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Proportionality is a fundamental component of the law on the use of force and the law of armed conflict—the jus ad bellum and the jus in bello. In the former, it refers to a belligerent's response to a grievance and, in the latter, to the balance to be struck between the achievement of a military goal and the cost in terms of lives. The legitimate resort to force under the United Nations system is regarded by most commentators as restricted to the use of force in self-defense under Article 51 and collective security action under chapter VII of the UN Charter. The resort to force in both these situations is limited by the customary law requirement that it be proportionate to the unlawful aggression that gave rise to the right. In the law of armed conflict, the notion of proportionality is based on the fundamental principle that belligerents do not enjoy an unlimited choice of means to inflict damage on the enemy. Since the entry into force of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, proportionality has been both a conventional and a customary principle of the law of armed conflict.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) member states conducted a bombing campaign, referred to as Operation Allied Force, against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) from 24 March to 9 June 1999. The conduct of the bombing campaign has been subjected to a degree of outside scrutiny, particular by Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and the Office of the Prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (OTP ICTY). This outside scrutiny process is not unprecedented. In particular, following the Gulf Conflict of 1990–91, Human Rights Watch produced a study entitled 'Needless Deaths in the Gulf War' and Greenpeace produced 'On Impact: Modern Warfare and the Environment, A Case Study of the Gulf War.' In addition, the United States Department of Defence (USDOD), which was not an outside scrutineer, produced a Report to Congress on the Conduct of the Persian Gulf War which included an Appendix O on 'The Role of the Law of War.'

The individual in international law — In general — Human rights and freedoms — Right to protection of marriage — Basic Law 1949, Article 6 — Alien seeking to avoid deportation — Whether danger to marriage justifies prohibition on deportation — Principle of proportionality — The law of the Federal Republic of GermanyThe individual in international law — Aliens — Expulsion of — Right of expulsion — Deportation — Convicted criminal — Right of asylum — Basic Law 1949, Article 16(2) — Restrictive interpretation by reference to legislative history — Public order and security — Protection of marriage under Article 6 of Basic Law — Principle of proportionality — The law of the Federal Republic of Germany

Aliens — Position of — Long residence in forum State — Whether establishing special status — Circumstances justifying expulsion after long residence — The law of Germany.Aliens — Expulsion of — Right of expulsion — Conditions of exercise of right — Expulsion after long residence — Circumstances justifying expulsion — Relevance of treaties concluded by expelling State — European Convention on Establishment — European Convention for Protection of Human Rights — Requirement of proportionality — The law of Germany.

Diplomatic relations — Inviolability of diplomatic mission — Duty of receiving State to protect embassy premises — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, Article 22(2) — Occupation of embassy and taking of hostages by foreign dissidents — Whether authorities in receiving State entitled to institute criminal proceedings for offences committed on embassy premises — Whether embassy premises forming part of territory of receiving StateRelationship of international law and municipal law — Crimes against international law — Seizure of embassy and taking of hostages — Whether perpetrators subject to criminal prosecution in receiving State — Whether defence of necessity available to perpetrators seeking to draw attention to unlawful acts of communist government — Principle of proportionality — The law of Switzerland

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONALITY IN EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW -- Francis G. Jacobs -- PROPORTIONALITY AND THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS -- Jeremy McBride -- THE EFFECT OF PROPORTIONALITY ON THE ACTIONS OF MEMBER STATES OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY:NATIONAL VIEWPOINTS FROM CONTINENTAL EUROPE -- Walter van Gerven -- PROPORTIONALITY IN EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW: SEARCHING FOR THE APPROPRIATE STANDARD OF SCRUTINY -- Takis Tridimas -- UNREASONABLENESS AND PROPORTIONALITY IN UK LAW -- Paul Craig -- THE INFLUENCE OF THE EUROPEAN PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONALITY UPON UK LAW -- The Rt. Hon. Lord Hoffmann -- PROPORTIONALITY AND THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998 -- David Feldman -- PROPORTIONALITY AND THE SUPREMACY OF PARLIAMENT IN THE UK -- Nicholas Green -- THE CONCEPT OF PROPORTIONALITY IN EUROPEAN COMMUNITY SEX DISCRIMINATION LAW -- Evelyn Ellis

The individual in international law — Aliens — Expulsion of aliens — Right of expulsion — Stateless person — Protection of public order and security — Protection of family and professional life — Principle of proportionality — Equality of treatment — The law of the Federal Republic of Germany

The individual in international law — Extradition — Conditions of — Double criminality — Non-expiry of period of limitation for prosecution — The law of SwitzerlandThe individual in international law — Extradition — Political crimes — Definition — Extradition of German SS Officer accused of war crimes — Whether mass executions of unarmed civilians constitute political crimes — The law of SwitzerlandWar and neutrality — War in general — Enforcement of the laws of war — Reprisals — Legitimate reprisals under international law Requirement of proportionality — Mass executions of unarmed civilians — The law of SwitzerlandWar and neutrality — War in general — Enforcement of the laws of war — Punishment of war crimes and crimes against humanity — Defence of superior orders — Extradition of German war criminal — The law of SwitzerlandThe individual in international law — Extradition — Procedure of — Role of courts in examining extradition request — Whether able to take account of defences or alibis of accused — Conditions of extradition — Double criminality — Non-expiry of period of limitation for prosecution — Extradition of German SS Officer accused of war crimes — Whether mass executions of unarmed civilians constitute political crimes — Whether permissible under international law as legitimate reprisals in wartime — Requirement of proportionality — Defence of superior orders — The law of Switzerland

The individual in international law — Extradition — Political crimes — Definition — Requirement of proportionality between crime and political objective — Subjective test — Assassination attempt on foreign Head of State — Necessity for assassination to be a "last resort" — Whether "last resort" where target is embodiment of State political system — The law of Switzerland

Considers ways women are affected and assesses adequacy of international humanitarian law in protecting them. Incidents of abuse by UN peacekeeping forces and others, compensation, state responsibility, proportionality and economic sanctions, and role of the Red Cross (ICRC).