Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bachawar Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 429 ha in Bachawar microwatershed in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 272 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 149 ha by rock outcrops and about 7 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 64 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (23-57 kg/ha) available phosphorus content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 9 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 34 per cent and sufficient (<0.6 ppm) in 30 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - - Guava - - Maize - - Sapota - - Bajra - - Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - - Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 92 (62.16%) men and 56 (37.84%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal farmers' was 3.8, small farmers' was 4.1 semi medium farmers' was 4.7 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 6 (45%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 66 (44.59 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 61 (41.22%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (10.14%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bachawar had 70.95 per cent illiterates, 7.43 per cent of them had primary school, 0.68 per cent of them had middle school and masters, 11.49 per cent of them had high school education and 45 per cent of them had PUC and degree.  The results indicate that, 35.14 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 59.46 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers, 2.70 per cent of the households were private services and 5.41 per cent of the households were trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 39.19 per cent of the household members, 48.65 per cent were agricultural labourers, 23 per cent were in Private Service, 2.70 per cent were in trade and business and housewives, 45 per cent were students and 0.68 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in local institutions.  The results indicate that 2.7 per cent of the households possess Thatched house and 97.3 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The results show that 72.97 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.11 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.7 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 24.32 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.30 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,074, mixer/grinder and bicycle was Rs. 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 44,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,179.  About 8.11 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 13.51 per cent of them possess plough and chaff cutter, 2.7 per cent of them possess sprayer, harvester and thresher.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 22,000, plough was Rs. 1,166, sprayer was Rs. 4,000, harvester was Rs. 12,000, thresher was Rs. 14,000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 180.  The results indicate that, 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullocks and local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 23 and average own labour (women) available was 1.5, average hired labour (men) available and average hired labour (women) available was 6.88.  The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bachawar micro-watershed possess 23.99 ha (69.53%) of dry land and 10.51 ha (30.47%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.79 ha (90.5%) of dry land and 0.92 ha (9.5 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.77 ha (68.83%) of dry land and 3.52 ha (31.17%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.42 ha (82.9 %) of dry land and 1.62 ha (17.91%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 502,083.33 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 446,843.72. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 801,357.57 for dry land and average land value was Rs. 541,666.65 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 411,452.37 for dry land and Rs. 596,206.89 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 242,420.94 for dry land and Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 291,9099 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 9 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 27.3 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 28.83 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small and semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 4.49 ha, 3.52 ha, 1.62 ha and 4.45 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (14.77 ha), cotton (5.36 ha), groundnut (4.49 ha), sorghum (3.77 ha), green gram (2.15 ha) and paddy (1.3 ha). Marginal farmers have red gram, cotton, groundnut, sorghum, green gram and paddy. Small farmers have grown red gram, cotton, groundnut, sorghum and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram, cotton and green gram. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bachawar micro-watershed was found to be 92.22 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 30490.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 90432.97. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 59942.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.97.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 47358.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 194677.30. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 147318.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.11. 3  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 65147.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 123911.66. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 58763.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.9.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 43278.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 92562.89. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 49284.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.14.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 36132.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31115.61. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 5016.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 816769. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 91638.50. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 9962.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12.  The results indicate that, 18.92 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 110,750 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 106,853.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 110,888.89, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 147,000 and medium farmers it was Rs. 147,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14,439.67. For landless households it was Rs. 34,375, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,237.11, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,222.22, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 25,625 and medium farmers it was Rs. 67,500.  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 mango and 10 coconut trees in their field and also 2 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 10 teak, 50 Neem, 2 Banyan and 7 tamarind trees in their field and also 5 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,540.54 for land development and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 273 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 224.32 per cent each for land development. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 5.41 per cent each for land development and 2.7 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 87.88 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 93.75 per cent, paddy and sorghum was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 93.81 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 2.70 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/ traders, 89.19 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants. 4  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 62.16 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 91.89 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 8.11 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.3 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 67.57 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.3 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 78.38 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 81.8 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 31.43 per cent, fruits were adequate for 86.49 per cent, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 97.3 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 18.92 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 100 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 13.51 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 91.89 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was the constraint experienced by 89.19 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (48.65%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (51.35%), Inadequacy of irrigation water and High rate of interest on credit (2.7%), Low price for the agricultural commodities (21.62%) and lack of marketing facilities in the area (5.41%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Honageri-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 600 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 572 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, An area about 2 ha in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 26 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 572 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 85 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 10 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm).  About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 26 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 65 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 95 per cent area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 8 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 12 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 4 per cent area very low (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 480(80) 40(7) Sapota - 34(6) Maize 3(<1) 517(87) Pomegranate - 512(85) Bajra 3(<1) 549(91) Musambi 313(52) 198 (32) Groundnut - 74(12) Lime 313(52) 198 (32) Sunflower 346(58) 135(21) Amla 66(11) 454(76) Redgram - 450(74) Cashew - 3(<1) Bengal gram 477(80) 43(7) Jackfruit - 3(<1) Cotton 349(58) 172(28) Jamun - 509(85) Chilli - 551(92) Custard apple 478(80) 43(7) Tomato 3(<1) 303(51) Tamarind - 509(85) Drumstick - 511(84) Mulberry - 3(<1) Mango - 35(6) Marigold - 551(92) Guava - 34(6) Chrysanthemum - 551(92) Brinjal 169(28) 382(63) Bhendi 284(47) 267(45) Onion 232(39) 106(18)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 112 (64.37%) men and 62 (35.63%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 5.6, semi medium farmers' was 6 and medium farmers' was 2.  The data indicated that, 33 (18.97 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (42.53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (31.03 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (7.47%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Honageri-2 had 63.79 per cent illiterates, 8.62 per cent of them had Primary School, 1.72 per cent of them had Middle School education, 12.07 per cent of them had High School education, 8.62 per cent of them had PUC education and 1.15 per cent had degree and masters education.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 8.82 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborer and 2.94 per cent were Trade & Business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 68.39 per cent of the household members, 2.87 per cent were agricultural laborers and children, 2.30 per cent were general laborers, 0.57 per cent were in government and private service, 1.15 per cent were trade and business, 16.09 per cent were students and 2.87 per cent were Housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.82 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 64.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 26.47 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 91.18 per cent of the households possess TV, 41.18 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder and motor cycle and 88.24 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,387, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,957, motor cycle was Rs. 50,714 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,165.  About 23.53 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 20.59 per cent of the households plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess seed/ fertilizer drill and Tractor, 11.76 per cent of the households possess Sprayer, 8.82 per cent of them possess weeder and harvester and 14.71 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results indicate that, bullock cart it was Rs.22,125, plough it was Rs.909, seed/fertilizer drill it was Rs.500, tractor it was Rs. 300,000, Sprayer was Rs. 3,500, Weeder was Rs. 200, Harvester was Rs. 40 and Chaff Cutter was Rs. 314. 2  The results indicate that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 26.47 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess goat and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.38, average hired labour (men) available was 7.59 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.03.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Honageri-2 micro-watershed possess 28.39 ha (86.34%) of dry land and 4.49 ha (13.66%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.36 ha (99.34%) of dry land and 0.05 ha (0.66%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 17.39 ha (94.31%) of dry land and 1.05 ha (5.69 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.64 ha (73.23%) of dry land and 1.33 ha (26.77%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.06 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 703,501.07 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 912,342.34. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,165,068.72 for dry land and the average value was Rs.18,525,000.41 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,951.58 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 858,301.16. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 274,444.44 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 274,444.44 of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning and De-functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20.59 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 10.76 meters.  The results indicate that small, semi-medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.47 ha, 3.43 ha and 0.45 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (23.14 ha), paddy (2.71 ha), red gram (1.79 ha), sorghum (1.76 ha) and groundnut (1.21ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Honageri-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 27030.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70387.69. The net 3 income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 43357.16. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.6.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 36266.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 90304.31. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 54037.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.49.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 163090.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 304132.32. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 141041.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 41086.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63686.27. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 22599.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.55.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 29555.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16466.67. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -13088.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.56.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20.59 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 115,744.62, for small farmers it was Rs. 126,758.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 111,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 122,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,328.99. For landless households it was Rs. 8,333.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,620.51, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,741.27, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 25,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 5 coconut in their field and 1 coconut in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 27 teak, 31 neem, 7 tamarind and 1 peepul trees in their field and 1 teak and 3 tamarind in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,588.24 for land development.  The results indicated that Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 41.18 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 60 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 82.14 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 76.92 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 59.18 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.18 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of them sold in regulated markets. 4  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 91.18 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 11.76 per cent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the major source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 26.47 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 61.76 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses and oilseed were adequate for 97.06 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 94.12 per cent, fruits was adequate for 2.94 per cent, Milk were adequate for 82.35 per cent and eggs were adequate for 23.53 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses and oilseed were inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 94.12 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.65 per cent, Meat were inadequate for 100 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 76.47 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.18 per cent, Wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.24%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (11.76%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals, high rate of interest on credit and Lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.29%), Low price for the agricultural commodities (100%), Inadequate extension services (5.88%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (82.35%), less rainfall and source of agri-technology information (2.94%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Honageri-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 574 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 501 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 25 ha by rock outcrops and 47 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area is moderately shallow (150 cm).  About 73 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 15 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of 87 per cent in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 12 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m).  About 40 per cent area in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 48 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 48 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 40 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 27 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 38 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) and 22 per cent soils are strongly to very strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 - >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 432 (75) 65 (11) Guava - 14 (2) Maize - 496 (87) Sapota - 14(2) Bajra - 502 (87) Pomegranate - 446 (78) Groundnut - 14 (2) Musambi 431 (75) 15 (3) Sunflower 426 (74) 15 (3) Lime 431 (75) 14 (3) Redgram - 446 (78) Amla - 497 (87) Bengal gram 432 (75) 56(10) Cashew - - Cotton 426 (74) 62 (11) Jackfruit - 9(2) Chilli - 502 (88) Jamun - 437 (76) Tomato - 496 (87) Custard apple 441 (77) 56(10) Brinjal 142(25) 361(63) Tamarind - 437 (76) Onion 395 (69) 56(10) Mulberry - 9(2) Bhendi 201(35) 301(52) Marigold - 502 (88) Drumstick - 446(78) Chrysanthemum - 502 (88) Mango - 135(24)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (59.12%) men and 65 (40.88%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 3.7, small farmers' was 3.8 and semi medium farmers' was 5.2.  The data indicated that, 31 (19.50 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (43.40 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 45 (28.30 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (8.81 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Honageri-1 had 56.60 per cent illiterates, 0.63 per cent of them had functional literate and masters, 13.84 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.14 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.69 per cent of them had high school education, 2.52 per cent of them had PUC education and 6.29 per cent had degree education.  The results indicate that, 52.78 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.22 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer and 2.78 per cent were general labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 41.51 per cent of the household members, 33.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.26 per cent were general laborers, 0.63 per cent were in private service, 16.98 per cent were students and 6.29 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 22.22 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 69.44 per centre of them possess Katcha house and 8.33 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 77.78 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.78 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder and tempo, 16.67 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 94.44 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,785, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 59,333, tempo was Rs. 180,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,002.  About 8.33 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.78 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. About 8.33 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.78 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results indicate that, 19.44 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 13.89 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.78 per cent of the households possess buffalo. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.52, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 8.52 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.70.  The results indicate that, 75 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Honageri-1 micro-watershed possess 39.98 ha (92.16 %) of dry land, 2.59 ha (5.97%) of irrigated land and 0.81 ha (1.87%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 6.12 ha (88.31 %) of dry land and 0.81 ha (11.69%) of Permanent Fallow. Small farmers possess 7.86 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 26.01 ha (90.94 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (9.06 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 632,750, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 1,157,812.48 and the average value of permanent fallow was Rs. 642,200. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,062,541.37 for dry land and Rs. 642,200 for permanent fallow. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 662,310.86 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 522,751.33 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 1,157,812.48 of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.56 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.93 meters.  