Suchergebnisse

Putu Yulita Ayu Werdhaningrum D3 – Business English, Faculty of Languages and Arts, University State of Surabaya, hyoelita@yahoo.co.id Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is a technical services unit that can carry out the promotion and development of SMEs and Human Resources through technical training in the field of management, technology, process, production, standardization, environmental, and information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya has the aim to improve the performance of the technical implementation of various industrial units and crafts as well as developing human resource to support the competitiveness of the global market. In support of all the aim of the UPT, the researchers looked at the role of leadership to participate in the process of developing the performance of the craftsmen. Therefore, researchers are trying to see and understand firsthand how the leadership role to improve the performance of the craftsmen and what the response generated afterwards. Through the process of making this final assignment, the author can know that leadership is very supportive to improve the performance of the craftsmen. And by conducting job training, participated in various exhibitions, and provide counseling and guidance on a variety of crafts has given quite satisfactory results for the craftsmen in preparation to launch a new world in opening a small business and can also be one way to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. Keywords: Leader, Managerial Skill, Craftsmen. Introduction High unemployment in Indonesia, including the city of Surabaya. It then becomes a reference for policy actors seek alternative employment for others to absorb the available labor. Entrepreneurship is one alternative that can provide solutions to these problems. As of 2009, the number of unemployed in Indonesia as many as 3.713 million people, higher than the desired target of government at the level of 2.38 million people (Kompas, 2009). In addition, until 2007, there were 740,206 unemployed college graduates. This proves that the field work in Indonesia is very small while the number of graduates each year continues to grow, Eddy Suryanto Soegoto, 2010. Entrepreneurship in the goods sector is economic artery in big cities like Surabaya. The high increase of population, resulting in the need for goods is also increasing rapidly. The problem becomes more complex due to the time available did not allow the public to be able to do all the priority needs at once. Bids will need items that instantly becomes an option. According Ritonga (2011), unemployment is mainly due to the problem of unskilled labor and skilled. The company prefers candidates who already have the skills or expertise. The issue is very relevant in our country, given the large numbers of unemployed are people who do not have the skills or expertise. The causes of unemployment are very visible from the complaint that the lack of skills in a person. The lack of confidence in one's soul, lack of interest and lack of socializing with others is also very influential in the intensity rising unemployment. It also agrees with Drs. Sudrajad, MM. (2011) who said "Cause Unemployment in Indonesia is the lack of desire to work, lack of skills and have thoughts just want to be an employee." This should be addressed with all efforts possible, because the average company today want and need employees who have the skill and expertise. Strengthening small and medium business sector is one of Indonesia's development policy. SMEs have the ability to survive in times of economic crisis gripping the country. At great effort faltered storm knocked down the financial crisis, the SME sector is able to give breath to the nation's economy. On this basis then arise initiative on craftsmen, to be able to meet those needs, by following the guidance and development by implementing the rules or ordinances of a leader who is really to improve the performance skills of a craftsman and judge it as something that is fairly decent to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, this is the reason why the researcher write about the efforts of a craftsman in business by implementing the rules of a good leader to improve their skills. In this case why the writer discuss this issue in order to make a useful input for all beginner craftsmen in Indonesia in order to become a successful craftsman and can open their own business field and in order to reduce the value of unemployment in Indonesia, especially in Surabaya. In the discussion of this material writer took guidance on UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. Because according to the writer here is one of the features of a good government and the right to develop one's own skills to become a craftsman by implementing the rules of a successful leader as well. And in this case, the craftsmen also want to improve the quality and quantity of a craftsman in Indonesia. And with the application is expected to be more able to produce more young craftsmen who are talented and can create new business field and to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. By conducting training to improve the skills of a person more likely to get jobs than those who do not. This is because companies prefer to hire people with the skills, so do not bother to practice again. And can even be a great opportunity to expand the opening of a new business pitch. This is also one way to overcome the educated unemployment is mostly done by the government, AnneAhira (Social and Cultural Rights, 2012). Based on the research, the objective of the study are : To describe the implementation of leadership role, To implementation of leadership role of the craftsman, To analyze the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role. The researcher hopes this study can give contribution to the student, craftsmen, University, the institution and for the readers. For the student it can be provide new insights about the real world of work to students in the field of trade and industry and can prepare themselves before entering the world of work firsthand. For the Craftsmen to be a reference to become a successful entrepreneur by implementing the rule of a leader. For the University as input to evaluate the Extend to which the curriculum has been implement in accordance with requirements of skilled manpower in the field. For the Institution as a media to open up new business