec soi et qui ne concernent en conséquence pas la société. Il faut pourtant se rendre à l'évidence : le Droit est légitime à intervenir dans la libre disposition de soi car l'intimité est poreuse, et laisse passer entre ses mailles la présence d'autrui, ce qui autorise les pouvoirs publics à intervenir ponctuellement dans ce domaine a priori dédié à la vie privée. C'est à l'aune de l'ordre public que le législateur ou les juges déterminent si la libre disposition de soi peut s'épanouir sans danger pour autrui ou pour l'intérêt général. Cet ordre public, dans ses composantes classiques de direction et de protection, paraît néanmoins actuellement à la peine pour contenir les volontés individuelles qui s'expriment avec force conviction. Tant le juge que le législateur se sont en conséquence tournés vers un autre instrument juridique de nature à encadrer la libre disposition de soi. De facture plus récente, la dignité de la personne humaine vient soit protéger la libre disposition d'individus en situation de faiblesse ; soit au contraire limiter la libre disposition de soi, protégeant la personne contre son gré. La deuxième acception de la dignité est celle qui prédomine entre les mains du législateur et des juges, laissant la libre disposition de soi à la merci d'un instrument peu nuancé.Il faut donc rechercher un instrument juridique qui permette d'assurer la cohésion sociale sans pour autant éteindre les aspirations individuelles. C'est un équilibre particulièrement délicat à trouver en ce que ces deux objectifs sont le plus souvent diamétralement opposés. La recherche doit s'orienter vers l'ordre public car celui-ci est un concept éminemment évolutif. C'est un ordre public qui doit être de direction, eu égard aux faits qu'il accompagne, avec toute la fermeté requise, les individus dans la découverte des options qui leur sont les plus favorables et qu'il n'a pas vocation à protéger à tout prix la libre disposition de soi. Son adaptabilité aux circonstances de l'espèce est rendue possible grâce à l'application du principe de proportionnalité in concreto. Ce nouvel ordre public ne serait enfin qu'une coquille vide, sans l'objectif du Bien commun, qui permet de discriminer entre les usages licites et illicites de la libre disposition de soi. Encadrée par l'ordre public de direction de la personne, cette dernière peut s'exprimer sans verser dans des extrêmes dommageables à l'individu ou à la société.

The present research work analyse the infringement of the right of access to information of peruvian citizens, made by public institutions, when denying access to the institutional e-mails of public workers. According established in Mayorga v. Gamarra (file N° 36677-2014-0-1801-JR-CI-05) case, the court ordered delivering the institutional e-mails of the minister of Peru Eleodoro Mayorga Alba to the Peruvian citizen Marco Gamarra Galindo, in the period in which Mayorga was Minister of Energy and Mines. During the development of this research, was necessary the study of: The Political Constitution of Peru, The Law on Transparency and Access to Public Information, its Regulation, jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court, etc.; making a viable review of the main principles that inspire the right of access to public information and a broad knowledge on how the exercise of this right in Peru is guaranteed. In the Comparative Law, we analysed the rules of the legislations of USA, Mexico and Chile; countries where is difficult to access public workers e-mails, also we analysed how this problem was solved. It is important to note that the Organization of American States (OAS) and The United Nations (UN) have contributed greatly to the development of this right. The first part of this research develops the methodology, which contains the problem, general and specific objectives, justification, methods and techniques of data collection and research. The second part contains seven chapters, where develops the right of access to information; the exercise of the right of access to public information in Peru; the right to privacy and to the private life; the right to inviolability of communications; the e-mail of the public worker; and e-mail publicity in Comparative Law Finally, the third part presents the results, discussions, conclusions and recommendations; where we exposed the transgression that the entities of the public administration are doing, and the affectation to the fundamental right of access to public information are exposed. ; El presente trabajo tiene como objeto de investigación la vulneración del derecho de acceso a la información en la que incurren los entes de la administración pública al denegar el acceso a los correos electrónicos institucionales de los funcionarios públicos, esto a la luz del caso presentado ante el Poder Judicial con el expediente N° 36677-2014-0-1801-JR-CI-05, donde el 5to Juzgado Especializado en lo Constitucional declaró fundada la demanda de hábeas data ordenando