The results indicate that semi-medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.59 ha, respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (17.43 ha), groundnut (15.48 ha), cotton (3.87ha), sorghum (3.72 ha) and bajra (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Honageri-1 micro-watershed was found to be 96.03 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 37189.90. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69834.81. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 32644.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.88.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33175.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51960.12. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 18784.20. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.57.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 44384.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 110787.87. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 66403.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.5. 3  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 42476.37. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95269.99. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 52793.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.24.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 66871.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78926.34. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 12055.03. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.18.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 62,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 78,500, for small farmers it was Rs. 104,666.67 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 89,105. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,851.39. For landless households it was Rs. 6,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,615, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,805.56 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,972.22.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 mango trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have planted 114 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,694.44 for land development.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 33.33 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 71.43 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 68.22 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 86.49 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 60.94 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 2.78 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/ traders, 66.67 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 6.67 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 2.78 per cent of the households have used head load and 72.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 72.22 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, 69.44 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the sampled households has not possessed PDS card.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses and meat were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 2.78 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 50 per cent, fruits was adequate for 8.33 per cent and eggs and meat were adequate for 97.22 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseed were inadequate for 97.22 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 50 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 91.67 per cent, milk and eggs were inadequate for 2.78 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, frequent incidence of pest and diseases, high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit was the constraint experienced by 75 per cent of the households and wild animal menace on farm field (77.78 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramasamudram-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 766 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 443 ha (58%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 272 ha (35%) by rock out crops and 51 ha (7%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 5 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 33 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 52 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 47 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 5 per cent is severely eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 2 per cent is strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), 10 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 11 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 27 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 8 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3- 7.8) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 2 per cent area is low (0.6 ppm) in 47 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 90(12) 146(19) Guava - 98(13) Maize - 236(30) Sapota - 98(13) Bajra - 257(33) Pomegranate - 188(25) Groundnut - 118(16) Musambi 39(5) 149(19) Sunflower 18(2) 149(19) Lime 39(5) 149(19) Redgram - 188(25) Amla 125(16) 111(14) Bengal gram 90(12) 146(19) Cashew - 77(10) Cotton 66(9) 171(22) Jackfruit - 77(10) Chilli - 257(33) Jamun - 111(14) Tomato - 185(24) Custard apple 168(22) 69(9) Brinjal 168(22) 91(12) Tamarind - 111(14) Onion 140(18) 118(15) Mulberry - 77(10) Bhendi 168(22) 91(12) Marigold - 257(34) Drumstick - 188(25) Chrysanthemum - 257(34) Mango - 18(2)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 147 (59.76%) men and 97 (39.43%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.33, marginal farmers' was 6.76, small farmers' was 6.91, semi medium farmers' was 7.5 and medium farmers' was 8.  The data indicated that, 69 (28.05%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 100 (40.65%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (26.02%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (5.28%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Ramasamudram-1 had 55.28 per cent illiterates, 2.44 per cent functional literates, 18.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.28 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.91 per cent of them had high school education, 3.25 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.44 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 86.11 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 8.33 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 2.78 per cent of them were in private service and 2.78 per cent of them were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.25 per cent of the household members, 3.25 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.41 per cent were general labourers, 2.85 per cent were in private service, 26.42 per cent were students, 7.72 per cent were housewives and 6.10 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 13.89 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 38.89 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 47.22 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 63.89 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of them had bicycle, 30.56 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 88.89 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9000, mixer grinder was Rs.2166, bicycle was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.35636 and mobile phone was Rs.12812.  About 36.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprayer and 47.22 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.52.  The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 27.78 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.09, average own labour (women) available was 1.82, average hired labour (men) available was 12.70 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.06.  The results indicate that, 91.67 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Ramasamudram-1 micro-watershed possess 25.90 ha (70.64%) of dry land and 10.77 ha (29.36%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 11.27 ha (96.53%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.47%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 10.18 ha (75.14%) of dry land and 3.37 ha (24.86%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 6.99 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 598109.67 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 417857.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 886575.74 for dry land and Rs.988000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 412485.09 for dry land and Rs.742187.51 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 291909.09 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 228703.70 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 22.22 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 21.59 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 3.37 ha and 6.19 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.47 ha), greengram (9.73 ha), groundut (3.32 ha), paddy (4.16 ha) and redgram (10.19 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, Greengram, groundnut, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and Greengram. Medium farmers have grown paddy and redgram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Ramasamudram-1 microwatershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 22105.27. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51835.46. The net income from Greengram cultivation was Rs. 29730.20, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 108908.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 99903.78. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. -9004.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92. 3  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 84841.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 135857.02. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 51015.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.6.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 33618.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75113.15. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 41494.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.23.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 40666.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 83806.85. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 43140.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06.  The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 38.89 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 233,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 181,178.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 185,920, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 157,200 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 342,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 24,837.75. For landless households it was Rs. 80,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,326.64, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,661.16, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 71,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 99,444.44.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut trees and 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 65 neem and 12 tamarind tree in their field. Also, 16 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.67 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.78 per cent carried head loads.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 88.89 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.78 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 91.67 per cent and bore well was the source of drinking water for 8.33 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, 52.78 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.78 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.56 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25 per cent, fruits were adequate for 27.78 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 94.44 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.89%), inadequacy of irrigation water (91.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.67%), high rate of interest on credit (94.44%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (5.56%) and inadequate extension services (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Devarapalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 554 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 343 ha (62%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 204 ha (37%) covered by rock outcrops and others covers an area of 8 ha (1%) in the microwatershed. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 343 ha (62%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75 -100 cm), 34 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 18 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 45 percent soils are loamy and 10 per cent soils clayey at the surface.  An area of 29 per cent soils are non gravelly (0.75%) and 32 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 1 percent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and about 41 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 20 percent is low (337kg/ha), about 30 percent is medium (145- 337 kg/ha) and 29 percent is low (20ppm), 20 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 42 percent area is low (4.5ppm) in an area of about 59 per cent and deficient (<4.5ppm) in an area of about 3 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(3) 226(41) Guava - 55(10) Maize 55(10) 188(34) Sapota - 55(10) Bajra 55(10) 187(34) Pomegranate - 55(10) Groundnut 38(7) 72(13) Musambi - 55(10) Sunflower - 54(10) Lime - 55(10) Redgram - 54(10) Amla 55(10) 187(34) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 16(3) Cotton - 148(27) Jackfruit - 55(10) Chilli 55(10) 188(34) Jamun - - Tomato 55(10) 188(34) Custard apple 55(10) 187(34) Brinjal 55(10) 188(34) Tamarind - - Onion 55(10) 188(34) Mulberry - 55(10) Bhendi 55(10) 188(34) Marigold 55(10) 188(34) Drumstick - 55(10) Chrysanthemum 55(10) 188(34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 83 (47.7%) men and 91 (52.30%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 5.13, small farmers' was 5.09 and semi medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 30 (17.24%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (47.70%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (28.74 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (6.32 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Devarapalli-2 had 62.07 per cent illiterates, 16.09 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.87 per cent of them had middle school education, 9.77 per cent of them had high school education, 2.30 per cent of them had PUC education and 4.6 per cent them possess degree education.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 22.86 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 16.67 per cent of the household members, 63.79 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.57 per cent were in private service, 16.09 per cent were students and 1.72 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 97.14 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.86 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 77.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.29 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 17.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent of them possess computer/laptop.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,944, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,416, motor cycle was Rs. 46,666, mobile phone was Rs. 2,882 and computer/ laptop was Rs. 25,500.  About 5.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.43 per cent of them possess plough, 17.14 per cent of them possess sprayer, 25.71 per cent of them possess weeder and 14.29 per cent of them possess harvester.  The result shows that, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 1,550, sprayer was Rs. 8,333, weeder was Rs. 68 and harvester was Rs. 1,022.  The results indicate that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 2.86 per cent of the households possess local cow buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.67, average own labour (women) available was 1.64, average hired labour (men) available was 5.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.47. 2  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Devarapalli-2 micro-watershed possess 31.55 ha (100%) of dry. Marginal farmers possess 10.64 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.44 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (100 %) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 367,521.81. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 563,926.94 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 304,596.41 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for dry land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (1.49 ha), red gram (24.08 ha) and sorghum (0.40 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Devarapalli-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 71.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative and grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in microwatershed was Rs, 19,960.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 40 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 59533.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39102.03. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -20431.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 28727.77. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46849.73. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 18121.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.63.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 29383.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69866.19. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 40482.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.38.  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. 3  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,833.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 62,893.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 102,181.82 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 173,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,508.83. For landless households it was Rs. 3,166.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,015.56, for small farmers it was Rs. 8,779.61 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,779.61.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 coconut and 2 mango trees in their field and also 2 coconut guava trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 31 eucalyptus, 2 teak and pongamia, 20 neem, 6 tamarind and 1 pongamia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 371.43 for land development and Rs. 57.14 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that asset selling was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton and sorghum was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 95.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 31.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 51.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households have used cart and truck, 77.14 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 42.86 per cent and 54.29 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.43 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 60 per cent, 4 vegetables were adequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were adequate for 45.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 11.43 per cent, eggs were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.86 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseed was inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 80 per cent and meat were inadequate for 97.14 per cent.  The results indicated that, vegetables were market surplus for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 77.14 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field and frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), Inadequacy of irrigation water and high rate of interest on credit (20%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemical (48.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.86%), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agril produce to the market (31.43%), less rainfall (42.86%) and source of agri-technology information (34.29%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Malakapanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 491 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 445 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 8 ha by railway, 3 ha by rock outcrops and 36 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 80 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy and 11 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 49 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 58 per cent area.  51 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 40 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 0.09 per area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 29 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 21 per cent and medium (10 -20 ppm) in 70 per cent.  About 48 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 61 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 83(17) Guava - - Maize - 83(17) Sapota - - Bajra - 83(17) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - 62(13) Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 21(4) Amla - 62(13) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 62(13) Jamun - - Tomato - 62(13) Custard apple - 62(13) Brinjal - 62(13) Tamarind - - Onion - 62(13) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 62(13) Marigold - 62(13) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 62(13) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 105 (59.46%) men and 75 (40.54%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.75, marginal farmers' was 4.38, small farmers' was 5.2, semi medium farmers' was 4.33 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 30 (16.22%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 86 (46.49%) were in 16-35 years of age, 62 (33.51%) were in 36-60 years of age and 7 (3.78%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Malakapanahalli had 51.89 per cent illiterates, 0.54 per cent functional literates, 11.35 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.24 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.22 per cent of them had high school education, 3.78 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.54 per cent had diploma, 0.54 per cent did ITI, 4.55 per cent of them had degree education and and 0.54 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 79.49 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 7.69 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers, 2.56 per cent of them were general labourers, 2.56 per cent were in private service and 7.69 per cent were into trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 55.68 per cent of the household members, 4.32 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.62 per cent were general labourers, 0.54 per cent were in private service, 4.32 per cent were into trade and business, 22.16 per cent were students, 3.78 per cent were children and 7.57 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 7.69 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 74.36 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.95 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 82.05 per cent of the households possess TV, 20.51 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.13 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 87.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,093, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,637, motor cycle was Rs. 62,500 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,470.  About 2.56 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 7.69 per cent of them possess plough, and 10.26 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 3,333 and the average value of weeder was Rs.55.  The results indicate that, 17.95 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 7.69 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.06, average own labour (women) available was 1.13, average hired labour (men) available was 11.32 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.84.  