opportunities as an example for students. For the Readers can provide the information needed by the reader. Definition of Leadership Leadership is a person or a leader who can build the subordinates especially in this case is a craftsman to craftsmen to become a more developed and has a broad view of creativity in him. By applying the concepts and meaning of fostering a craftsman can be expected to be a key new birth craftsmen talented and have high creativity. A leader in this regard should be always trying to develop the talents of the craftsmen gradually and regularly which lead to the desired goals or objectives. Leaders and leadership can be approached from different angles (Thoha, 1986:3). Each approach will bear different meanings with other approaches. Leaders and leadership needed by humans due to the advantages and disadvantages possessed by each human being. The leader is a person who has certain skills that can influence their followers to cooperate towards the achievement of predetermined objectives. The ideal leader is a dream for every person, because that's what leaders will bring forward-pullback of an organization, institution, company, state and nation. Surely the soul of a leader must have good soul of leadership that has been described in the above basic concepts and leadership should not be viewed as a facility for control, but meant as a sacrifice that must be carried out as well as possible. Leadership is also not arbitrary to act, but the power to serve and protect and do the fairest. Miftha Thoha in his book Organizational Behavior (1983:255) leader is someone who has the ability to lead, it means having the ability to influence another person or group without regard to the form of reason. Kartini Kartono (1994:33) the leader is a person who has the skills and strengths in particular skills and strengths in one area, so he was able to influence others to jointly carry out certain activities, for the achievement of one or more goals. Concept of Leadership The basic concept of the soul of leadership by Mr. Athoenk's (2010): Leadership is a force that flows in a way that is not known to the leader of the disciples, encouraging his followers to be mobilized on a regular basis to the point that formulated. Working towards goals and achievements provide satisfaction for leaders and followers. Leadership is also coloring and colored by the place, the environment and climate in which it serves. Leadership does not work in an empty room, but the atmosphere created by the various elements. Leadership is always active, it could change in rank, intensity and extent. Leadership works according to the principles, tools and methods are defined and fixed. Leadership Function According to Yuki (1998) the function of leadership is trying to influence and direct the employees to work hard, have high morale and high motivation to achieve organizational goals. This is primarily tied to the function of regulating the relations between individuals or groups within the organization. Craftsmen Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". Craftsmen create great skill in the manual arts. Craftsmen also called creator, which means people who grow or make or create things. The Relationship between Leadership and Craftsmen In this case the role of a leader is also very important and participate in fostering and development by conducting training and exhibitions the work of craftsmen. And may provide a strategy to cultivate the efforts of craftsmen. It is expected that the craftsmen also have the soul of a leader in developing a business. It is also stated by Ari Setiawanan (2011) in his personal blogger states "Leadership is the process of influencing or give examples of leaders to followers in an effort to achieve organizational goals. Natural way to learn leadership is to "do it in the workplace" with practices like apprenticeship in a skilled artist, craftsman, or practitioner. In this connection, the expert is expected as part of its role providing teaching / instruction ". Discussion about leaders and leadership as well as its influence on a craftsman in general explains how to be a good leader, and a style that suits the nature of leadership and what conditions need to be possessed by a good leader. Nevertheless it is still difficult to implement in full, so that in practice only a few leaders are able to perform well and the leadership to bring his followers to the desired state. The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research activities will not regardless of where the data is the raw material of information to provide a specific description of the object of research. Data are facts collected by researchers for the purpose of solving the problem or answer the research questions. Research data can come from a variety of sources collected by using a variety of techniques during the course of the study. Based on the source, research data can be grouped into two types of data qualitative research and quantitative research data. In this research, entitled "The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen? And How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?" so this research used qualitative research. Qualitative data is data that collected by means of a process that saw the object of research. Such data over see the process rather than the result because it is based on a description of the process and not on mathematical calculations. Data collection techniques include observation, interviews, literature reviews, etc. It also agrees with Cahya Suryana (2010:115) which says the data is qualitative data in the form of words, not in the form of numbers. Qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, the discussion focused or observations that have been set forth in the notes field (transcript). Other forms of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video recordings. In this research the researcher conducted research in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. UPT is Technical Services Unit are carrying out promotion and development of Small and Medium Industries (SMEs) and the Human Resources or business through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standardization, Environment and Information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is located on Jl. Pagesangan II / 38-42 Surabaya. In this place has two training rooms, each for a capacity of 40 people, has 10 bedrooms for 40 craftsmen, and other facilities