al Ministerio de Energía y Minas entregar todos los correos recibidos por el entonces Ministro Eleodoro Mayorga Alba, de su cuenta de correo oficial o cualquier otra que le haya sido creada en el ministerio. Para ello se realizó el estudio de la legislación nacional: la Constitución Política el Perú, la Ley de Transparencia y acceso a la información pública N° 27806, el Reglamento de la Ley de Transparencia Decreto Supremo N° 072-2003-PCM, la jurisprudencia de Tribunal Constitucional, entre otras. Lo cual permite un repaso por los principios que inspiran el derecho de acceso a la información pública y un conocimiento amplio sobre cómo se garantiza el ejercicio de este derecho en el Perú. En el Derecho Comparado, se realizó el análisis de legislaciones como la de Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, México y Chile; donde se ha observado las dificultades que se presentan en el acceso a las bases de datos que contienen los correos electrónicos de los funcionarios públicos y como esta problemática ha sido abarcada y resuelta en el extranjero. Asimismo, se recurrió a la Organización de Estados Americanos - OEA y la Organización de Naciones Unidas - ONU, quienes han contribuido enormemente en el desarrollo de este derecho. En la primera parte de este trabajo de investigación se describe el marco metodológico el cual contiene la problemática, objetivos tanto general como específico, justificación, métodos y técnicas de recolección de datos e investigación. La segunda parte contiene el marco teórico compuesto por siete capítulos, en los cuales se analiza: primero, el desarrollo del derecho de acceso a la información; segundo, el ejercicio del derecho de acceso a la información pública; tercero, el derecho a la vida privada; cuarto, el derecho a la inviolabilidad de la comunicaciones; quinto, el correo electrónico del funcionario público; sexto, la publicidad del correo electrónico en el Derecho comparado; séptimo, la eficacia de la Ley de acceso a la información pública; y por último, en la tercera parte se exponen los resultados, discusiones, conclusiones y recomendaciones en las cuales se da cuenta de la transgresión que vienen realizando los entes de la administración pública y la afectación al derecho fundamental de acceso a la información pública, examinándose los por menores del caso práctico sobre el acceso al contenido de todos los correos electrónicos de la cuenta del correo institucional del exministro de Energía y Minas, Eleodoro Mayorga Alba, relacionados con el Reglamento Nacional de Hidrocarburos. ; Tesis

Civil Society is the self-organized and self-regulated area of public relations in the state, that unites many institutes – subjects, that in the process of their activity form public relations aimed at strengthening civil society. One of these institutions is the means of mass media (media). The most part of media are non-governmental, private, and therefore are perceived as special – information – commercial projects designed to bring profits to owners. But media is a powerful institute of civil society, their purpose is to inform the public about current events as objectively as possible, to evaluate events. Their ultimate goal is to promote public control over the government.We have witnessed fundamental changes in the communication model, because anyone can become a "small" media. Electronic technologies created new possibilities for reproduction of image or text: sign, sound, motion, picture and text are combined. "New Media" is all forms of data transmission via the Internet, it covers all of the new technologies in communications, such as: web-sites, e-mail and etc., and "social media" such as services where users interact with content (e.g., communication in blogs or social networks). Thus, new media includes social media.Social Media is Internet services designed for mass distribution of content, where the content is generated by users themselves. An author may be any one, and that is opposed to traditional media, where the author is the preselected and limited number of people. If you use a typology of media space by H. McLuhan ("hot" and "cold" – by the degree of activity and of the audience feedback presence), then social media is the hottest type.There are following types of social media: social networks; blogs and microblogs; forums; feedback-sites; photo and video sharing; geo-social services. Social networking and blogging are the most effective among social media. In 2014 there were approx. 