The results indicate that, 82.05 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Malakapanahalli micro-watershed possess 21.48 ha (62.96%) of dry land and 12.64 ha (37.04%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.99 ha (94.27%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (5.73%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.38 ha (66.12%) of dry land and 3.78 ha (33.88%). Semi medium farmers possess 6.11 ha (59.71%) of dry land and 4.12 ha (40.29%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.25 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 865,523.74 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 640,634.01. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,088,050.63 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 501,316.51 for dry land and Rs. 1,004,925.08 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,014,172.19 for dry land and Rs. 460,549.56 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 376,380.95 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 28.21 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 30.17 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 3.78 ha, 4.13 ha and 4.25 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (9.86 ha), green gram (5.96 ha), sorghum (0.89 ha), cotton (12.73 ha), paddy (3.08 ha) and groundnut (1.62 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, Green gram, red gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown cotton, Green gram, groundnut, paddy and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and paddy. Medium farmers have grown Green gram and red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Malakapanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 34708.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59706.13. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 24997.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72. 3  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 32880.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82384.66. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 49504.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.51.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 29627.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80921.50. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 51294.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.73.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 62824.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 267068.74. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 204244.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.25.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 66750.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 44399.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 121890.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 145040.22. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 23149.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.19.  The results indicate that, 15.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 15.38 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 51,250 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 103,961.54, for small farmers it was Rs. 140,700, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 155,666.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 187,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,083.53. For landless households it was Rs. 3,968.75, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,023.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 15,020, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 14,166.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 50,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 34 custard apple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 tamarind, 10 pongamia and 104 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,179.49 for land development and Rs. 2,564.10 for irrigation facility.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.56 per cent for land development. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 7.69 per cent for land development and for 5.13 per cent for irrigation facility. Own funds were the source of additional investment for for 5.13 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 10.26 per cent of the households for land development.  The results indicated that all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except sorghum, which was sold to the extent of 64.71 per cent. 4  The results indicated that, about 74.36 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.13 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 79.49 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 28.21 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 71.79 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 76.92 per cent of the households used firewood and 23.08 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.44 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 56.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.44 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.56 per cent of the households possessed APL card.  The results indicated that, 87.18 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.44 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.13 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 25.64 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30.77 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 94.87 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 71.79 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 69.23 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 79.49 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.92%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (76.92%), inadequacy of irrigation water (76.92%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.49%), low price for the agricultural commodities (70.49%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (10.26%) and inadequate extension services (2.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kerehalli-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 601 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 51 per cent is covered by soil, 40 per cent by rock out crops, eight per cent by quarry and one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 27 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 20 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 8 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 21 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 15(2) 149(25) Pomegranate 40(7) 15(2) Maize 15 (2) 149 (25) Guava 40(7) 15(2) Bajra 15(2) 155(26) Jackfruit 40(7) 15(2) Redgram 15(2) 35 (6) Jamun - 46(8) Bengal gram - 163(27) Musambi 40(7) 15(2) Groundnut 15(2) 61 (10) Lime 40(7) 15(2) Sunflower 15 (2) 35 (6) Cashew 40(7) 54(9) Cotton - 163(27) Custard apple 40(7) 183(30) Chilli 15(2) 49(8) Amla 40(7) 183 (30) Tomato 15(2) 49(8) Tamarind - 40(7) Drumstick 15(2) 41(7) Marigold 15(2) 149(25) Mulberry 15(2) 95(16) Chrysanthemum 15(2) 149 (25) Mango - 40(7) Jasmine 15(2) 149(25) Sapota 40(7) 15(2) Crossandra 15(2) 49(8)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMU's by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 118 (60.20%) men and 78 (39.80%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of marginal farmers' was 5.75, small farmers' was 4.83, semi medium farmers' was 5.67, medium farmers' was 3 and large farmers' was 10.  The data indicated that, 35 (17.86%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44.90%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53 (27.04%) were in 36-60 years of age and 20 (10.20%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kerehalli-3 had 33.67 per cent illiterates, 1.02 per cent functional literate, 21.43 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.08 per cent of them had middle school education, 18.88 per cent of them had high school education, 14.29 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.06 per cent of them had degree education and 0.51 per cent of them did diploma.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 50 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 39.29 per cent of the household members, 33.67 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.51 per cent were general labourers, 2.55 per cent were in private service, 20.41 per cent were students, 0.51 per cent were housewives and 3.06 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 97.22 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 2.78 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 86.11 per cent of the households possess TV, 36.11 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 44.44 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.78 per cent possess landline phone and 83.33 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8838, mixer grinder was Rs. 2038, bicycle was Rs. 2000, motor cycle was Rs. 50312, landline phone was Rs. 2000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1694.  About 11.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent of them possess sprayer and 66.67 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3,000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.51.  The results indicate that, 11.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 2.78 per cent possess buffalo and 11.11 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.22, average hired labour (men) available was 17.97 and average hired labour (women) available was 16.08. 2  The results indicate that, 97.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kerehalli-3 micro-watershed possess 18.81 ha (34.24%) of dry land and 36.13 ha (65.76%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (86.47%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (13.53%). Small farmers possess 13.80 ha (89.50%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (10.50%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (8.87%) of dry land and 24.96 ha (91.13%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.67 ha (100%) and large farmers possess 6.48 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 366,594.97 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 301,556.90. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 541,158.07 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 354,926.69 for dry land and was Rs. 555,750 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and Rs. 336,381.32 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 224,545.46 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 77,187.50.  The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 61.11 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 82.55 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 1.62 ha, 24.36 ha, 2.67 and 6.48 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (46.55 ha), groundnut (3.24 ha), paddy (2.96 ha) and chilly (1.3 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize. Small farmers have grown maize and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, paddy and chilly. Medium farmers have grown maize. Large farmers have grown maize and groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kerehalli-3 micro-watershed was found to be 88.82 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 98.79, medium farmers it was 60.67 per cent and large farmers had a cropping intensity of 50 per cent.  The results indicate that, 2.78 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 2.78 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 68869.77. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57237.62. The net income from 3 Paddy cultivation was Rs. -11632.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.83.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 29260.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51031.25. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 21771.11. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.74.  The total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 30609.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46312.50. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 15703.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 54395.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75829. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 21433.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39.  The results indicate that, 8.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.33 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 68,125 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 67,500, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 76,888.89, for medium farmers it was Rs. 18,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 468,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,085.65. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 15,562.50, for small farmers it was Rs. 5,013.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 2,759.26, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 215,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 15 coconut trees and 9 mango trees in the field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 71 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees and 2 acacia trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 1,916.67, for improved crop production Rs. 555.56 and for irrigation facility Rs. 277.78.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 16.67 per cent for land development, for 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility and for 11.11 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, chilly was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, groundnut 71.43 per cent, maize 97.88 per cent and paddy 72.22 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 5.56 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated market and 97.22 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 105.88 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. 4  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.56 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 13.89 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 66.67 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 13.89 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.22 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 44.44 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.22 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 13.89 per cent, fruits were adequate for 16.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.89 per cent, eggs were adequate for 97.22 per cent and meat was adequate for 13.89 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.22 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 83.33 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent, milk were inadequate for 8.33 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 2.78 per cent and meat was inadequate for 83.33 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 86.11 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (97.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.56%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (50%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (86.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (91.67%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.89%), inadequate extension services (88.89%), less rainfall (2.78%) and source of agri-technology information (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chukkanakallu-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 518 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 68 per cent is covered by soil, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 31 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 14 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 54 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 45 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 17 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 51 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 37 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 30 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 8 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 9 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 12 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%) in 21 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 65(13) 216(42) Sapota 36(7) 94(18) Maize 16(3) 266(52) Pomegranate 36(7) 210(41) Bajra 36(7) 274(53) Musambi 65(13) 181(35) Groundnut - 58(11) Lime 65(13) 181(35) Sunflower 65(13) 181(35) Amla 36(7) 273(53) Redgram 36(7) 163(32) Cashew - 130(25) Bengal gram 29(6) 280(54) Jackfruit 36(7) 94(18) Cotton 65(13) 216(42) Jamun 36(7) 154(30) Chilli 16(3) 149(29) Custard apple 65(13) 244(47) Tomato 16(3) 149(29) Tamarind 36(7) 153(30) Brinjal 94(18) 188(37) Mulberry 16(3) 230(45) Onion 94(18) 71(14) Marigold 16(3) 265(52) Bhendi 94(18) 188(37) Chrysanthemum 16(3) 265(52) Drumstick 36(7) 210(41) Jasmine 16(3) 149(29) Mango 36(7) 124(24) Crossandra 36(7) 176(34) Guava 20(4) 110(21)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 78 (57.35 %) men and 58 (42.65 %) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless' was 2.8, marginal farmers' was 4.2, small farmers' was 4.3, semi medium farmers' was 4 and medium farmers' was 4.5.  The data indicated that, 15 (11.03 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 51 (37.5 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (41.91 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (9.56 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Chukkanakallu-2 had 37.50 per cent illiterates, 34.56 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.35 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.29 per cent of them had high school education, 2.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.47 per cent of them had Diploma and degree education and 2.21 per cent of them had masters education.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.53 per cent of the household members, 67.65 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.47 per cent were in government service, 6.62 per cent were students and 0.74 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any of the institution.  The results indicate that 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 55.88 per cent of the households possess TV, 70.59 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.88 per cent of them possess bicycle, 32.35 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess auto and 67.65 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,515, mixer/grinder was Rs 1,875, bicycle was Rs 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 49,272, auto was Rs. 200,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,336.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and thresher, 52.94 per cent of them possess plough, 8.82 per cent of them possess sprayer, 52.94 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.94 per cent of them possess Cultivator.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 10,000, plough was Rs. 1,877, sprayer was Rs. 1,550, average value of weeder was Rs. 123, average value of thresher was 190 and the average value of Cultivator was Rs. 32.  The results indicate that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 14.71 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Buffalo. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.93, average own labour (women) available was 1.10, average hired labour (men) available and average hired labour (women) available was 15.86. The results indicate that, 85.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Chukkanakallu-2 micro-watershed possess 26.24 ha (72.73%) of dry land, 7.36 ha (20.39 %) of irrigated land and 2.48 ha (6.88%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 5.92 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.27 ha (78.85 %) of dry land, 0.81 ha (5.20 %) of irrigated land and 2.48 ha (15.95%). Semi medium farmers possess 8.05 ha (86.22 %) of dry land and 1.29 ha (13.78%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.26 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 350,462.68, the average value of irrigated land was Rs.230,968.10 and the average value of permanent fallow land Rs. 201,468.19. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 675,324.68 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 325,965.03 for dry land, Rs. 247,000 for irrigated land and Rs. 201,468.19 for permanent fallow land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 148,944.72 for dry land and Rs. 388,364.77 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, Rs.190,000 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning and de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 11.76 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.59 meters.  The results indicate that semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.29 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (22.36 ha), Bajra (7.36 ha), Sunflower (2.83 ha) and Wheat (3.34 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra and sunflower. Small farmers have grown maize, bajra and cowpea. Semi medium farmers have grown maize and bajra. Medium farmers have grown maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chukkanakallu-2 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 79.14 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.41 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank. 3  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 5,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operation.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 15704.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24107.32. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 8403.10. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 25491.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40617.78. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 15126.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 44628.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40066.01. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 4562.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 11809.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 25240.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.14.  The results indicate that, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 43,833.33 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 32,400, for small farmers it was Rs. 68,916.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 77,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 4,806.06. For landless households it was Rs. 7,666.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,346.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,751.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,104.17 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 16,250.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 coconut, 2 guava and 4 mango trees in their field and1 in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 22 teak, 50 neem and 1 tamarind trees in their field and also 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Bajra were sold to the extent of 79.17 per cent, cowpea were sold to the extent of 60 per cent, maize were sold to the extent of 98.33 per cent and sunflower were sold to the extent of 92.86 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 73.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market. The results indicated that 79.41 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. 4  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 76.47 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood, 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used Kerosene.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households and bore well was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 76.47 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 70.59 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 20.59 per cent, vegetables and egg were adequate for 14.