provided. The writer believe this place highly qualified resource persons and trusted to get info on how the implementation of leadership role of the craftsmen to improve their performance and other info needed writer. In this case the implementation of leadership role is expected to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen and to cultivate leadership skills and can teach it back to the new craftsmen later. In improving the performance of the craftsmen, the researcher often do see education and training, held an exhibition to the work of the craftsmen, and attend job training activities in the field of craft in UPT. Therefore the role of leadership is needed to manage and cultivate the managerial skills of the craftsmen. The role of leaders build skills one must master thriving. This is the next level of the management skills pyramid. Someone who must master personal development. This is the level of management skills, which shows the skills a person must master to be successful and show how management skills build on each other toward success. These are the basics that made the role of a leader for the management skill craftsmen: Plans Set Direct Control Motivation Conducting Training and Coaching The direct involvement of leader In this study the data of things that can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, caring and discipline. All that can be applied when crafting artisan training, opened the exhibition and even open their own craft business. Which was all the training can provide the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing artisans to improve their skills through training and creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. By implementing a leadership role in the managerial skill craftsmen are expected to increase knowledge of the design and color combination to make crafts. Craftsmen can transfer the new knowledge gained to other craftsmen and all those who would learn a new craftsmen. Craftsmen can be more creative in making other handicrafts. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter will analyze the data that has been collected. The purpose of analyzing the data is to answer the questions of the researcher. As mentioned in the first chapter, "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen?" and "How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?". The subject in this research are the craftsmen. From sources that the authors could have about ±30 craftsmen who are doing the implementation and development of skill. In this research the author prefers the craftsmen making plaiting and ceramic or gypsum. The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen In this case the data subject can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, a sense of caring and discipline. All that can be applied when artisans craft training, opened the exhibition and even opened his own craft business. Which is the training it can provide all the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing crafters to enhance the capabilities and skills through creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. With the moral support and provide the necessary facilities, providing motivation, conduct training and job fairs for the efforts of craftsmen also a way to improve the performance of the leader of the craftsmen. Here are some ways to improve the performance of the craftsmen: Guide and cultivate prospective new employers that will be developed into an independent businessman. Given coaching or income. Given technical training. Examples given creative woven design, gypsum, and ceramics. Held the exhibition of the craftsmen. The purpose of these activities is intended to: Improve the skills of the craftsmen, To foster the craftsmen in order to thrive, That the craftsmen more creative, Can give entrepreneurs insight, To support the welfare and craftsmen, Fostering the craftsmen to be independent and get satisfactory results, Mental strengthen the craftsmen to become a successful entrepreneur, as a successful entrepreneur should require struggle and sacrifice. The Craftsmen Respond after the Implementation of Leadership Role Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". For craftsmen to apply leadership role to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen is very important because it can help the craftsmen to be able to perform all the activities during the training on the craft. In this case that is the primary motivation is a craftsman wants to be a successful artisans, craft businesses can open and create new jobs to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. Suggestion The expectations of the craftsmen is that welfare can be much better and can open their own business field by always applying a given leadership roles during a training run. And hopefully this research can be useful for readers to find the information they want to know about the craftsmen can add insight and knowledge. And also can make a new discourse about the craftsmen at UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi Dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelayanan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian Dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Jawa Timur, 2012, Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Karyawan dan Pengrajin, Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Skill. About.com Guide Http//.www.geogle.com.Bisnis dan Kewirausahaan Qibtiyah, Mariyatul. 2008. "PENGEMBANGAN USAHA SENTRA PENGRAJIN BATIK". Malang: UIN. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Guide. About.com Guide. It's retrieved from http://management.about.com/bio/F-John-Reh-229.htm http//.www.geogle. com.What is Leadership Drs. Sudrajad, MM. 2011. Kiat Mengentaskan Pengangguran dan Kemiskinan melalui Wirausaha. Bumi Aksara Athoenk's. Mr. (2010) Konsep Jiwa Pemimpin / Leadership. http://athoenk46.wordpress.com/?s=konsep+jiwa+pemimpin Zahra. Fatimah. Opinion Blog Unemployment, 2012. Universitas Gunadarma: Jakarta. It's retrieved from http://fzahrah.blogspot.com/ Smith. Nasuha. 2011. Teori Dasar Kepemimpinan. It's retrieved from http://nasuhasmith13.blogspot.com/2011/03/teori-dasar-kepemimpinan.html Wiradi. Dewa. 2012. Definisi Kepemimpinan Menurut Para Ahli dan Dalam Beberapa Kamus Modern Elqorni. Ahmad. 2011. Definisi pemimpin dan kepemimpinan. Emzeth. 2010. Kriteria Seorang Pemimpin from http://www.emzeth.com/2010/11/kriteria-seorang-pemimpin-sejati.html#ixzz1u0ecM9K6 Bahrodin. Deby Putra. 2012. Arti seorang Pemimpin, from http://www.dputra.com/2012/02/arti-seorang-pemimpin.html Setiadi, MKEP. 2011. Konsep Kepemimpinan. Power Point: Jakarta. http://referensi-kepemimpinan.blogspot.com/