862 million websites and personal blogs.Social media is more dispersed and decentralized, less hierarchical compared to traditional media. It is relatively inexpensive or free. Its absolute advantage is the speed of disclosure (instantly). Publication or TV and radio programs after release cannot be changed and modified with social media editing and comments. As social media is characterized by self-organization, the result of the user's activity may be unknown even to user himself.Social media is interactive, convergent electronic media with a particular user-generated content; openness to interaction with readers gives them the ability to create or modify the content of the messages. Unlike traditional media where communication is performed on a "one to many" communication scheme, in the new media it is performed on "many to many" scheme. Access to new media is possible with all electronic devices with access to the Internet. Their benefits for civil society in comparison to traditional print and broadcast media: the possibility of feedback; transparency; discussion in the comments to the posts; low financial threshold of entry; creation of content in real time (e.g., Stream broadcast); opportunity to combine several forms of information presentation (audio, video, text); high frequency of publication. At the same time, there is the practical absence of censorship; small role of gatekeepers (who set limits to the content and themes of publications).In determination of the role of social media in the functioning of civil society mood of optimism and cyberpessimism are combined. The first one considers the Internet as a free medium with lack of control, a precondition for the development of democracy, the ability to enhance social connections for all (including people with disabilities), mass education, the possibility of a direct appeal to the authorities. Cyber-pessimists fear networks, because of the threat of allpossible negative emotions (extremism, xenophobia, separatism, etc.), the way to control the citizens, degradation of public discourse, virtualization of social interaction, sublimation and violation of privacy. Although cyber threats are really obvious, still benefits of social media for the establishment and functioning of civil society are obvious: they allow users to interact, collaborate, communicate, share information or engage in any other social activity through blogs, wikis, social networks, etc.Despite the problem of unchecked information, social media has a certain level of trust of the audience, so it is actively used in the area of politics and public administration (conducting of various informational campaigns with a wide audience coverage, forming of virtual communities, focus groups and work with them, socialization of online representative public authorities and politicians, socio-political forces, etc.). Production and formation of public opinion, active and effective communication are important social problems of new media that should not be taken as competitors of "old" media, as well as complementary partners in a common cause of formation and development of civil society. ; Аргументируется ключевая роль средств массовой информации в функционировании гражданского общества. Акцентируется внимание на роли социальных медиа в становлении гражданского общества в условиях информационно-коммуникационной революции. Подчеркнуто значение новых возможностей воспроизведения образа, звука, текста благодаря электронным технологиям. Доказывается значение общественного контроля за властью как функции социальных медиа. ; Доводиться ключова роль засобів масової інформації у функціонуванні громадянського суспільства. Акцентується увага на ролі соціальних медіа у становленні громадянського суспільства в умовах інформаційно-комунікаційної революції. Підкреслюється значення нових можливостей відтворення образу, звуку, тексту завдяки електронним технологіям. Наголошується на громадському контролі за владою як функції соціальних медіа.

The nature of Dutch democracy, once considered a highly stable product of cooperation, compromise and consensus-seeking practices across socioeconomic and sociocultural lines, has changed. Whereas the accessibility and levels (not forms) of participation have changed little, autocratically led protest parties have won ground and in the polls draw support from a stable 15% – 17% of the electorate. Corruption prevention in politics, especially regarding party finances, appears to fall under the bar of international standards. Political rhetoric has grown increasingly polarized (or politicized) as the political middle is waning and extreme positions on either side are on the rise. The Dutch media landscape remains highly pluralistic, although there are some concerns about the growing concentration of media ownership, a situation aggravated by the present financial economic crisis, rapid commercialization, and international ownership of national media outlets. In legal arrangements, citizens" right to privacy is subject to pressures from the information revolution and the massive use of information technology (IT) in all kinds of policy fields, primarily relating to internal and external security. In addition, some conspicuous miscarriages of justice have spawned a public debate on the quality of the justice system, including the need for a special court charged with handling mistrials. Anti-terrorism and integration policies have put