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 44.12 per cent, milk was adequate for 17.65 per cent and meat was adequate for 8.82 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 11.76 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 70.59 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 41.18 per cent, milk were inadequate for 44.12 per cent and egg and meat was inadequate for 70.59 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, milk and egg were market surplus for 11.76 per cent and fruits and meat were market surplus for 14.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 76.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (79.41%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (20.59%), inadequacy of irrigation water and inadequate extension services (5.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.59%), high rate of interest on credit and low price for the agricultural commodities (8.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (23.53%), less rainfall (26.47%) and source of agri-technology information (14.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gajarakot-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 479 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 436 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 43 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 65 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (0.75%) in 87 per cent area.  9 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 58 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 25 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 76 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 11 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 82 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 73 (15) Guava - 22(4) Maize - 126(26) Sapota - 22(4) Bajra - 73(15) Pomegranate - 22(4) Groundnut - 55(11) Musambi - 22(4) Sunflower - 22(4) Lime - 22(4) Redgram - 22(4) Amla - 73(15) Bengal gram - 72(15) Cashew - - Cotton - 72(15) Jackfruit - 22(4) Chilli - 73(15) Jamun - - Tomato - 73(15) Custard apple 22(4) 51(11) Brinjal - 73(15) Tamarind - 22(4) Onion 0.02(<1) 72(15) Mulberry - - Bhendi 0.02(<1) 72(15) Marigold - 73(15) Drumstick - 22(4) Chrysanthemum - 73(15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.55%) men and 73 (43.45%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5.7 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.07%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (41.07%) were in 16-35 years of age, 54 (32.14%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.71%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Gajarakot-1 had 45.24 per cent illiterates, 17.26 per cent of them had primary school, 6.55 per cent of them had middle school, 15.48 per cent of them had high school education, 4.17 per cent of them had PUC and 4.76 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 11.43 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.45 per cent of the household members, 59.52 per cent were agricultural labourers, 20.24 per cent were in student, 0.60 per cent were housewives and 1 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 11.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.14 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 80 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 20 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess auto and tempo and 88.57 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,428, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,916, motor cycle was Rs. 40,428, auto was Rs. 30,000, tempo was Rs. 300,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,542.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart and weeder, 8.57 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, tractor and chaff cutter, 5.71 per cent of them possess sparyer and harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 23,750, plough was Rs. 9,000, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 20,000, tractor was Rs. 5000,000, sprayer was Rs. 5,000, weeder was Rs. 410, harvester was Rs. 266 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000. 2  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average hired labour (men) available was 6.37 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.80.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed possess 30.28 ha (87.06 %) of dry land and 4.50 ha (12.94%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.48 ha (95.44%) of dry land and 0.45 ha (4.56%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.34 ha (93.34%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (6.66%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 3.24 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 399,505.41 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 444,244.60. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 759,350.99 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 882,142.85. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 290,795.57 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 169,178.08 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 185,250 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.57 per cent of the farmers and 2.86 per cent of the households used open well.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.57 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.45 ha, 0.81 ha and 3.24 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (23.34 ha), cotton (6.24 ha), paddy (2.88 ha) and groundnut (2.1 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, cotton, paddy and groundnut. Small farmers have grown red gram, cotton and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and cotton. Medium farmers have grown red gram and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Gajarakot-1 micro-watershed was found to be 90.70 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 7.14 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 3.57 per cent of the households have cooperative bank and money lender and 14.29 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 29,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households unpaid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 16.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 39960.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54048.62. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 14087.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53471.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89194.59. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 35723.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 35900.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68864.55. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 32963.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 48228.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50750.66. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 2522.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 58,500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 104,993.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 134,750, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 198,750 and medium farmers it was Rs. 618,800. 4  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13,393.10. For landless households it was Rs. 4,055.56, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,833.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,192.71, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,687.50 and medium farmers it was Rs. 198,800.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 45 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 7 eucalyptus, 37 neem, 5 tamarind and 3 acacia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 171.43 for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that soft loan was the source of additional investment for 8.57 per cent for land development and 5.71 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 81.63 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 84.21 per cent and red gram to the extent of 87.38 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 68.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households used firewood and 11.43 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 77.14 per cent and 22.86 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 37.14 per cent, milk were adequate for 5 8.57 per cent, egg were adequate for 20 per cent and meat were adequate for 25.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, milk were inadequate for 74.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 77.14 per cent and meat were inadequate for 71.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and wild animal menace on farm field was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (31.43%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension service (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (34.29%), less rainfall (14.29%), and source of Agri-technology information (45.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Forest decline is nowadays a major challenge to management and sustainability of natural ecosystems worldwide. This syndrome is a multifactorial disease influenced by several biotic and abiotic agents such as alien invasive pathogens, changes in land use and management policies, population dynamics driven by economic and politic changes, and climatic perturbations. All these factors changing due to anthropogenic influence, together with others, conformed the so-called global change. Since the 1990's decade, the oak decline has been identified as one of the most important ecological problems in Europe, affecting deciduous and evergreen Quercus species from the continental forests on Central and North Europe, to temperate forests of the Mediterranean basin. In the case of Iberian Peninsula, holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) and cork oak (Quercus suber L.) decline has been detected since the 1980's decade. These two species covered most of the forest surface of the south and central part of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly through "dehesas" and "montados" formations. This area is considered to be one of the worst affected regions in the world by climate change, worsening the effects and the consequences of oak decline in "dehesas". "Dehesas" are Mediterranean savanah-like ecosystems, which provide several economic yields and ecological services. In turn, the holm oak is the most representative tree in the Iberian Peninsula, and the main species conforming the tree layer on the Spanish "dehesas". The loss of this tree layer is a major ecological and economical constraint. The holm oak decline is mainly associated to the action of soil-borne pathogens, especially Phytophtora cinnamomi. Despite the influence of other factors in the decline, there is a strong association between root rot caused by oomycetes and the death of trees. Phytophtora cinnamomi is an aggressive alien plant pathogen widely widespread worldwide, which has been associated with the disease, die-off and death in a large list of different plant hosts. It is able to change trophic relationships with their hosts, becaming biotroph in asymptomatic hosts and hemibiotroph or necrotroph in susceptible hosts. It is considered that holm oak is the most susceptible Quercus sp. to the action of this pathogen. Additionally, other Phytophthora spp. and Pythium spp. have been recorded associated with the holm oak decline in Spain, Portugal, Italy and France. Many scientific efforts have focused to study this important hostpathogen system, obtaining great results and increasing the knowledge of the causes and effects of the interaction, improving management techniques to limit the spread and the symptoms. However, most of the reviewed works are based on empirical approaches, being the underlying mechanisms regulating the interaction between both species mostly unknown. This PhD Thesis covers part of this lack of basic knowledge, focusing on the host-pathogen interaction at histological and physiological level, and exploring the influence of the soil biota in the severity of the disease symptoms. For this purpose, the work was structured in seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides the framework in which the present PhD Thesis has been developed, and the general and specific objectives. Chapter 2 presents the methodology developed to evaluate the colonization and infection of Phytophthora cinnamomi in Quercus ilex seedling through the semi-automated quantification of pathogen structures present in histological sections of fine roots. A workflow was tuned-up testing different fixing solutions, embedding substances and staining methods, and the results allowed the clear differentiation of pathogen structures from host tissues. Furthermore, different indices based on structure location, host tissue classification and specificity of pathogen structures were evaluated to find the easiest and statistically robust indices that are able to explain the progress of the oomycete into the root. In chapter 3, inoculation experiments in growth chamber were carried out to describe the pathogenesis of the Quercus ilex-Phytophthora cinnamomi interaction. Longitudinal sections were analysed for epidermal, cortex, parenchymatous tissue of central cylinder and vascular tissue after 1, 3, 7 and 14 days after inoculation. Total oomycete structures area, intracellular structures area, extracellular structures area, and specific structures area of the pathogen were quantified. The analysis of these data results in the description of the colonization/infection cycle of the pathogen, classified in three different stages related with their trophic behaviour. Moreover, histological changes of the root tissues as a result of the presence of defence responses and the action of the pathogen were described. In Chapter 4, the differential responses of holm oak seedlings to the inoculation with P. cinnamomi, the acute drought and combination of both stressors were assessed. Six-months old seedlings were inoculated and mock-inoculated, and half of each inoculation treatment plans were subjected to acute drought meanwhile the others were well irrigated. Photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and fluorescence were measured weekly, and total biomass and biomass allocation parameters were quantified at the end of the experiment. The resulting data showed differences in the response of seedlings to drought and inoculation, and the influence of the additive effect of both stressors in the seedlings die-off. In Chapter 5, soil samples of "dehesas" were collected and total DNA was extracted and analysed through metabarcoding techniques, to evaluate the specific composition and diversity of the fungal and oomycete communities, and to study their relationship with the disease symptoms. The fungal community included a wide range of pathogens and abundance of ectomycorrhizal key taxa. Phytophthora spp. dominated the oomycete community, but the species related to root rot did not appear as the most abundant, nor were they related directly to defoliation levels. A particular Operational Taxonomic Unit (OTU) belonging to the genus Trichoderma was strongly correlated with the scarcity of pathogenic Phytophthora spp. The differences in defoliation were related to changes in the functionality of soil microbiota and diversity levels of pathogenic species. Chapter 6 presents the general discussion of the Thesis, including some aspects limiting the results of the works carried out, ad new work lines deriving from this Thesis, and finally Chapter 7 contains the conclusions of the work. Changes in roots as a consequence of P. cinnamomi inoculation, including defence responses, and the differential response identified with pathogen colonization/inoculation, leads to new insights about the causes of tree death. Holm oak responds to the attack of the pathogen, and their physiological changes differ from the ones caused by water stress, allowing the recovery of plants if no additional stress is present. Moreover, the study of soil microbiome in declined "dehesas" showed the influence of the microbial diversity in the health status of trees, and also presented new species of oomycetes and fungi that must be considered in the management of holm oak decline in Andalusian "dehesas". ; El decaimiento forestal es hoy en día uno de los mayores desafíos para el manejo y la sostenibilidad de los ecosistemas naturales en todo el mundo. Dicho síndrome es una enfermedad multifactorial en la que intervienen diversos agentes bióticos y abióticos como los patógenos invasores, los cambios en los usos del territorio y las políticas de recursos, o las perturbaciones climáticas. El cambio producido en todos estos factores debido a la influencia del hombre entre otros motivos es lo que se ha dado en llamar cambio global. Desde la década de los 90 del siglo XX, el decaimiento de los robles se ha identificado como uno de los problemas ecológicos más relevantes en Europa, afectando a masas de Quercus caducifolios y perennifolios desde los bosques continentales de Centro Europa y Norte Europa, hasta los bosques templados de la cuenca mediterránea. En el caso de la Península Ibérica, el decaimiento de la encina (Quercus ilex L.) y el alcornoque (Quercus suber L.) se identificó en los años 80 del siglo XX. Estas dos especies cubren la mayor parte de la superficie forestal del sur y centro de la Península Ibérica, principalmente formando sistemas de dehesa y "montados". Dicha área geográfica está considerada como una de las regiones a nivel mundial que se verán peor afectadas por el cambio climático, lo que agravaría las consecuencias y los efectos del decaimiento de la encina en las dehesas. Las dehesas son ecosistemas mediterráneos semejantes a la sabana, que proveen de diversos beneficios económicos y servicios ambientales. Por su parte, la encina es el árbol más representativo de la Península Ibérica, y la especie principal del estrato arbóreo de las dehesas. La pérdida de este estrato es un problema ecológico y económico de gran relevancia. El decaimiento de la encina está asociado principalmente a la acción de patógenos de suelo, especialmente Phytophthora cinnamomi. Sin olvidar la influencia de otros factores en el síndrome, existe una fuerte asociación entre la podredumbre radicular causada por los oomicetos y la muerte del arbolado. Phytophthora cinnamomi es un patógeno invasor muy agresivo, ampliamente distribuido por todo el mundo, que ha sido asociado con la enfermedad, la decadencia y la mortalidad de una larga lista de diferentes especies vegetales. Es una especie capaz de cambiar su relación trófica con el huésped, comportándose como un organismo biótrofo en huéspedes asintomáticos, y como hemibiótrofo ó necrótrofo en huéspedes susceptibles. Se considera que la encina es la especie del género Quercus más susceptible a la acción del patógeno. De forma adicional, otras especies de los géneros Phytophthora y Pythium se han encontrado asociadas con el decaimiento de la encina en España, Portugal, Italia y Francia. Para estudiar este sistema patógeno-huésped se han llevado a cabo grandes esfuerzos científicos, que han obtenido resultados muy meritorios y han incrementado el conocimiento de las causas y los efectos de la interacción, mejorando las técnicas de gestión para limitar la dispersión y los síntomas del decaimiento. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los trabajos revisados se basaron en aproximaciones empíricas, desconociéndose gran parte de los mecanismos subyacentes que controlan la interacción entre las dos especies. Esta Tesis cubre parte de esta falta de conocimiento básico, centrándose en la interacción entre el huésped y el patógeno a nivel histológico y fisiológico, así como explorando la influencia de la biota del suelo en la severidad de los síntomas de la enfermedad. Para dicho propósito, el trabajo se estructuró en 7 capítulos. El Capítulo 1 proporciona el marco teórico en el que se desarrolla esta Tesis Doctoral, así como los objetivos generales y específicos. El Capítulo 2 muestra la metodología desarrollada para evaluar la colonización e infección de Phytophthora cinnamomi en plántulas de Quercus ilex a través de la cuantificación semiautomática de las estructuras del patógeno presentes en secciones histológicas de raíces finas. El flujo de trabajo fue puesto a punto probando diferentes soluciones de fijación, sustancias de inclusión y métodos de tinción, y los resultados permitieron la diferenciación clara de las estructuras del patógeno y de los tejidos del huésped. Además, distintos índices basados en la localización y especificidad de las estructuras del patógeno y en el tejido del huésped, se evaluaron con el fin de buscar la manera más sencilla y estadísticamente robusta de explicar el progreso del oomiceto en la raíz a través de índices. En el capítulo 3, se llevaron a cabo experimentos en cámara de crecimiento para describir la patogénesis de la interacción entre P. cinnamomi y Q. ilex. Se analizaron secciones longitudinales de epidermis, córtex, tejido parenquimático del cilindro central y tejido vascular, a los 1, 3, 7 y 14 días después de la inoculación. Se cuantificó el área total de estructuras, estructuras intracelulares, estructuras extracelulares y estructuras específicas del patógeno. El análisis de estos datos proporcionó una descripción del ciclo de colonización/infección del patógeno, clasificada en tres etapas diferentes relacionadas con su comportamiento trófico. Asimismo se describieron los cambios histológicos resultantes de la presencia del patógeno o de las respuestas desencadenadas por la planta. En el capítulo 4 se analizó la respuesta diferencial de plántulas de encina ante la inoculación con P. cinnamomi, ante la sequía severa y ante ambos estreses combinados. Plántulas de seis meses de edad fueron inoculados y sometidos a falsa inoculación, y la mitad de cada uno de estos tratamientos fue sometida a sequía severa, mientras que el resto fue regada de manera óptima. Semanalmente se midieron los valores de fotosíntesis, conductancia estomática y fluorescencia, y la biomasa total así como la compartimentación de la biomasa fueron cuantificadas al final del experimento. Los datos resultantes mostraron la existencia de diferencias en la respuesta de las plántulas ante la sequía y la inoculación, así como el efecto aditivo de ambos estreses en la muerte de las plántulas. En el Capítulo 5 se colectaron muestras de suelo de dehesas y se extrajo el ADN total, que se analizó a través de técnicas de metabarcoding, con el fin de evaluar la composición específica y la diversidad de las comunidades fúngica y de oomicetos, y para estudiar sus relaciones con los síntomas de la enfermedad. La comunidad fúngica presentó una gran variedad de patógenos y abundancia de taxones clave de ectomicorrizas. Phytophthora spp. apareció como el taxón dominante dentro de la comunidad de oomicetos, pero las principales especies relacionadas con la podredumbre radicular no fueron las más abundantes, ni presentaron relación directa con los niveles de defoliación. Una unidad taxonómica operacional (OTU) particular, perteneciente al género Trichoderma, presentó correlaciones significativas con la escasez de especies patógenas de Phytophthora spp. Las diferencias en defoliación se correlacionaron con cambios en la funcionalidad de la microbiota del suelo y con los niveles de diversidad de las especies patógenas. El Capítulo 6 presenta la discusión general de la Tesis, incluyendo algunos aspectos que limitan los resultados de los trabajos realizados, y nuevas líneas de trabajo que se derivan de esta Tesis, y finalmente, el Capítulo 7 contiene las conclusiones del trabajo. Los cambios que se producen en la raíz a consecuencia de la inoculación con P. cinnamomi, incluyendo las respuestas defensivas, así como la respuesta diferencial identificada con la colonización/infección, conducen a nuevas apreciaciones sobre la causa de la muerte del arbolado. La encina responde al ataque del patógeno, presentando variaciones en la fisiología diferentes de las causadas por el estrés hídrico, las cuales permiten la recuperación de las plantas si no se superpone un estrés adicional a la inoculación. Adicionalmente, el estudio del microbioma del suelo en dehesas con decaimiento del encinar mostró la influencia de la diversidad microbiana en el estado sanitario del arbolado, así como mostró nuevas especies de oomicetos y hongos que deben tenerse en consideración en el manejo del decaimiento de las dehesas de encina en Andalucía.