Pädagogische Fachkräfte nutzen Social Media-Plattformen als professionelle Handlungsräume. Diese Nutzung umfasst die Grundformen pädagogischen Handelns, wie Arrangieren, Animieren und Informieren/Beraten. "Wenn ich als Pädagogikprofessor in einer Straßenbahn Eltern Ratschläge gebe, wie sie mit einem offensichtlich übermüdeten Kind umgehen sollen, dann handele ich vermutlich anmaßend, aber nicht professionell, denn die Tram ist nicht der Ort meiner Profession." (Giesecke 1997: 47) Wie sieht es aus, wenn die Orte pädagogischer Profession nun aber gezielt ausgedehnt werden, indem pädagogische Fachkräfte in Sozialen Onlinenetzwerken (SONW) pädagogisch agieren? SONW werden somit zu neuen pädagogischen Handlungsräumen. Der Beitrag zeigt anhand ausgewählter Fallbeispiele, wie SONW von pädagogischen Fachkräften der Offenen Kinder- und Jugendarbeit (OKJA) als pädagogische Handlungsräume genutzt werden. Noch nie zuvor haben so viele junge Menschen und Erwachsene das Internet täglich genutzt (mpfs 2017; Projektgruppe ARD/ZDF–Multimedia 2017). Angesichts dieser hohen Bedeutung stellt sich die Frage, inwiefern auch die Soziale Arbeit die Potenziale des Internets und besonders die Potenziale von SONW für sich nutzen kann. Eine Vorreiterrolle bezüglich der Nutzung von SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume nehmen die pädagogischen Fachkräfte der OKJA ein (JFF 2011). Zunächst wird in diesem Beitrag anhand einiger Situationen aus der OKJA verdeutlicht, wie SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume genutzt werden. Die verwendeten Beispiele entstammen qualitativen Interviews mit Fachkräften, die im Rahmen des Dissertationsprojekts der Autorin geführt wurden. Der anschließende Abschnitt beschäftigt sich mit der Frage nach der Wahrnehmung und Artikulation von SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume durch die Fachkräfte. In einer Zusammenfassung werden die geschilderten Situationen hinsichtlich der Grundformen pädagogischen Handelns nach Giesecke kategorisiert. Der Artikel schließt mit einer Positionierung zu den Herausforderungen durch SONW und einem Ausblick. Exemplarische Situationen der Nutzung von SONW Im Folgenden werden ausgewählte Situationen der alltäglichen Nutzung von SONW und deren pädagogische Implikationen vorgestellt. Der erste Beispielkomplex zeigt dies am Beispiel der Postings von Jugendlichen. Dadurch, dass die Jugendarbeiterin Clara auf Facebook mit den Jugendlichen befreundet ist, erfährt sie von Beleidigungen und Streits und hat die Möglichkeit Einfluss zu nehmen: "Dann hab ich gemerkt, die fängt dann an mit der zu chatten und auf die Startseite: 'Und du bist so doof' und haste nicht gesehen [zu schreiben]. Und dann konnte ich natürlich im Vorfeld schon eingreifen. Und wenn sie dann kamen, dann hatte ich eine Information, die ich sonst nicht gehabt hätte und hab sie mir dann alle ins Büro geholt und hab das ganz offen angesprochen." Bei Streits zu intervenieren ist für die pädagogischen Fachkräfte in der OKJA alltägliche pädagogische Arbeit. In einem ersten Schritt wird die Situation beruhigt und in einem anschließenden Schritt mit den Beteiligten in einem pädagogischen Rahmen bearbeitet. Clara kann situativ entweder mittels Kommentar direkt in die Interaktion im SONW einsteigen oder zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt ein Gespräch in der Einrichtung forcieren. Sie bewertet es als sehr hilfreich, Dinge indirekt zu erfahren, da sich das o.g. Mädchen vielleicht nicht von sich aus an sie gewandt hätte. Clara erhält durch ihre Facebook-Freundschaft auch Informationen, die nicht explizit an sie adressiert wurden, somit obliegt es ihrer pädagogischen Kompetenz, sensibel mit diesen Informationen umzugehen und zu entscheiden, ob sie sie aktiv nutzt oder die Situation passiv beobachtet. Der Jugendarbeiter Felix hat ein Bild kommentiert, das zwei Mädchen gepostet hatten. Auf diesem Bild inszenieren sich die Mädchen auf Straßenbahnschienen sitzend. Felix schien es erforderlich dies zu hinterfragen: "'Okay, das ist nicht so ganz eindeutig, was wollt ihr mit diesem Foto sagen? Wollt ihr sagen, dass euch das Leben nicht mehr gefällt und ihr wartet darauf, dass die nächste Straßenbahn kommt und euch überfährt?'" Die Mädchen erfahren Selbstwirksamkeit, da der Jugendarbeiter auf das Foto reagiert. Durch das offene Thematisieren der Bildbotschaften werden sie zum Reflektieren ihres Handelns angehalten und somit Bildungsprozesse angeregt. Felix ist zudem sensibilisiert und kann zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt ggf. eine Beratungs- oder Informationssituation initiieren. Informationen, die Clara aus den Postings der Jugendlichen über diese erhält, nutzt sie, um in der Anschlusskommunikation ein Gefühl emotionaler Verbundenheit hervorzurufen: "Und wenn du dann zum Beispiel bei Facebook schon gesagt hast: 'Finde ich toll, du hast ein neues Kleid'. Dann kommen sie an: 'Mensch Clara, wirklich? Ist das ein schönes Kleid? Sag mal ehrlich.'" Die Jugendarbeiterin reagiert hier wertschätzend auf Dinge, die für die Jugendlichen aktuell von Belang sind und zwar im Einzelfall, aber ebenso auch bereits durch die Tatsache, dass sie sich auf die Kommunikationsweise der Jugendlichen einlässt. Sie erzeugt dadurch ein positives Klima und ruft ein Gefühl emotionaler Verbundenheit hervor. Clara selbst beschreibt dies als Intensivierung der Kontakte. Oder anders gesagt: Sie nutzt die SONW unterstützend, um die Beziehung zu den Jugendlichen kontinuierlich weiterzuentwickeln. Diese Grundlagen für den Aufbau einer vertrauensvollen Arbeitsbeziehung werden von der Jugendarbeiterin arrangiert. Im zweiten Beispielkomplex werden die pädagogischen Implikationen und Intentionen anhand der Postings der pädagogischen Fachkräfte vorgestellt. Felix verfolgt sowohl pädagogische als auch administrative Absichten, wenn er Aktionen der Einrichtung mittels Bildpostings in SONW dokumentiert. Die Postings haben zum einen den Zweck ein Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zur Einrichtung zu fördern, indem gemeinsame Erlebnisse positiv erinnert werden und die Jugendlichen animiert werden, diese Emotionen zu reflektieren und zu verbalisieren. "Also wenn ein schönes Foto natürlich da ist und dann die Reaktion drauf kommen würde: 