considerable pressure on the exercise of basic political liberties, such as the freedoms of speech, religion and press as well as protection against unreasonable search and seizure actions. Tough immigration laws have come under international legal scrutiny, in particular where the rights of children and family reunion are concerned. In short, although the quality of Dutch democracy remains satisfactory, it has suffered several blows in several areas. Policy-specific performance during the Balkenende IV government – the coalition cabinet formed by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), Labor (PvdA) and Christian Union (CU) parties – was in general incremental, save for the proposal to phase-in an extension of the pension age to 67 that was adopted by the cabinet in 2009. Policy performance in matters relating to internal and external safety remained adequate, although at rising public cost. The Health Care Insurance Act (Zvw) of 2006 was continued, although its impact on cost control issues and enhancing market-like competition between health care providers remains unclear. Stagnation continues to characterize environmental, research and development, and innovation policies alike. No changes have been made to education Netherlands report SGI 2011 | 4 policy, although it is now generally judged to be in crisis. Serious concerns have been raised about the lack of good teachers, literacy and numeracy skills among elementary students, and high attrition rates at all levels of education. As is the case in most other European countries, the financial and banking crisis (followed by the euro crisis) has proven detrimental to economic policy performance, which negatively affects prospects in almost all other policy areas. Strategic Outlook The long-term viability of the D utch polity depends on the acumen with which the three following challenges are treated: the state"s weakened fiscal position; facilitating technology innovation in order to develop an ecologically modernized and sustainable economy; and societal integration and coherence. (1) Improving the state"s weakened fiscal position. The state"s financial problems can in large part be attributed to recent bailouts of Dutch banks and financial businesses, as well as individual euro zone countries and the euro itself. An effective long-term solution to these fiscal problems therefore requires (domestic as well as European-level) reforms involving stricter regulation and oversight in order to improve risk-management. The Dutch government must also undertake substantive reforms in the banking and financial sector. (2) Improve technology innovation in order to ensure an ecologically modernized and sustainable economy. The Dutch government must invest more wisely in efforts targeting the transition to renewable and alternative energy sources, such as wind and solar energy. The government will also need to pursue a structural reform of the education system, which is in a state of crisis. (3) Facilitate societal integration and coherence while implementing flexicurity policies. The Dutch welfare state urgently needs reforms that ensure continued investment in human capital while protecting workers and families from the brunt of structural adjustments. Opportunities for combining work and family life ought to be expanded and improved. The pension system and the moribund state of its financial underpinning must also undergo reforms. Social coherence will not be advanced through tighter immigration and citizenship policies. Instead, policies focused on urban and residential area renewal should be sustained through adequate funding. Netherlands report SGI 2011 | 5 A sound, functional democracy requires clearly structured forms of issue-specific, interactive policy-making in which citizens" voices are represented. In tripartite governance structures like that of the Netherlands, the primacy of politics vis-à-vis markets and civil society ought to be reconfirmed. Where possible, politics should respect the self-regulation of citizen life and markets. But as the only institution capable of regulating tripartite relations, the state must also live up to its responsibilities in maintaining the framework in which democratic decision-making takes place.