W artykule przyglądam się temu, jaką edukację polityczną warto rozwijać we współczesnej polskiej szkole i wszędzie tam, gdzie buduje się w ludziach zdolność do wspólnej i niewyalienowanej pracy. Kierunek rozważań wyznaczyła konieczność ustosunkowania się myśli pedagogicznej – i równoległego dostosowania praktyk wychowawczych – do zmian w sposobie koordynacji społeczeństwa, które dokonują się w atmosferze groźby wybuchu wojny. Rozważania te buduję na dotychczasowych badaniach własnych z obszaru uczenia się w ruchach społecznych, analizując trzy porządki zapewniające koordynację społeczeństw (neoliberalizm, nacjonalizm, militaryzm) w kontekście wykluczanych przez nie wartości: dobra wspólnego, samorządu i pokoju. Rezultatem pracy jest matryca przyporządkowująca te kontrwartości różnym typom współpracy (koordynacji, kooperacji i kolaboracji). Matryca pozwala identyfikować specyfikę konkretnych przykładów mobilizacji społecznej, jak i rozpoznawać luki w kształceniu kolektywnych umiejętności współdziałania. Rezultaty analizy pozwalają zoperacjonalizować praktyki oporu pod kątem celów wychowania i stawiają w nowym świetle problemy powiązań i nawarstwiania się wrogich szkole ideologii neoliberalizmu, nacjonalizmu i militaryzmu. ; The paper analyses types of political education worth developing in contemporary Polish schools and in other places dedicated to building human capacity to work together in a non-alienated way. The analysis is based on my own research from the area of learning in social movements. I analyze three orders ensuring social coordination (neoliberalism, nationalism, and militarism) in the context of the values they exclude: the common good, self-government and peace. The result of the work is a matrix assigning these counter-values, accordingly, to coordination, cooperation and collaboration. 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La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la La relación entre el emprendimiento, la globalización y la libertad económica ha vuelto a situarse en el centro del debate acerca de la contribución de la globalización sobre el desarrollo económico de las economías modernas. Tras experimentar décadas de una excepcionalmente fuerte globalización, el mundo está asistiendo a un resurgimiento del proteccionismo. Esta tendencia no solo está afectando a los acuerdos de libre comercio sino también a la integración económica que se había alcanzado en algunas áreas como la de la Unión Europea. En este contexto, las empresas menos competitivas y los desempleados con menor empleabilidad, son grupos que tratan de ejercer su poder de influencia sobre las instituciones y votar a opciones políticas que incorporen las preocupaciones de estos grupos (por ejemplo acciones proteccionistas o de endurecimiento de la política migratoria. La consecuencias de este proceso son una de las cuestiones calientes de la agenda de actuación política en el momento actual tras la Gran Recesión, dado que algunas industrias y grupos de población culpan a la globalización de ser la causa última de sus problemas y presionan para provocar una vuelta al proteccionismo y a la contención de los flujos migratorios, Para ellos, la expansión de la eficiencia y productividad que parecía prometerse como asociada a ia globalización parece no estar garantizada si las diferencias entre las instituciones de as diferentes naciones alteran la productividad y competitividad relativa. Así, podríamos argumentar que el ecosistema empresarial, esto es, el conjunto de instituciones para el desarrollo de los negocios es el principal determinante no solo de la contribución del entrepreneurship al crecimiento económico sino también a la creación de empleo e innovación. Por tanto la libertad económica en sus diferentes dimensiones (tales como el imperio de la ley, la eficiencia regulatoria, y en especial la libertad de empresa, las instituciones del Mercado de trabajo y el grado de integración de la economía (grado de apertura comercial) y el peso de 1 sector público, pueden ser considerados factores clave para determinar si una sociedad es "empresarial" o no. La única forma de resolver este tipo de controversias es proporcionar sólidas proposiciones y hallazgos empíricos para evaluar los efectos de la globalización sobre el crecimiento económico, la innovación, la creación del empleo y el entrepreneurship. En este contexto, el estudio de la relación entre la integración económica y el entrepreneurship es especialmente interesante, dado que el entrepreneurship es un determinante principal del desarrollo económico. En principio, la relación entre la globalización, la libertad económica y el entrepreneurship es ambigua, dado que podríamos encontrar explicaciones tanto para esperar relaciones bidireccionales y de diferente signo. Por un lado, y con respecto a la relación entre el entrepreneurship y la integración económica, podríamos suponer que la integración abre nuevas oportunidades de beneficio, propicia el aumento de las escalas gracias a la extensión de la demanda potencial que emerge gracias a la entrada en nuevos mercados. Desde esta perspectiva, más apertura es un factor positive no solo para promocionar el entrepreneurship sino también para aumentar la probabilidad de supervivencia y éxito. Por otra parte la globalización, aumenta la intensidad de la competencia pero también las oportunidadesde empleo asalariado en el sector exportador hacienda que aumenten las transiciones desde el autoempleo al empleo asalariado., al menos entre ios empresarios marginales. Así a medida que la competencia global se intensifica, las empresas y empresarios más ineficientes cerrarán. Por otra parte a medida que aumenta la exposición a la competencia internacional, un menor número de ocupados eran autoempleados, tal y como el modelo de Diez and Ozdagli sugiere. Además, deberíamos considerar cómo todo este proceso afecta a la productividad del autoempleo es decir, a la distribución relativa del entrepreneurship entre autoempleo formal e informal. Sin embargo, la cuestión clave pasa por conocer si el efecto de una mayor exposición al comercio internacional, genera una reasignación óptima del trabajo entre el empleo y el autoempleo y entre las empresas menos productivas y las más productivas que contribuya al crecimiento económico la innovación y el empleo. Por tanto, el reto es proporcional evidencia empírica que arroje nueva luz acerca a este debate y a las actitudes hacia la globalización. Para lograr este objetivo, es importante no solo conocer los efectos de una mayor apertura sobre la intensidad exportadora del autoempleo sino también conocer si este proceso es mutuamente beneficioso tanto para los países más y menos desarrollaodos. Para abordar estas cuestiones esta tesis aborda una segunda cuestión de investigación. Una indagación sobre las razón del porqué los efectos de la globalización sobre el sector empresarial se abordan solo de manera cuantitativa y no también de forma cualitativa. En concreto, trataremos de proporcionar nueva evidencia empírica sobre la base de la aportación teórica de Acs and Sanders (2007). Para ellos la globalización no solo no destruye autoempleo sino que promoeve el modelo de producción entrepreneurial, con una trabnsición desde grandes corporaciones a pequeñas configuraciones empresariales (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) lo que se traduce en una reducción del tamaño medio gracias a las nuevas oportunidades en el sector servicio que ha aparecido gracias al desarrollo de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación (ICT), dos factores que probablemente se encuentren detrás de la sorprendente evolución de las tasas de autoempleo en los países más desarrollados. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) refuerzan esta idea al sugerir que la globalización y el desarrollo del sector ICT han supuesto una nueva división internacional del trabajo en la que las economías más avanzadas son ahora entrepreneurial driven, con más trabajadores de altos skills especializados en los procesos de innovación mientras que los países menos desarrollados y emergentes y con trabajadores menos cualificados se especializan en las etapas de la producción que han sido offshored. En definitiva, esta tesis tratará de analizar el triángulo entre entrepreneurship, globalización y libertad económica para ofrecer una mejor comprensión del cómo y el porqué de la contribución del sector empresarial nacional al crecimiento, la innovación y el empleo con diferente intensidad y características. ; The interplay between entrepreneurship and globalization and economic freedom backs into at the heart of the debate about self-employment contributions to the economic development of modem economies. After experienced a process of exceptionally strong globalization, the world is witnessing to an upsurge of protectionism. This new trend is threating not only free trade agreements but also the levels of economic integration achieved in some economic areas like the European Union. In this framework the less competitive firms and unemployed with low employability, are groups that will treat to lobby and to vote political options that incorporate the concerns of these groups (i.e. protectionist actions like less trade openness and restrictive migration policies. The consequences of this process are a hot policy issue at the time of writing after the great recession, since some industries and large sectors of the population considers globalisation as the ultimate cause of their problems, and advocate by any return to protection for national business and domestic employees against foreign firms and migrant workers. For them, the expected promotion of efficiency and productivity associated to globalisation is not guaranteed if the differences between institutions across countries alter the relative productivity and competitiveness. Thus, one could argue that the entrepreneurship ecosystem i.e. the institutional framework for business is the main determinant of the capacity of contribution of entrepreneurship to economic growth, job creation and innovation. Therefore, the economic freedom in its different dimensions, such as the rule of law, the regulatory efficiency and in especial business freedom and labor market institutions, the degree of integration into the global economy -i.e. the openness to trade- and the weight of the public sector on the overall economy might be considered as key factors, for determining whether a society is an entrepreneurial one or not The only way to resolve this type of controversies is providing solid economic propositions and empirical findings in order to evaluate the globalisation impact on economic growth, innovation, job creation and entrepreneurship. In this context, the study of the relationship between economic integration and entrepreneurship is particularly interesting, since entrepreneurship is a determinant of economic growth and job creation. In principle, the relationship between globalization, economic freedom and entrepreneurship is ambiguous, since one can argue that we can find plausible explanations for expecting both a positive and a negative relationship. Starting with the relation between entrepreneurship and economic integration, we all agree in that economic integration opens new business opportunities and encourages the self-employed firm size, since sales to foreign markets expands the potential demand. From this perspective, more trade openness is a positive factor not only for fostering entrepreneurship but also for enhancing the probability of survival and success. On the other hand, globalization increases the intensity of competition the opportunities of jobs and wages in the export sector leading a raise in the number self-employed workers due to the confluence of two phenomena: i) as global competition continuous to intensify some of them, the less competitive ones, could not withstand this competition, thus triggering the shutdown; ii) the greater the exposure to foreign competition, the smaller the fraction of self-employed people as the Diez and Ozdagli's (2011) model suggest. In addition we should also consider whether more openness influences on the relative distribution of entrepreneurship between productive and unproductive activities, i.e. between the so-called formal and informal self-employment. However, the key question is to know whether the effect of a higher exposure to international trade, leads, in any case, an optimal reallocation of labour between paid-employment and self-employment and between less productive firms to more productive exporters, and even across countries with positive effects on economic growth, innovation and job creation. Thus, the challenge is to provide empirical findings in order to shed light to the debate and attitudes towards globalization. To this end it is important to know the effects of more trade openness on the export intensity of self- employment is mutually beneficial, not only for higher-income countries but also for lower-income countries. In order to address these questions this dissertation also includes a second research question. In particular it presents an inquiry about the reasons of why the effects of globalization on national self-employed sectors should be analyzed not only in quantitative terms but also in qualitative ones. In particular we will treat to provide empirical findings for supporting the theoretical view of the effects of globalization on national entrepreneurial systems, provided by Acd and Sanders (2007). For them, globalization does not destroy self-employment but encourage the entrepreneurial model of production (Acs and Sanders, 2007. The shift away from large corporations and towards smaller entrepreneurial activity (Acs and Audretsch, 1993; van Stel, 2006) with the associated reduction in the average self-employed firm size, as well as the new business opportunities in the service sector for entrepreneurship thanks to the improvements in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are the two potential factors behind this surprising performance of the self-employment rate. Audretsch and Sanders (2007) reinforce this idea suggesting that globalization and the development of the ICT sector are leading a new international division of work, the advanced economies endowed with high skilled workers are specialized in early stages of the product life cycle introducing innovations in products or process, while the less developed economies endowed with low skilled workers are specialized in the off-shored production stage. In sum, this dissertation will treat to analyse the triangle entrepreneurship, globalization economic freedom, for providing a better understanding how and why the contribution of a national self-employed sector on economic growth, innovation and job creation can show different intensities.