'Ja, ich war dabei. Das war total geil.' Dann wäre damit schon sehr viel erreicht." Außerdem möchte Felix einen Dialog über diese spezifische Aktion unter den Jugendlichen anregen. Er eröffnet mit der Kommentarfunktion eine niedrigschwellige Möglichkeit und motiviert die Jugendlichen damit, sich zu artikulieren. En passant erhält er durch die Kommentare Feedback und kann weitere entsprechende Angebote arrangieren. Zugleich hat sowohl die Dokumentation als auch der Anschlussdialog der Jugendlichen Signalcharakter nach außen: Außenstehende erhalten einen Eindruck von Angeboten und Zielgruppe sowie einen Eindruck davon, wie die pädagogischen Fachkräfte arbeiten; Lebendigkeit und Offenheit wird signalisiert. Sowohl Clara als auch Felix nutzen die SONW, um alltägliche pädagogische Angebote oder besondere Erlebnisse zu arrangieren und initiieren. Einen Vorteil sehen sie vor allem darin, dass sie mittels Postings in kurzer Zeit eine große Zielgruppe, nämlich alle mit der Einrichtung verbundenen Jugendlichen, erreichen können. Deutlich wird dies in Felix' Einrichtung, in der täglich das aktuelle pädagogische Angebot gepostet wird. Dadurch erreicht er auch eine Zielgruppe, die sonst nicht die Einrichtung besucht, sondern lediglich punktuell zu Außenveranstaltungen kommt. "Wie zum Beispiel jetzt im Sommer, wenn wir irgendwo Baden fahren dann wird das gepostet." Das Werben für den Badeausflug mittels Postings in SONW ermöglicht den o.g. Jugendlichen einen Zugang zur Einrichtung bzw. zu dem pädagogischen Personal und die Teilnahme an den pädagogischen Aktionen. Felix kann dies wiederum nutzen, um mit den Jugendlichen in Kontakt zu treten und Vertrauen aufzubauen. Außerdem kann eine andere Umgebung einen guten Rahmen bieten, um Barrieren zwischen den unterschiedlichen Besucher_innengruppen abzubauen und neue gruppendynamische Prozesse anzustoßen. Clara hatte beispielsweise Karten für die Castings von X Factor und Supertalent und postete: "Ich hab Karten. Wer will […] mitkommen?" bzw. "Ich hab keine Karten mehr." Sie ermöglicht den Jugendlichen damit, etwas Besonderes, nicht Alltägliches, zu erleben und schafft Möglichkeiten für Bildungsprozesse. Das Arrangieren der Teilnahme an besonderen Erlebnissen und pädagogischen Angeboten impliziert dementsprechend auch pädagogisches Handeln und ist über ein massenmediales Werben hinausgehend. Das pädagogische Handeln in SONW und SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume Die vorherigen Explikationen haben den pädagogischen Gehalt im Umgang mit beiderseitigen Postings aufgezeigt. In einigen Beispielen wurde direkt im SONW interveniert, womit deutlich wurde, wie dieses als zusätzlicher, pädagogischer Handlungsraum der OKJA genutzt wird. Weiterführend stellt sich nun aber die Frage, inwiefern die beiden pädagogischen Fachkräfte die SONW als pädagogische Handlungsräume wahrnehmen und in dieser Deutlichkeit als solche bezeichnen. Nach ihrem Begriffsverständnis befragt, definiert Clara pädagogisches Handeln als "alles Handeln, was du in Bezug auf Jugendliche erzieherisch ausübst". Als Beispiel benennt sie das Eingehen auf Konflikte auf Basis von pädagogischen und entwicklungspsychologischen Fachkenntnissen, also "zu wissen, was damit gemeint sein kann und das dann eben ansprechen". Dabei verwendet sie einen aufrüttelnd-provokanten Sprachstil, sog. Modulationen (vgl. Cloos et al. 2009), um den Jugendlichen ihr Verhalten und dessen Konsequenzen bewusst zu machen. Für Clara findet sich diese Art pädagogischen Handelns fraglos auch in den SONW wieder. Sie verdeutlicht dies am weiteren Beispiel eines männlichen Jugendlichen, der sich in Bodybuilder-Pose fotografiert hat: "Und ich sage, 'Meine Güte, jetzt machste aber einen auf Muskelprotz!' und mach das mit so'nem Smiley hinten dran, so dass der eigentlich weiß, was ich damit meine." Auch hier verwendet sie Modulationen, um den Jugendlichen zur Reflexion seines Verhaltens anzuregen und ihm die Wirkungen des geposteten Bildes vor Augen zu führen. Zusätzlich hätte Clara die Möglichkeit die Interaktion auf Facebook für spätere Anschlusskommunikation innerhalb der Einrichtung zu verwenden. Auffällig an Claras Verständnis von pädagogischem Handeln ist vor allem, dass sie den Fokus im Schwerpunkt auf konflikthafte oder problematische Situationen richtet. Pädagogisches Handeln umfasst für sie somit korrigierendes Handeln. Darin unterscheidet sich ihre Definition von der Gieseckes. Dieser definiert pädagogisches Handeln als positive Beeinflussung des Menschen hin zu einer mündigen Persönlichkeit, indem man Gelegenheiten zu Bildungsprozessen bietet (vgl. 1997: 22ff.). Felix definiert pädagogisches Handeln als das Arrangieren von Workshops, das Animieren oder das Vermitteln von Toleranz in der Gruppe. Damit bezieht er sich allerdings lediglich auf die Face-to-Face-Arbeit innerhalb der Einrichtung, denn Felix bezweifelt, dass pädagogisches Handeln auf SONW übertragen werden kann: "Und bezogen auf Netzwerke lässt sich wirklich die Frage stellen, ist das eine Form von pädagogischem Handeln wenn ich das veröffentliche, die Angebote? Weil das ist ja wirklich eigentlich nur Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, Informationsarbeit". Obwohl er also durchaus in SONW pädagogisch agiert, reflektiert und artikuliert er dies nicht dementsprechend. Für ihn sind SONW weniger zusätzliche pädagogische Handlungsräume als vielmehr Werkzeuge, die administrative Aufgaben erleichtern. Auch Giesecke grenzt den Informationsoutput von Massenmedien von pädagogischem Handeln ab und hält fest, dieses finde immer von Angesicht zu Angesicht statt. Lediglich in den ggf. daran anschließend hergestellten, interaktiven Situationen könne pädagogisch gehandelt werden (1997: 47f.). Wie die Explikationen aber deutlich gemacht haben, ist dies auf Grund der Interaktivität von SONW heute keine grundlegende Bedingung für pädagogisches Handeln mehr. Felix nutz zwar in der Handlungspraxis diese Interaktivität, in der Reflexion und Artikulation spielt die Interaktivität jedoch keine Rolle. Anhand der beiden Fallbeispiele wird deutlich, dass die Reflexion pädagogischer Implikationen in der Nutzung von SONW nicht unbedingt die Praxis abbildet. Laut Giesecke ist der Gegenpol zum Handeln stets die Reflexion (1997: 45). Sein Konzept der Grundformen pädagogischen Handelns sieht er als Instrument, das Handeln zu reflektieren (1997: 17). Diese Grundformen (1997: 76ff.)1 dienen nun als Struktur, um das pädagogische Handeln der Explikationen reflektierend zu