Lo scopo di questa dissertazione è quello di costruire un modello di promozione della salute nel contesto di lavoro in relazione al consumo di sostanze psicoattive fra lavoratori, attraverso il confronto tra la situazione italiana e inglese. L'ipotesi di fondo rimanda all'idea che i luoghi di lavoro possano rappresentare setting d'elezione per i progetti di prevenzione non solo perché alcuni studi dimostrano l'esistenza di fattori di rischio connessi alla mansione rispetto alle condotte relative allo stile di vita, ma anche perché il consumo di alcol e droghe è altamente diffuso tra i lavoratori e questo comporta rischi per la sicurezza e la salute personale nonché quella dei colleghi di lavoro. Si tratta quindi di indagare il rapporto tra contesto lavorativo e utilizzo di sostanze al fine di suggerire  alla luce degli studi internazionali in materia e delle riflessioni condotte dai soggetti coinvolti nella ricerca che si andrà a presentare  linee guida e indicazioni operative per la realizzazione di interventi di promozione alla salute nei contesti professionali. A tal fine, saranno analizzati gli esiti di 13 focus group che hanno coinvolto esperti italiani e 6 interviste somministrate a esperti inglesi volti a definire la situazione attuale in Italia e Gran Bretagna in materia di prevenzione del consumo di alcol e droghe nei luoghi di lavoro. In particolare, l'analisi verterà sulle seguenti aree: - Percezione circa la diffusione dei consumi nei luoghi di lavoro - Presentazione delle politiche adottate, in logica comparativa, tra i due paesi. - Analisi critica degli interventi e problematiche aperte. L'analisi del materiale empirico permette di delineare due modelli costruiti sulla base dei focus group e delle interviste: - in Italia si può affermare che prevalga il cd. modello della sicurezza: di recente trasformazione, questo sistema enfatizza la dimensione del controllo, tanto che si parla di sorveglianza sanitaria. É orientato alla sicurezza concepita quale rimozione dei fattori di rischio. Il consumo di sostanze (anche sporadico) è inteso quale espressione di una patologia che richiede l'intervento sanitario secondo modalità previste dal quadro normativo: una procedura che annulla la discrezionalità sia del datore di lavoro sia del medico competente. Si connota inoltre per contraddizioni interne e trasversali rispetto alle categorie lavorative (i controlli non si applicano alle professioni associate a maggiore prestigio sociale sebbene palesemente associate a rischio, come per esempio i medici) e alle sostanze (atteggiamento repressivo soprattutto verso le droghe illegali); - in Gran Bretagna, invece, il modello si configura come responsabilità bilaterale: secondo questo modello, se è vero che il datore di lavoro può decidere in merito all'attuazione di misure preventive in materia di alcol e droghe nei luoghi di lavoro, egli è ritenuto responsabile della mancata vigilanza. D'altro canto, il lavoratore che non rispetta quanto previsto nella politica scritta può essere soggetto a licenziamento per motivi disciplinari. Questo modello, particolarmente attento al consumo di tutte le sostanze psicoattive (legali e illegali), considera il consumo quale esito di una libera scelta individuale attraverso la quale il lavoratore decide di consumare alcol e droghe così come decide di dedicarsi ad altre condotte a rischio. Si propone di ri-orientare le strategie analizzate nei due paesi europei presi in esame attraverso la realizzazione di un modello della promozione della salute fondato su alcuni punti chiave: – coinvolgimento di tutti i lavoratori (e non solo coloro che svolgono mansioni a rischio per la sicurezza) al fine di promuovere benessere secondo un approccio olistico di salute, orientato ad intervenire non soltanto in materia di consumo di sostanze psicoattive (legali e illegali), ma più in generale sulle condotte a rischio; – compartecipazione nelle diverse fasi (programmazione, realizzazione e valutazione del progetto) del lavoratore, datore di lavoro e medico competente secondo una logica di flessibilità, responsabilizzazione condivisa fra i diversi attori, personalizzazione e co-gestione dell'intervento; – azione volta a promuovere i fattori di protezione agendo simultaneamente sul contrasto dei fattori di rischio (stress, alienazione, scarso riconoscimento del ruolo svolto), attraverso interventi che integrano diverse strategie operative alla luce delle evidenze scientifiche (Evidence-Based Prevention); – ricorso a strumenti di controllo (drug testing) subordinato all'esigenza di tutelare l'incolumità fisica del lavoratore e dei colleghi, da attuarsi sempre e comunque attraverso prassi che non violino la privacy e attraverso strumenti in grado di verificare l'effettivo stato di alterazione psico-fisica sul luogo di lavoro; – demedicalizzazione delle situazioni di consumo che non richiedono un intervento prettamente sanitario, ma che al contrario potrebbero essere affrontate attraverso azioni incentrate sul care anziché la cure; – messa a disposizione di servizi ad hoc con funzione di supporto, counselling, orientamento per i lavoratori, non stigmatizzanti e con operatori di formazione non solamente sanitaria, sull'esempio degli EAPs (Employee Assistence Programs) statunitensi. Si ritiene che questo modello possa trasformare i contesti di lavoro da agenzie di controllo orientate alla sicurezza a luoghi di intervento orientati al benessere attraverso un'azione sinergica e congiunta volta a promuovere i fattori di protezione a discapito di quelli di rischio in modo tale da intervenire non soltanto sul consumo di sostanze psicotrope, ma più in generale sullo stile di vita che influenza la salute complessiva.