Hushållens bidrag av tvättvatten från textiltvätt till de kommunala avloppsreningsverken uppskattas till ca 2% av det totala volymflödet. Registerdata över kemikalier som används vid tillverkning av textilier/kläder samt analyser av tvättvatten visar att textilfibrer, mikroplastfibrer och många miljöstörande ämnen når våra reningsverk via textiltvätt. Dessa fibrer och kemiska ämnen kan bidra till förorening av avloppsreningsslam som används för gödsling av åkermark eller av vattenmiljö nedströms reningsverken. Ett av Sveriges miljömål är En Giftfri Miljö och dess delmål innefattar bl.a. information om farliga ämnen i varor (Ds 2012:23). Textilier är en av de varugrupper som Miljömålberedningen föreslagit (SOU 2012:38) bli föremål för ett regeringsuppdrag avseende innehåll av farliga ämnen och riskbegränsande åtgärder samt frivillig miljömärkning. I det svenska miljömålsystemet ingår också generationsmål om att materialkretsloppen skall vara så fria från farliga ämnen som möjligt och att våra konsumtionsmönster av varor ska ge så små hälso- och miljöproblem som möjligt även i varornas tillverkningsländer utanför Sverige. Generationsmålet innebär att svensk politik behöver ta hänsyn till den miljö- och hälsopåverkan som svensk konsumtion orsakar i andra länder. EU:s ramdirektiv för avfall (2008/96/EG) har vidare slagit fast en avfallshierarki som sätter återanvändning av uttjänta varor, t. ex. kläder, före materialåtervinning av avfall. Syfte Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka i vilken utsträckning som vattentvätt av fem klädtyper (t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, bomullsjeans, arbetsbyxor, fleecetröjor samt allvädersjackor) bidrar till förekomsten av miljögifter i slam samt i utgående vatten från representativt utvalda svenska reningsverk. Utförande Kläder av fem olika klädtyper, enligt specifikation från naturvårdsverket (baserat på en tidigare studie av Swerea) köptes in från affärer i Umeå under januari 2014. Det var 8 st t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, 3 st bomullsjeans, 2 st arbetsbyxor, 8 st fleecetröjor samt 3 st allvädersjackor. Kläderna tvättades i en vanlig tvättmaskin 2 gånger efter varandra utan att torka mellan och allt tvättvatten samlades upp. Delprov av tvättvattnet togs ut och analyserades för 126 utvalda ämnena på tre olika laboratorier (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). Ämnena var processkemikalier såsom pentaklorfenol, och triklosan, funktionskemikalier såsom ftalater och organofosfater samt oönskade kemikalier såsom dioxiner, klorfenoler och klorbensener. 2 Resultat Studien visar på att det mängdmässigt främst är funktionskemikalier som släpper från kläderna vid tvätt. Det här var väntat då dessa kemikalier är avsiktligt och oftast inte kemiskt bundet till tyget. Processkemikalier avges i mindre mängd och oönskade kemikalier såsom till exempel klorerade fenoler och bensener hittades i väldigt små mängder i tvättvattnet oavsett vilken typ av klädesplagg som tvättats. Vare sig processkemikalierna eller de oönskade kemikalierna borde finnas i plaggen och därför var det väntat att dessa kemikalier inte skulle hittas i samma utsträckning som funktionskemikalierna. Om man ser till detektionsfrekvensen, d.v.s. hur ofta de ämnen som ingår i en ämnesklass påträffas, blir bilden delvis en annan. Mer än 75% av de funktionskemikalier (38 av 50), ca 50% av funktionskemikalierna (26 av 49) och ca. 30% av processkemikalierna (8 av 27) detekterades i tvättvattenproverna. T-tröjor och skaljackorna var de klädtyper som avgav störst mängd kemikalier per kg 47 mg/kg (0.005% w/w) för t-tröjor följt av 23 mg/kg (0.002% w/w) för skaljackor. Jeans, arbetsbyxor och fleecetröjor släppte mycket mindre mängd kemikalier 0.001, 0.001 and 0.0005% vid tvätt till tvättvattnet. De fem klädtyperna släppte alla bisfenol AF, organofosfater, ftalater, formaldehyd, bromerade och klorerade fenoler samt klorerade bensener till tvättvattnet vid de två första tvättarna. Några föreningar som inte kunde detekteras i tvättvattnet var 4 stycken siloxaner, 9 stycken olika aniliner och majoriteten av de 17 dioxinerna och furanerna som ingick i studien. T-tröjor släppte mer textilfibrer (0,85 mg/kg) jämfört med de andra klädtyperna. De andra klädtyperna släppte betydlig mindre fibrer vid tvätt: jeans 0,46 mg/kg, skaljackor 0,02 mg/kg, arbetsbyxor 0,07 mg/kg och fleecetröjor 0,1 mg/kg. Diskussion Om man tar hänsyn till den årliga användningsvolymen av de olika klädestyperna avger t-tröjorna den största mängden kemikalier (469 kg funktionella kemikalier, 0,5 kg processkemikalier och 0,07 kg oönskade kemikalier) vid de två första tvättarna av plaggen. Arbetsbyxor var den klädestyp som släppte minst kemikalier (30 kg funktionella kemikalier, 7 kg processkemikalier och 0,9 g oönskade kemikalier). Ftalater och organofosfater frigjordes i stora mängder från kläderna (302 kg och 7,6 kg) och bidrar med 50% respektive 5% vardera till vad som återfinns i utgående vatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken. Klorfenoler och perfluorerade ämnen frigjordes i betydligt mindre mängder (430 g och 300 g) men bidrar i teorin med mer (167% respektive 223%) än vad som återfinns i utgåendevatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken för respektive grupp, vilket är orealistiskt. Brister i dataunderlaget eller degradering av föroreningar i reningsprocessen kan vara möjliga orsaker till överskattningen. Det är dock klart att tvätt av kläder ger ett betydande bidrag till vad som återfinns i reningsverksvatten och slam. 3 Slutsatser Kemikalier som är förbjudna enligt t ex Reach ska naturligtvis inte förekomma i kläder. Trots det så hittas de ändå ibland vid inspektion. Det är ett stort problem eftersom kemikalierna fortfarande kan vara lagliga att använda i visa länder. Exempelvis är det förbjudet att använda arylaminer inom EU, ändå återfinner vi en av dessa 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane i tvättvatten från alla typer av kläder i denna studie. Idag sker produktion av kläder över hela världen och det är svårt att få information om vilka kemikalier som har använts för ett visst plagg. Denna spårbarhet skulle behöva förbättras. I den här studien har vi hittat 72 av 126 föreningar, alla icke-naturliga föreningar, i tvättvattnet. De föreningar som frigjordes i störst mängder till tvättvattnet i den här studien var BPS, ftalater (DBP, BBP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organofosfater (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) och formaldehyd. Med hänsyn taget till nettotillförseln av nya kläder kommer den mängden kemikalier på årlig basis som avges från nya kläder som tvättas de två första gångerna att vara betydande. Även om en del av de föreningar som avges från kläderna kommer att brytas ner under behandlingen av avloppsvattnet i avloppsreningsverken så kommer många av dem att hamna i det utgående vattnet eller i slammet. Dessa kommer hamna i recipienten eller där slam används för att tillföra näringsämnen. Fortsatt arbete För att få en ännu bättre bild av hur mycket kemikalier som frigörs från kläder vid tvätt skulle det vara intressant att studera fler klädtyper. Det skulle också vara av intresse att analysera kläderna i sig för att kunna avgöra hur stor andel av det som finns i kläderna som avges vid tvätt, men också vad som finns kvar i kläderna när de så småningom blir textilavfall. Slutligen skulle det vara intressant att genom så kallad "non-target analysis" av både kläder och tvättvatten få veta vilka andra föreningar som förekommer i både kläder och tvättvatten. Rätt använt skulle "non-target anaysis" kunna fånga upp ett brett spektrum av kemikalier och ge en "totalbild" av substansflödet från textilier, via tvättvatten och reningsverk, till olika recipienter. ; Water from household laundry has been estimated to make up about 2% of the total volume flowing into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Records of the chemicals used in the manufacture of textiles/clothing and analyses of both washed clothes and laundry wastewater indicate that a large number of environmentally harmful substances can potentially reach treatment plants. These substances, including fibers and micro plastics fromlaundry, may contribute to the pollution of sewage sludge used for fertilization of arable land, or pollute the receiving waters downstream of wastewater treatment plants. Textiles are one of the groups of consumer goods that the Environmental Objectives Committee proposed (SOU 2012: 38) be subject to a government mandate regarding the use of hazardous chemicals, environmental risk reduction measures and voluntary eco-labeling. The government has also decided (Ds 2012: 23) on interim measures aimed at removing toxic material from the environment, including providing information on hazardous substances in clothing. The Swedish environmental objectives system also includes the so-called "Generation target", that states that material life cycles should be as free as possible from hazardous substances and that consumption of goods should produce as few health and environmental problems as possible, including in all the countries where they were manufactured. The Generation target means that the Swedish government needs to take into account environmental and health impacts that Swedish consumption may cause in other countries. The EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/96 / EC) defines a waste hierarchy that puts the recycling of old products, such as clothing, before the recycling of waste. This study may inform those working on developing such directives. Aim The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which laundering of five types of clothing (cotton t-shirts, cotton jeans, work trousers, fleece sweaters and weatherproof jackets) contributes to the presence of toxic pollutants in sludge and effluent water from a representative sample of treatment plants. Experimental The choice of clothing was based on the study "Kartläggning av kemikalieanvändning i kläder" (Swerea IVF, Report 09/52) and were purchased in Umeå during January 2014. The different categories of clothing were washed twice in a washing machine, without drying them in between and all wastewater was collected from the washer. Immediately after washing, samples of this water were transferred into 2 L glass containers and were analyzed for 126 compounds by three different laboratories (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). 5 Results The results show that the main types of chemicals that were released when the clothing was washed, regardless of the type of clothing, were process and functional chemicals. This was expected since functional chemicals are added to the garment and are usually not chemically bonded to the fabric, whilst the process chemicals should not be present in the final product at all. Chemicals belonging to the group unwanted chemicals were released in very small amounts to the wastewater whatever type of clothing washed. The functional chemicals represented 30 % of the analyzed target compounds but accounted for up to 99% (for t-shirts) of the release when the clothing was washed. The lowest contribution of functional chemicals to the total release of chemicals was from weatherproof jackets. Process chemicals dominated those released from weatherproof jackets (90%) and fleece sweaters (72%); for working pants, the contribution was 41%. The unwanted chemicals were present in much lower amounts in the laundry wastewater than the functional and process chemicals: they represented 1% or less of the chemicals detected. T-shirts is estimated to release the largest amount of chemicals (469 kg functional chemicals, 0.5 kg process chemicals and 0.07 kg unwanted chemicals) based on the yearly net supply and the first two washing cycles. Fleece sweaters released the least amount of chemicals; 1.8 kg functional chemicals, 2.9 kg process chemicals and 3 g unwanted chemicals. Phthalates, DINCH (a phthalate substitute), bisphenols, formaldehyde, and organophosphates were the groups of chemicals estimated to be released in largest amounts from the five types of clothing included in the study, contributing 47%, 25%, 12%, 12%, and 3%, respectively, to the total amount. Based on the yearly net supply of clothing included in this study, the estimated release of textile fibers varies between 100 kg for fleece sweaters up to 8,500 kg for t-shirts. T-shirts released 0.85 mg fibers per kg, jeans released 0.46 mg/kg, weatherproof jackets 0.02 mg/kg, working pants 0.07 mg/kg and fleece sweaters 0.1 mg/kg. Discussion Phthalates and organophosphates were estimated to be released in large amounts (302 kg and 7.6 kg) contribute with 50% and 5% respectively to the amounts found in effluents from wastewater treatment plants. Chlorophenols and perfluorinated compounds were estimated to be released in very low amounts (430 g and 300 g respectively). This is however still more, 167% and 223% respectively, than what is found annually in the effluents and sewage sludge of all Swedish WWTPs. The estimated contribution to sewage sludge for the different compound classes was far higher than the calculated contribution to effluent. The estimation produced a contribution figure of over 100% for some compound groups. Short chain chloroparaffins and chlorophenols were estimated to contribute to the amount found in sewage sludge to such a large degree that it exceeded what is actually found in the sewage sludge. Chlorophenols are distributed between both effluent and sewage sludge, but reference data was only found for sludge, so this could be the reason for the overestimation of the amount that ends up in the sewage sludge. It can also not be excluded that the selection of clothing was not representative of what is on the market. 6 Conclusions Chemicals that are banned according to legislation such as Reach should, in principle, not be present in clothing. Even so, they are sometimes found during inspections of manufacturing facilities and analyses of clothing. This is a large problem since the use of a chemical can be banned in some countries but not in others. Arylamines are, for example, forbidden within the EU, but one of those 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane could still be detected in all types of clothing. Now, the clothing that we wear comes from all over the world, and it is difficult to find information on which chemicals have been used in its production since that can take place in many different countries. This tractability needs to be improved. In this study, we detected 72 out of 126 compounds that are non-naturally occurring compounds, in the laundry wastewater. Among the compound groups that could not be detected were anilines, triclosan, triclocarban, and siloxanes. The compounds released in large amounts into the laundry wastewater in this study were the process chemical bisphenol S (BPS), and the functional chemicals phthalates (DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organophosphates (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) and formaldehyde. Considering the net supply of new clothing to Sweden, the estimated annual contribution of the release of such compounds from new clothing being washed for the first time will be substantial. Even though some of these chemicals will be degraded during the treatment process in the WWTP, many of them will end up in effluent or sewage sludge and, to different degrees, contribute to the compounds that risk ending up in WWTPs or where nutrients are recycled from sewage sludge. Future work To obtain a better picture of the volume of chemicals flowing to the WWTPs and, potentially, the environment, originating from the laundering of clothing, it would be of interest to study the release of chemicals from a broader range of clothing types. It would also be interesting to include analysis of the fabric to see what proportion of chemicals are released during laundry, and what proportion remain and are then potentially released during later washing or enter the textile waste stream. It would also be of great interest to carry out non-target analysis on both the textiles and the wastewater to form an even broader picture of which chemicals are present in the textiles and the wastewater.