verdeutlichen. Arrangieren (1): Indem die pädagogischen Fachkräfte die vielfältigen Kommunikationskanäle von SONW nutzen, arrangieren sie die Voraussetzungen für vertrauensvolle Arbeitsbeziehungen oder arrangieren Situationen, die Bildungsprozesse ermöglichen. Animieren: Die pädagogischen Fachkräfte animieren die Jugendlichen zur Teilnahme an pädagogischen Arrangements wie Ausflügen und weiteren pädagogischen Situationen. Ebenso animieren sie die Jugendlichen sich in SONW zu artikulieren. Informieren/Beraten: Das Informieren und Beraten kann sich einerseits in den SONW abspielen, andererseits aber auch lediglich inhaltlich auf die SONW bezogen sein und offline/face-to-face stattfinden. Beide pädagogische Fachkräfte merken an, dass aus ihrer Sicht ein Face-to-Face-Gespräch aufgrund der Kanalreduktion nicht durch Nachrichten über SONW zu ersetzen und es daher wichtig sei, stets "zweigleisig" (Clara) zu arbeiten. Im Folgenden werden Herausforderungen und Reflexionsbedarfe, die sich aus den obigen Beispielen ergeben, erörtert. Herausforderungen und Ausblick SONW sind keine Jugendräume. Firmen sind dort ebenso präsent wie Erwachsene, die dort beruflich und privat netzwerken. Dementsprechend ist die Frage, ob sich pädagogische Fachkräfte in SONW aufhalten sollten, hinfällig (vgl. Stix 2014). Wichtiger ist es, einen Umgang miteinander zu entwickeln, der weder den pädagogischen Fachkräften noch den Jugendlichen zum Nachteil wird. Um die Jugendlichen zu erreichen, nutzen die pädagogischen Fachkräfte die bei jungen Menschen angesagten SONW-Angebote. Diese sind in der Regel kommerziell und wenig transparent oder reguliert, was den Umgang mit Nutzer_innendaten betrifft. Dies erfordert aus pädagogischer Sicht das Prüfen und Abwägen von Vor- und Nachteilen. Dementsprechend kann es nicht nur aufgrund der Kanalreduktion wichtig sein, ein Gespräch über ein sensibles Thema face-to-face zu führen und dies den Jugendlichen zu vermitteln. Ein reflektierter und sensibler Umgang mit Daten gilt auch für die Dokumentation von Aktionen, wie Felix ihn schildert. Beim Posten von Bildern muss er das Persönlichkeitsrecht der Jugendlichen beachten und prüfen, ob und ggf. welche Informationen möglicherweise unbeabsichtigt preisgegeben werden. Des Weiteren stellt sich die ethische Frage, inwiefern sich pädagogische Fachkräfte Informationen aktiv aus SONW besorgen und nutzen dürfen (vgl. Kutscher 2015). Eine weitere Herausforderung ergibt sich aus der Frage, ob nicht Jugendliche, die keinen Zugang zu SONW haben, ausgegrenzt oder benachteiligt werden. Dies zu reflektieren ist eine Aufgabe pädagogischer Professionalität. Die Nutzung von SONW birgt pädagogische Chancen. Zugleich ergeben sich daraus auch neue Verantwortungsdimensionen für das professionelle Handeln pädagogischer Fachkräfte. Das Handeln in SONW muss hinsichtlich möglicher negativer Konsequenzen für die Jugendlichen reflektiert werden. Die Entwicklung einer eigenen (medien-) pädagogischen Haltung sowie eine Rahmung durch Träger und kollegialer Austausch können dabei helfen. Pädagogisch professionell zu sein bedeutet auch, die Trends der jungen Menschen zu kennen und pädagogisch darauf zu reagieren. Im Falle von Social Media bewegt sich die Masse seit 2015 zu Angeboten wie WhatsApp und Instagram (mpfs 2016: 32f.). Es bleibt spannend, ob sich auch WhatsApp mit seinen anderen Strukturen mittelfristig als pädagogischer Handlungsraum etablieren und wie das pädagogische Handeln dort konkret aussehen wird – und welche Konflikte dies zu fachlichen Logiken und Standards mit sich bringt (vgl. Deutscher Bundestag 2013, S. 394), die zu reflektieren und in die Gestaltung pädagogischen Handelns einzubeziehen sind. (1) Ausgenommen das Unterrichten, von Giesecke verstanden als das Erklären von relativ komplexen Sachzusammenhängen in einem längeren Argumentationsprozess (1997: 79). ; Pedagogical professionals use social media platforms as professional spaces for action. This use includes the basic forms of pedagogical action, such as arranging, animating and informing/advising. "If I, as a professor of education, give advice to parents in a tram on how to deal with an obviously overtired child, then I am probably acting presumptuously, but not professionally, because the tram is not the place of my profession." (Giesecke 1997: 47) But how does it look when the places of pedagogical profession are now deliberately extended by pedagogical professionals acting pedagogically in online social networks (SONW)? SONW thus become new spaces for pedagogical action. The article uses selected case studies to show how SONW are used as pedagogical spaces of action by pedagogical professionals in open child and youth work (OKJA). Never before have so many young people and adults used the internet on a daily basis (mpfs 2017; Projektgruppe ARD/ZDF-Multimedia 2017). In view of this high importance, the question arises to what extent social work can also use the potentials of the internet and especially the potentials of SONW for itself. A pioneering role with regard to the use of SONW as pedagogical spaces for action is played by the pedagogical professionals of OKJA (JFF 2011). First of all, this article will illustrate how SONW are used as pedagogical spaces of action by means of some situations from OKJA. The examples used are taken from qualitative interviews with professionals conducted as part of the author's dissertation project. The following section deals with the question of how professionals perceive and articulate SONW as pedagogical spaces for action. In a summary, the situations described are categorised with regard to the basic forms of pedagogical action according to Giesecke. The article concludes with a position on the challenges posed by SONW and an outlook. Exemplary situations of SONW useIn the following, selected situations of everyday SONW use and their pedagogical implications are presented. The first set of examples shows this with the example of postings by young people. Because the youth worker Clara is friends with the young people on Facebook, she learns about insults and arguments and has the opportunity to influence them: "Then I noticed that she starts chatting with them and writes on the homepage: 'And you are so stupid' and hasn't seen it [to write]. And then of course I could intervene in advance. And then when they came, then I had information that I wouldn't have had otherwise and then I got them all into the office and addressed it quite openly." Intervening in disputes is everyday