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International relations features different types of scholarship. These types are metaphor, history, theory, engineering, and pattern recognition. This essay discusses the nature and contribution of each type as research characteristic of these different undertakings shows substantial overtime continuity in attracting varying attention from identifiable communities. It also raises several concerns about the extant literature. These concerns address the problems of endogeneity, selection effects, concept stretching, over-determination and indeterminacy, multiple conjunctural causality, and falsifiable proposition. Although hardly representing novel discoveries, they present generic and seemingly persistent challenges to valid inference. While not irrelevant to the conduct of social inquiry in general, this review addresses specifically international relations scholarship.

In the context of the post-Cold War period & the concomitant NATO expansion, the history of Russian-US relations is traced since the 18th century, highlighting US diplomatic action during the Russian Revolution. Adapted from the source document.

A recent case brings to employers' attention the importance of fitting a solicitation policy to an area's use. The National Labor Relations Board recognizes two types of mixed‐use areas and accompanying lawful solicitation rules for that area.

Appendix for "Frustrated Aspirations and Different Types of Political Violence: Evidence from 'Folk Knowledge' in Kosovo"

Conventional wisdom suggests that environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGOs) play a major role in pushing states towards more ambitious environmental policies. However, demonstrating that this presumption is in fact true is rather difficult, because the same system structures of democracies that may create more opportunities for ENGO activities are also, on their own, conducive to better environmental policies. This leaves open the possibility that the additional (marginal) impact of ENGOs on policy making is smaller than presumed. In trying to disentangle these effects, this paper examines the influence of ENGOs contingent on key structural characteristics of democratic systems. We develop the argument that presidential systems with a plurality electoral rule per se tend to provide more environmental public goods, which induces a smaller marginal impact of ENGOs. Conversely, parliamentary systems with a proportional representation electoral rule are likely to provide fewer environmental public goods, which allows for a larger marginal impact of ENGOs. We find robust empirical support for these hypotheses in analyses that focus on the ratification behavior of 75 democracies vis-a-vis 250 international environmental agreements in 1973-2002. Adapted from the source document.

Conventional wisdom suggests that environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGOs) play a major role in pushing states towards more ambitious environmental policies. However, demonstrating that this presumption is in fact true is rather difficult, because the same system structures of democracies that may create more opportunities for ENGO activities are also, on their own, conducive to better environmental policies. This leaves open the possibility that the additional (marginal) impact of ENGOs on policy making is smaller than presumed. In trying to disentangle these effects, this paper examines the influence of ENGOs contingent on key structural characteristics of democratic systems. We develop the argument that presidential systems with a plurality electoral rule per se tend to provide more environmental public goods, which induces a smaller marginal impact of ENGOs. Conversely, parliamentary systems with a proportional representation electoral rule are likely to provide fewer environmental public goods, which allows for a larger marginal impact of ENGOs. We find robust empirical support for these hypotheses in analyses that focus on the ratification behavior of 75 democracies vis-à-vis 250 international environmental agreements in 1973–2002.

The problem of relations between representatives of different ethnic groups is extremely urgent in Rus-sian society. The study consistently raises the ques-tion of the importance of ethnic self-identification in the context of preventing inter-group ethnic con-flicts. The main models of ethnic identification and self-identification are considered. The view that eth-nic identification practices based on the paradigm of constructivism and instrumentalism have a high potential to overcome inter-ethnic contradictions is justified. The initial data for the study are the results of a secondary analysis of regional studies conduct-ed in Krasnodar region and the Adyghe Republic in the period from 2015 to 2019. The reliance on empiri-cal data and their correlation with the existing trends in the identification strategies of diaspora and asso-ciations of fellow-countrymen made it possible to show qualitative characteristics of primordialism, constructivism and instrumentalism.