La producción de conocimiento a través de la investigación académica está siendo cada vez más exigida y cuestionada, en un entorno de crisis socio-económica e institucional generalizada de la Universidad. Por su parte, la investigación académica se ve exigida para dar respuesta a las presiones y necesidades del entorno, concretamente a las prioridades de las organizaciones productivas y del mercado. Al mismo tiempo, la investigación en gestión, contabilidad y finanzas es cuestionada por conseguir un impacto muy modesto, en términos de relevancia y difusión de sus hallazgos a un público más amplio, que trascienda el contexto de los mismos investigadores. Estas exigencias y cuestionamientos reclaman una reflexión detenida por parte de los académicos; por ello, en este editorial queremos aportar algunos breves elementos para el debate.Boaventura de Sousa santos, uno de los más influyentes pensadores sociales contemporáneos, ha senalado que actualmente la Universidad vivencia una crisis de hegemonía, una crisis de legitimidad y una crisis institucional (De Sousa, 2007).Hoy en día, el conocimiento autorizado ya no se genera solo en la Universidad, lo que tiene implicaciones profundas en su centralidad-hegemonía y en la forma en que la sociedad misma ve a esta institución. En la sociedad del conocimiento, las empresas y otras entidades privadas parecen preocuparse por la creación del conocimiento, tanto o más que la Universidad y el propio Estado. La presión por la innovación atraviesa todo el tejido societal y no se entiende por fuera de la generación de nuevo conocimiento, con capacidad de ser usado y asimilado colectivamente. Allí, la tensión entre conocimiento e interés toma un realce particular, puesto que los fines altruistas y los mecanismos que acompañaron los procesos de producción de conocimiento en la "academia" se ven desplazados y/o transformados en un escenario de nuevas prioridades económicas (Habermas, 1982).La crisis de legitimidad de la Universidad surge en el marco de las contradicciones sociales y de las funciones y valores que la misma Universidad asumió en la modernidad (De sousa, 2007). El proyecto de educación de masas, bajo el amparo de los valores de la ilustración, implicaba el aumento de la cobertura de la educación superior como un camino hacia la construcción de una sociedad más democrática e incluyente. Pero las relaciones complejas entre educación para el ascenso social, reproducción de los valores dominantes y de la alta cultura y la prioridad en las necesidades económicas (mano de obra para el trabajo) han llevado a que, sobre todo en los países industrializados, la educación superior no logre colmar todas las expectativas de retornos económicos y/o de desarrollo democrático de tales sociedades.Finalmente, la crisis institucional de la Universidad deviene de la contradicción de sus valores, entre ellos la autonomía necesaria para la búsqueda del conocimiento comprometido solo con el bien común y la verdad, y las exigencias crecientes de eficiencia y de gestión bajo los parámetros de las entidades empresariales. La transformación paulatina de las prioridades y valores de las clases dominantes llevó a que la Universidad lentamente perdiera el compromiso estatal de su financiación, teniendo que desplegar procesos de gestión de sus ingresos y costos. La búsqueda de ingresos hace que sus actividades misionales se adapten al mercado, por ejemplo, con impactos profundos en la creación de conocimiento desinteresado, en la formación para la ciudadanía o en el cultivo de la estética y las artes liberales (Nussbaum, 2010).De esta manera, la conjunción de estas crisis conduce a la situación social, institucional y económica que hoy viven las universidades, no solo en Colombia, sino en gran parte del mundo industrializado, que podemos catalogar francamente como "crítica". Es en tal contexto en el que la presión por desarrollar agendas de investigación más "aplicadas" o cercanas a las necesidades de las organizaciones y del mercado se torna prioritaria en las instituciones universitarias. Es también en este contexto donde la relevancia es entendida como la consecución de aplicaciones concretas de los resultados de investigación a problemas organizacionales, con retornos económico-financieros positivos conseguidos en el mercado (p.e. patentes, contratos de [&D, etc.).Es innegable que en el ámbito de las ciencias de gestión, de la contabilidad y de las finanzas, la naturaleza de tales conocimientos reclama un vínculo muy profundo con el mundo organizacional. No obstante, debemos diferenciar con cuidado la búsqueda del conocimiento y la verdad, de la generación de publicidad o de la producción de relatos que pretenden legitimidad. La investigación aplicada se torna más relevante y confiable para conocer el mundo empresarial, cuando está soportada en marcos conceptuales y estructuras teóricas robustas, que son propias de la investigación básica y que permiten entregar sentido explicativo y comprensivo a los eventos empíricos; todo ello implica que no solo la aplicación es válida para la investigación en nuestras disciplinas. Pero al mismo tiempo, la investigación aplicada puede poner a prueba los referentes teóricos traídos de otras latitudes y ser germen para la construcción de un conocimiento endógeno de nuestra realidad tropical (Mora-Osejo y Fals-Borda, 2004).De esta manera, el vínculo entre Universidad, por una parte, y entorno empresarial y mercado, por otra, requiere ser permanente repensado y reconstruido. Debemos comprender que los tiempos de la generación del conocimiento no necesariamente siguen los ritmos de la producción empresarial, expuesta a las presiones para la subsistencia económica en la lucha del mercado. Pero también debemos entender que la comprensión, intervención y transformación de nuestra realidad reclama un proceso disciplinado y comprometido con la entrega de resultados tangibles, que repercutan en sugerencias y estrategias de acción para el mediano y largo plazo.La relevancia de los resultados de investigación y la efectividad de su difusión vienen siendo también discutidas. Una evaluación de las diferentes posturas no puede perder de vista el contexto de crisis que la Universidad afronta. En el fondo, la relevancia de la investigación universitaria es cuestionada dadas las crisis financiera y de legitimidad que esta institución enfrenta. El debate por el sentido de la publicación universitaria y académica debe ser abordado, sin perder de vista los matices sociológicos que están inmersos en la producción del conocimiento. De ello se desprende la conveniencia de admitir que los académicos son individuos que actúan en estructuras sociales y con ciertos grados de agencia-autonomía; por tanto, también pueden ser más o menos altruistas, utilitaristas, interesados u oportunistas.Si bien la difusión de los resultados de investigación primero requiere del lente experto de los académicos, para garantizar el carácter científico de los hallazgos y la autorregulación responsable, no es menos cierto que la investigación debe trascender el reducido espacio de los claustros, impactando a los actores con capacidad de decisión política y económica y a la opinión pública. No obstante, no solo la Universidad está en crisis. La sociedad enfrenta una crisis de iniquidad y valores democráticos que tiene pocos precedentes. En un escenario como estos, la verdad puede ser incómoda, no solo para el poder económico (que hoy se funde con el poder político) sino para los propios ciudadanos. El riesgo sería confundir relevancia y pertinencia, solo con conocimiento interesado y retórica de legitimación sobre el statu quo en el mundo organizacional y en el mercado global.Por estas razones, entre otras, desde esta tribuna que es [NNOVAR, invitamos a los académicos iberoamericanos de las ciencias de gestión (así como de otras ciencias sociales), para plantear debates y reflexiones que permitan aumentar nuestra comprensión de la realidad organizacional de la región. Estamos comprometidos con el conocimiento científico para el bienestar social y para la construcción de procesos organizacionales más sostenibles. Trabajaremos en conseguir que la revista no solo sea un medio de difusión dirigido a académicos, sino en que la base de profesionales, empresarios y tomadores de decisiones públicas que acceden a nuestra publicación sea cada vez mayor.En este número presentamos diez (10) artículos de investigación, agrupados en tres (3) de nuestras tradicionales secciones: Estrategia y organizaciones, Contabilidad y finanzas, y Educación y empleo.En la primera sección, Estrategia y organizaciones, recogemos cuatro (4) artículos.Desde Uruguay, el profesor Luis silva-Domingo aporta su investigación bajo el título "Management Control: Unsolved Problems and Research Opportunities". En este trabajo el autor identifica un conjunto de conceptos centrales para el control de gestión, llamando la atención sobre la importancia del consenso entre los académicos e investigadores para fortalecer este campo de conocimientos. Los tres conceptos clave que requieren mayores acuerdos son: el problema del control de gestión; la definición y caracterización de los mecanismos del control de gestión; y, finalmente, el alcance de los sistemas de control de gestión.En una colaboración hispano-chilena, los profesores Patricia Huerta, Paloma Almodóvar, Liliana Pedraja, José Navas y Sergio Contreras nos presentan el artículo "Factores que impactan sobre los resultados empresariales: un estudio comparativo entre empresas chilenas y españolas". El trabajo realiza una importante revisión de la literatura sobre los factores que definen el resultado empresarial. Al mismo tiempo, lleva a cabo una muy juiciosa contrastación en empresas de los dos países estudiados, entregando evidencia empírica sobre los factores que influyen decisivamente en los resultados empresariales.Las profesoras españolas Natalia Vila e [Nés Kúster contribuyen a este número con el trabajo titulado "¿Conduce la internacionalización al éxito de una empresa familiar?: aplicación al sector textil". Esta investigación buscó contrastar en las empresas del sector textil espanol, un sector altamente competitivo, la manera en que la internacionalización promovió el éxito empresarial. Para ello, asumió como variables definitorias del éxito empresarial: los resultados empresariales (volumen de ventas, nivel de beneficios, etc.) y los indicadores de desempeño (satisfacción de los clientes, reputación percibida, calidad, etc.). La investigación se basó en encuestas realizadas a 154 gerentes de empresas textiles de España.Para cerrar esta sección, se presenta en la revista el artículo titulado "Project Management in Development Cooperation. Non Governmental Organizations", de autoría de los profesores Maricela Montes-Guerra, Aida De-Miguel, Amaya Pérez-Ezcurdia, Faustino Gimena y Mauricio Díez-silva, fruto de una colaboración colombo-espanola. En esta investigación, los autores llaman la atención sobre la relevancia de la gestión de proyectos para las iniciativas de apoyo y cooperación internacional al desarrollo. En particular, el trabajo permite concluir que la gestión de proyectos puede mejorar la eficiencia y la rendición de cuentas de tales proyectos.Nuestra sección de Contabilidad y finanzas está constituida, igualmente, por cuatro (4) artículos científicos.El primer artículo de esta sección es de autoría del profesor colombiano Javier Humberto Ospina Holguín, y se titula "Medidas dinámicas de predictibilidad en el índice S&P 500 y sus determinantes". Esta investigación buscó medir la predictibilidad del índice Standard and Poor's 500. Para ello construyó un algoritmo basado en medidas dinámicas de predictibilidad. La investigación concluye que el mercado no es estáticamente predecible, sino que la predictibilidad evoluciona dinámicamente, lo que corrobora la hipótesis teórica de la tendencia adaptativa del mercado.Los profesores españoles Fernando Azcárate Llanes, Manuel Fernández Chulián y Francisco Carrasco Fenech aportan el trabajo "Memorias de sostenibilidad e indicadores integrados: análisis exploratorio sobre características definitorias. Una reflexión crítica". Esta investigación buscó caracterizar las empresas que publican memorias de sostenibilidad (informes de desarrollo sostenible, siguiendo la guía No. 3 del Global Reporting [niciative-GR[ G3-) y que contienen indicadores integrados. A partir de la realización de un análisis clúster, el trabajo permitió agrupar a las empresas que producen los informes (memorias) de mayor calidad. Se concluye que las memorias muestran deficiencias, pese al alto reconocimiento que, en materia de Responsabilidad social, tienen las empresas que las emiten.Bajo el título "El empleo de la Webmetría para el análisis de los indicadores de desempeño y posición financiera de la empresa: un análisis exploratorio en diversos sectores económicos de los Estados Unidos", presentamos la colaboración de los profesores Esteban Romero Frías, Liwen Vaughan y Lázaro Rodríguez Ariza, de universidades de España y Canadá. Esta investigación busca identificar si existe relación entre las variables financieras y los enlaces recibidos por empresas de diversos sectores económicos. El trabajo buscó extender los hallazgos previos de la literatura, más allá de empresas del sector de tecnología, particularmente en el contexto estadounidense. Los resultados muestran que existe un vínculo entre el número de enlaces que reciben las páginas web de las empresas y su dimensión económica (posición y desempeño financiero).Cierra esta sección con la investigación de los profesores espanoles Belén Vallejo-Alonso, José Domingo García-Merino y Gerardo Arregui-Ayastuy, artículo titulado "Motives for Financial Valuation of Intangibles and Business Performance in SMEs". Este trabajo buscó analizar la relación existente entre los motivos que llevan a la valoración de los intangibles y el desempeño de las pequeñas y medianas empresas (Pymes). La investigación empírica implicó entrevistar telefónicamente a 369 gerentes financieros de Pymes españolas y la vinculación de sus respuestas con el análisis de la información financiera de tales empresas. Los resultados muestran que las Pymes consideran que la valoración financiera de sus intangibles permite un mejor desempeño.En la sección de Educación y empleo, para este número, publicamos dos (2) resultados de investigación.El primer trabajo se denomina "¿Es posible potenciar la capacidad de liderazgo en la universidad?", fruto de la colaboración de los profesores Carmen Delia Dávila Quintana, José-Ginés Mora, Pedro Pérez Vázquez y Luis Eduardo Vila, quienes están vinculados con universidades de España y el Reino Unido. El trabajo analizó la importancia de la educación superior en el comportamiento de los egresados en el puesto de trabajo, particularmente en las dimensiones del liderazgo orientado a las tareas, las relaciones y al cambio. A partir de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales, los resultados muestran que el comportamiento de los egresados como líderes depende crucialmente de determinadas competencias clave.El segundo artículo, fruto del trabajo de las investigadoras colombianas Silvia Morales Gualdrón y Astrid Giraldo Gómez, se titula "Análisis de una innovación social: el Comité Universidad Empresa Estado del Departamento de Antioquia (Colombia) y su funcionamiento como mecanismo de interacción". La investigación buscó caracterizar el Comité Universidad Empresa Estado (CUEE) del Departamento de Antioquia, desde la teoría de redes y la teoría de la comunicación funcional. La metodología observada fue cualitativa y se basó en entrevistas a profundidad y en la triangulación de documentos, tales como las actas del CUEE. El trabajo concluye que el CUEE opera como una red de conocimiento en el que la comunicación, la deliberación, la confianza y la negociación se construyen por medio del consenso.Como siempre, estamos seguros de que nuestros lectores encontrarán valiosos estos trabajos. También, partimos de reconocer que nuestros colaboradores continúan aportando a la comprensión de la dinámica organizacional y socioeconómica, en un ambiente complejo y retador como el que enfrenta hoy la Universidad internacional e iberoamericana.