pedagogical work for the educational professionals in OKJA. In a first step, the situation is calmed down and then dealt with in a pedagogical framework with the parties involved. Clara can either directly enter into the interaction in the SONW by means of comments or force a conversation in the facility at a later time. She finds it very helpful to learn things indirectly, as the girl mentioned above might not have approached her on her own. Through her Facebook friendship, Clara also receives information that was not explicitly addressed to her, so it is up to her pedagogical competence to deal sensitively with this information and to decide whether she uses it actively or observes the situation passively. The youth worker Felix commented on a picture that two girls had posted. In this picture, the girls are staging themselves sitting on tram tracks. Felix seemed to need to question this: ''Okay, that's not so clear, what are you trying to say with this photo? Are you saying you don't like life anymore and you're waiting for the next tram to come and run you over?'" The girls experience self-efficacy as the youth worker responds to the photo. By openly thematising the picture messages, they are encouraged to reflect on their actions and thus educational processes are stimulated. Felix is also sensitised and can initiate a counselling or information situation at a later stage if necessary. Clara uses information that she receives about the young people from their postings to evoke a feeling of emotional connection in the follow-up communication: "And if, for example, you have already said on Facebook: 'I think it's great, you have a new dress'. Then they arrive: 'Gee Clara, really? Is that a nice dress? Tell me honestly.'" Here, the youth worker responds appreciatively to things that are of current concern to the young people, in individual cases, but also by the very fact that she engages with the young people's way of communicating. She thus creates a positive climate and evokes a feeling of emotional connection. Clara herself describes this as an intensification of contacts. Or in other words, she uses the SONW in a supportive way to continuously develop the relationship with the young people. These foundations for building a trusting working relationship are arranged by the youth worker. In the second set of examples, the pedagogical implications and intentions are presented based on the postings of the pedagogical professionals. Felix pursues both pedagogical and administrative intentions when he documents actions of the institution by means of picture postings in SONW. On the one hand, the postings have the purpose of promoting a sense of belonging to the institution by positively remembering shared experiences and encouraging the young people to reflect on and verbalise these emotions. "So if a nice photo is there, of course, and then the reaction to it would be: 'Yes, I was there. That was totally cool. Then that would already achieve a lot." Felix also wants to stimulate a dialogue about this specific action among the young people. With the comment function, he opens up a low-threshold possibility and thus motivates the young people to articulate themselves. En passant, he receives feedback through the comments and can arrange further corresponding offers. At the same time, both the documentation and the follow-up dialogue of the young people have a signal character to the outside: outsiders get an impression of the offers and the target group as well as an impression of how the educational professionals work; liveliness and openness are signalled. Both Clara and Felix use the SONW to arrange and initiate everyday educational offers or special experiences. They see an advantage above all in the fact that they can reach a large target group, namely all the young people associated with the institution, in a short time by means of postings. This becomes clear in Felix's facility, where the current educational offer is posted daily. In this way, he also reaches a target group that otherwise does not visit the facility, but only comes to outside events selectively. "Like now, for example, in the summer, when we go swimming somewhere then it is posted." Advertising the swimming trip by means of postings in SONW enables the above-mentioned young people to gain access to the facility or to the educational staff and to participate in the educational activities. Felix can in turn use this to get in touch with the young people and build trust. In addition, a different environment can provide a good framework to break down barriers between the different groups of visitors and to initiate new group dynamic processes. For example, Clara had tickets for the X Factor and Supertalent auditions and posted: "I got tickets. Who wants to come [.]?" or "I don't have tickets anymore." It thus enables young people to experience something special, not ordinary, and creates opportunities for educational processes. Arranging participation in special experiences and educational offers accordingly implies pedagogical action and goes beyond mass media advertising. The pedagogical action in SONW and SONW as pedagogical action spacesThe previous explications have shown the pedagogical content in dealing with mutual postings. In some examples, interventions were made directly in the SONW, making it clear how this is used as an additional, pedagogical space for action by the OKJA. However, the question now arises as to what extent the two pedagogical professionals perceive the SONW as a pedagogical space for action and describe it as such. When asked about her understanding of the term, Clara defines pedagogical action as "all actions that you carry out educationally in relation to young people". As an example, she mentions addressing conflicts on the basis of pedagogical and developmental psychological expertise, i.e. "knowing what can be meant by this and then addressing it". In doing so, she uses an evocative-provocative style of language, so-called modulations (cf. Cloos et al. 2009), to make the young people aware of their behaviour and its consequences. For Clara, this kind of pedagogical action is unquestionably also found in the SONW. She illustrates this with another example of a male adolescent who has photographed himself in a bodybuilder's pose: "And I say, 'My goodness, now you're being a muscleman!' and do it with a smiley face on the back, so that he actually knows what I mean." Again, she uses modulations to