This thesis is a compendium of scientific works and engineering specifications that have been contributed to a large community of stakeholders to be copied, adapted, mixed, built upon and exploited in any way possible to achieve a common goal: Integrating Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Language Resources Using Linked Data The explosion of information technology in the last two decades has led to a substantial growth in quantity, diversity and complexity of web-accessible linguistic data. These resources become even more useful when linked with each other and the last few years have seen the emergence of numerous approaches in various disciplines concerned with linguistic resources and NLP tools. It is the challenge of our time to store, interlink and exploit this wealth of data accumulated in more than half a century of computational linguistics, of empirical, corpus-based study of language, and of computational lexicography in all its heterogeneity. The vision of the Giant Global Graph (GGG) was conceived by Tim Berners-Lee aiming at connecting all data on the Web and allowing to discover new relations between this openly-accessible data. This vision has been pursued by the Linked Open Data (LOD) community, where the cloud of published datasets comprises 295 data repositories and more than 30 billion RDF triples (as of September 2011). RDF is based on globally unique and accessible URIs and it was specifically designed to establish links between such URIs (or resources). This is captured in the Linked Data paradigm that postulates four rules: (1) Referred entities should be designated by URIs, (2) these URIs should be resolvable over HTTP, (3) data should be represented by means of standards such as RDF, (4) and a resource should include links to other resources. Although it is difficult to precisely identify the reasons for the success of the LOD effort, advocates generally argue that open licenses as well as open access are key enablers for the growth of such a network as they provide a strong incentive for collaboration and contribution by third parties. In his keynote at BNCOD 2011, Chris Bizer argued that with RDF the overall data integration effort can be "split between data publishers, third parties, and the data consumer", a claim that can be substantiated by observing the evolution of many large data sets constituting the LOD cloud. As written in the acknowledgement section, parts of this thesis has received numerous feedback from other scientists, practitioners and industry in many different ways. The main contributions of this thesis are summarized here: Part I – Introduction and Background. During his keynote at the Language Resource and Evaluation Conference in 2012, Sören Auer stressed the decentralized, collaborative, interlinked and interoperable nature of the Web of Data. The keynote provides strong evidence that Semantic Web technologies such as Linked Data are on its way to become main stream for the representation of language resources. The jointly written companion publication for the keynote was later extended as a book chapter in The People's Web Meets NLP and serves as the basis for "Introduction" and "Background", outlining some stages of the Linked Data publication and refinement chain. Both chapters stress the importance of open licenses and open access as an enabler for collaboration, the ability to interlink data on the Web as a key feature of RDF as well as provide a discussion about scalability issues and decentralization. Furthermore, we elaborate on how conceptual interoperability can be achieved by (1) re-using vocabularies, (2) agile ontology development, (3) meetings to refine and adapt ontologies and (4) tool support to enrich ontologies and match schemata. Part II - Language Resources as Linked Data. "Linked Data in Linguistics" and "NLP & DBpedia, an Upward Knowledge Acquisition Spiral" summarize the results of the Linked Data in Linguistics (LDL) Workshop in 2012 and the NLP & DBpedia Workshop in 2013 and give a preview of the MLOD special issue. In total, five proceedings – three published at CEUR (OKCon 2011, WoLE 2012, NLP & DBpedia 2013), one Springer book (Linked Data in Linguistics, LDL 2012) and one journal special issue (Multilingual Linked Open Data, MLOD to appear) – have been (co-)edited to create incentives for scientists to convert and publish Linked Data and thus to contribute open and/or linguistic data to the LOD cloud. Based on the disseminated call for papers, 152 authors contributed one or more accepted submissions to our venues and 120 reviewers were involved in peer-reviewing. "DBpedia as a Multilingual Language Resource" and "Leveraging the Crowdsourcing of Lexical Resources for Bootstrapping a Linguistic Linked Data Cloud" contain this thesis' contribution to the DBpedia Project in order to further increase the size and inter-linkage of the LOD Cloud with lexical-semantic resources. Our contribution comprises extracted data from Wiktionary (an online, collaborative dictionary similar to Wikipedia) in more than four languages (now six) as well as language-specific versions of DBpedia, including a quality assessment of inter-language links between Wikipedia editions and internationalized content negotiation rules for Linked Data. In particular the work described in created the foundation for a DBpedia Internationalisation Committee with members from over 15 different languages with the common goal to push DBpedia as a free and open multilingual language resource. Part III - The NLP Interchange Format (NIF). "NIF 2.0 Core Specification", "NIF 2.0 Resources and Architecture" and "Evaluation and Related Work" constitute one of the main contribution of this thesis. The NLP Interchange Format (NIF) is an RDF/OWL-based format that aims to achieve interoperability between Natural Language Processing (NLP) tools, language resources and annotations. The core specification is included in and describes which URI schemes and RDF vocabularies must be used for (parts of) natural language texts and annotations in order to create an RDF/OWL-based interoperability layer with NIF built upon Unicode Code Points in Normal Form C. In , classes and properties of the NIF Core Ontology are described to formally define the relations between text, substrings and their URI schemes. contains the evaluation of NIF. In a questionnaire, we asked questions to 13 developers using NIF. UIMA, GATE and Stanbol are extensible NLP frameworks and NIF was not yet able to provide off-the-shelf NLP domain ontologies for all possible domains, but only for the plugins used in this study. After inspecting the software, the developers agreed however that NIF is adequate enough to provide a generic RDF output based on NIF using literal objects for annotations. All developers were able to map the internal data structure to NIF URIs to serialize RDF output (Adequacy). The development effort in hours (ranging between 3 and 40 hours) as well as the number of code lines (ranging between 110 and 445) suggest, that the implementation of NIF wrappers is easy and fast for an average developer. Furthermore the evaluation contains a comparison to other formats and an evaluation of the available URI schemes for web annotation. In order to collect input from the wide group of stakeholders, a total of 16 presentations were given with extensive discussions and feedback, which has lead to a constant improvement of NIF from 2010 until 2013. After the release of NIF (Version 1.0) in November 2011, a total of 32 vocabulary employments and implementations for different NLP tools and converters were reported (8 by the (co-)authors, including Wiki-link corpus, 13 by people participating in our survey and 11 more, of which we have heard). Several roll-out meetings and tutorials were held (e.g. in Leipzig and Prague in 2013) and are planned (e.g. at LREC 2014). Part IV - The NLP Interchange Format in Use. "Use Cases and Applications for NIF" and "Publication of Corpora using NIF" describe 8 concrete instances where NIF has been successfully used. One major contribution in is the usage of NIF as the recommended RDF mapping in the Internationalization Tag Set (ITS) 2.0 W3C standard and the conversion algorithms from ITS to NIF and back. One outcome of the discussions in the standardization meetings and telephone conferences for ITS 2.0 resulted in the conclusion there was no alternative RDF format or vocabulary other than NIF with the required features to fulfill the working group charter. Five further uses of NIF are described for the Ontology of Linguistic Annotations (OLiA), the RDFaCE tool, the Tiger Corpus Navigator, the OntosFeeder and visualisations of NIF using the RelFinder tool. These 8 instances provide an implemented proof-of-concept of the features of NIF. starts with describing the conversion and hosting of the huge Google Wikilinks corpus with 40 million annotations for 3 million web sites. The resulting RDF dump contains 477 million triples in a 5.6 GB compressed dump file in turtle syntax. describes how NIF can be used to publish extracted facts from news feeds in the RDFLiveNews tool as Linked Data. Part V - Conclusions. provides lessons learned for NIF, conclusions and an outlook on future work. Most of the contributions are already summarized above. One particular aspect worth mentioning is the increasing number of NIF-formated corpora for Named Entity Recognition (NER) that have come into existence after the publication of the main NIF paper Integrating NLP using Linked Data at ISWC 2013. These include the corpora converted by Steinmetz, Knuth and Sack for the NLP & DBpedia workshop and an OpenNLP-based CoNLL converter by Brümmer. Furthermore, we are aware of three LREC 2014 submissions that leverage NIF: NIF4OGGD - NLP Interchange Format for Open German Governmental Data, N^3 – A Collection of Datasets for Named Entity Recognition and Disambiguation in the NLP Interchange Format and Global Intelligent Content: Active Curation of Language Resources using Linked Data as well as an early implementation of a GATE-based NER/NEL evaluation framework by Dojchinovski and Kliegr. Further funding for the maintenance, interlinking and publication of Linguistic Linked Data as well as support and improvements of NIF is available via the expiring LOD2 EU project, as well as the CSA EU project called LIDER, which started in November 2013. Based on the evidence of successful adoption presented in this thesis, we can expect a decent to high chance of reaching critical mass of Linked Data technology as well as the NIF standard in the field of Natural Language Processing and Language Resources.:CONTENTS i introduction and background 1 1 introduction 3 1.1 Natural Language Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Open licenses, open access and collaboration . . . . . . 5 1.3 Linked Data in Linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.4 NLP for and by the Semantic Web – the NLP Inter- change Format (NIF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.5 Requirements for NLP Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.6 Overview and Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2 background 15 2.1 The Working Group on Open Data in Linguistics (OWLG) 15 2.1.1 The Open Knowledge Foundation . . . . . . . . 15 2.1.2 Goals of the Open Linguistics Working Group . 16 2.1.3 Open linguistics resources, problems and chal- lenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.4 Recent activities and on-going developments . . 18 2.2 Technological Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3 RDF as a data model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4 Performance and scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.5 Conceptual interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ii language resources as linked data 25 3 linked data in linguistics 27 3.1 Lexical Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.2 Linguistic Corpora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.3 Linguistic Knowledgebases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.4 Towards a Linguistic Linked Open Data Cloud . . . . . 32 3.5 State of the Linguistic Linked Open Data Cloud in 2012 33 3.6 Querying linked resources in the LLOD . . . . . . . . . 36 3.6.1 Enriching metadata repositories with linguistic features (Glottolog → OLiA) . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.6.2 Enriching lexical-semantic resources with lin- guistic information (DBpedia (→ POWLA) → OLiA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 4 DBpedia as a multilingual language resource: the case of the greek dbpedia edition. 39 4.1 Current state of the internationalization effort . . . . . 40 4.2 Language-specific design of DBpedia resource identifiers 41 4.3 Inter-DBpedia linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.4 Outlook on DBpedia Internationalization . . . . . . . . 44 5 leveraging the crowdsourcing of lexical resources for bootstrapping a linguistic linked data cloud 47 5.1 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.2 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 5.2.1 Processing Wiki Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 5.2.2 Wiktionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 5.2.3 Wiki-scale Data Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 5.3 Design and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 5.3.1 Extraction Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.3.2 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.3.3 Language Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.3.4 Schema Mediation by Annotation with lemon . 58 5.4 Resulting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.5 Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.6 Discussion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.6.1 Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 5.6.2 Open Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6 nlp & dbpedia, an upward knowledge acquisition spiral 63 6.1 Knowledge acquisition and structuring . . . . . . . . . 64 6.2 Representation of knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.3 NLP tasks and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.3.1 Named Entity Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.3.2 Relation extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.3.3 Question Answering over Linked Data . . . . . 67 6.4 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.4.1 Gold and silver standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 iii the nlp interchange format (nif) 73 7 nif 2.0 core specification 75 7.1 Conformance checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.2 Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 7.2.1 Definition of Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7.2.2 Representation of Document Content with the nif:Context Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.3 Extension of NIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 7.3.1 Part of Speech Tagging with OLiA . . . . . . . . 83 7.3.2 Named Entity Recognition with ITS 2.0, DBpe- dia and NERD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 7.3.3 lemon and Wiktionary2RDF . . . . . . . . . . . 86 8 nif 2.0 resources and architecture 89 8.1 NIF Core Ontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 8.1.1 Logical Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 8.2 Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 8.2.1 Access via REST Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 8.2.2 NIF Combinator Demo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 8.3 Granularity Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.4 Further URI Schemes for NIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8.4.1 Context-Hash-based URIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 9 evaluation and related work 101 9.1 Questionnaire and Developers Study for NIF 1.0 . . . . 101 9.2 Qualitative Comparison with other Frameworks and Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 9.3 URI Stability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 9.4 Related URI Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 iv the nlp interchange format in use 109 10 use cases and applications for nif 111 10.1 Internationalization Tag Set 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 10.1.1 ITS2NIF and NIF2ITS conversion . . . . . . . . . 112 10.2 OLiA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 10.3 RDFaCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 10.4 Tiger Corpus Navigator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 10.4.1 Tools and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 10.4.2 NLP2RDF in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 10.4.3 Linguistic Ontologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.4.4 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 10.4.5 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 10.4.6 Related Work and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 10.5 OntosFeeder – a Versatile Semantic Context Provider for Web Content Authoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 10.5.1 Feature Description and User Interface Walk- through . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 10.5.2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10.5.3 Embedding Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 10.5.4 Related Work and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 135 10.6 RelFinder: Revealing Relationships in RDF Knowledge Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 10.6.1 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10.6.2 Disambiguation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 10.6.3 Searching for Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 10.6.4 Graph Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 10.6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 11 publication of corpora using nif 143 11.1 Wikilinks Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 11.1.1 Description of the corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 11.1.2 Quantitative Analysis with Google Wikilinks Cor- pus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 11.2 RDFLiveNews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 11.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 11.2.2 Mapping to RDF and Publication on the Web of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 v conclusions 149 12 lessons learned, conclusions and future work 151 12.1 Lessons Learned for NIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 12.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 12.3 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153