encourage the young person to reflect on their behaviour and to make them aware of the effects of the posted image. In addition, Clara would have the opportunity to use the interaction on Facebook for later follow-up communication within the institution. What is striking about Clara's understanding of pedagogical action is that she focuses on conflictual or problematic situations. For her, pedagogical action thus includes corrective action. In this, her definition differs from that of Giesecke. The latter defines pedagogical action as positively influencing people towards a mature personality by providing opportunities for educational processes (cf. 1997: 22ff.). Felix defines pedagogical action as arranging workshops, animating or teaching tolerance in the group. However, he only refers to face-to-face work within the institution, because Felix doubts that pedagogical action can be transferred to SONW: "And in relation to networks, the question can really be asked, is this a form of pedagogical action when I publish the offers? Because that is really only public relations work, information work. Although he does act pedagogically in SONW, he does not reflect and articulate this accordingly. For him, SONW are less additional pedagogical spaces for action than tools that facilitate administrative tasks. Giesecke also distinguishes the information output of mass media from pedagogical action and states that this always takes place face to face. Pedagogical action can only take place in the interactive situations that may subsequently be created (1997: 47f.). However, as the explications have made clear, this is no longer a fundamental condition for pedagogical action due to the interactivity of SONW today. Felix does use this interactivity in the practice of action, but interactivity does not play a role in reflection and articulation. Based on the two case studies, it becomes clear that the reflection of pedagogical implications in the use of SONW does not necessarily reflect practice. According to Giesecke, the antithesis of action is always reflection (1997: 45). He sees his concept of basic forms of pedagogical action as an instrument to reflect action (1997: 17). These basic forms (1997: 76ff.)1 now serve as a structure to reflectively clarify the pedagogical action of the explications. Arranging (1): By using SONW's multiple channels of communication, the pedagogical professionals arrange the conditions for trusting working relationships or arrange situations that make educational processes possible. Animate: The educational professionals encourage the young people to participate in educational arrangements such as excursions and other educational situations. They also encourage the young people to articulate themselves in SONW. Informing/advising: On the one hand, information and counselling can take place in the SONW, but on the other hand, it can also be related to the content of the SONW and take place offline/face-to-face. Both pedagogical professionals note that from their point of view, a face-to-face conversation cannot be replaced by messages via SONW due to the reduction of channels and that it is therefore important to always work "on two tracks" (Clara). Challenges and needs for reflection arising from the above examples are discussed below. Challenges and outlookSONW are not youth spaces. Companies are present there as well as adults who network there professionally and privately. Accordingly, the question of whether educational professionals should be in SONW is moot (cf. Stix 2014). It is more important to develop a way of dealing with each other that is not detrimental to either the pedagogical professionals or the young people. In order to reach the young people, the educational professionals use the SONW offers that are popular among young people. These are usually commercial and not very transparent or regulated when it comes to handling user data. From a pedagogical point of view, this requires checking and weighing the advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly, it can be important to have a conversation about a sensitive topic face-to-face and to communicate this to the young people, not only because of the channel reduction. A reflective and sensitive handling of data also applies to the documentation of actions, as Felix describes. When posting pictures, he has to consider the young people's right to privacy and check whether and which information might be revealed unintentionally. Furthermore, the ethical question arises to what extent educational professionals may actively obtain and use information from SONW (cf. Kutscher 2015). Another challenge arises from the question of whether young people who do not have access to SONW are excluded or disadvantaged. Reflecting on this is a task of pedagogical professionalism. The use of SONW offers pedagogical opportunities. At the same time, it also gives rise to new dimensions of responsibility for the professional action of educational specialists. The actions in SONW must be reflected on with regard to possible negative consequences for the young people. The development of one's own (media) pedagogical attitude as well as framing by the responsible body and collegial exchange can help here. Being pedagogically professional also means being aware of young people's trends and reacting to them pedagogically. In the case of social media, the masses have been moving towards offers such as WhatsApp and Instagram since 2015 (mpfs 2016: 32f.). It remains exciting to see whether WhatsApp with its other structures will also establish itself as a pedagogical space of action in the medium term and what pedagogical action there will look like in concrete terms - and what conflicts this will entail with professional logics and standards (cf. Deutscher Bundestag 2013, p. 394), which need to be reflected and included in the design of pedagogical action. (1) Except for teaching, understood by Giesecke as explaining relatively complex factual contexts in a longer process of argumentation (1997: 79).

A) Motivation und Problemstellung Der Computer ist heute eines der wichtigsten Hilfsmittel beim Entwurf und der Entwicklung von Fahrzeugen. Zunächst wurde er von Konstrukteuren für das Computer Aided Design (CAD) von virtuellen Fahrzeugmodellen eingesetzt. Inzwischen ist er in vielen anderen Bereichen der Fahrzeugentwicklung unentbehrlich geworden: der Entwicklungszyklus von Automobilen ist durch die Computer-gestützte numerische Simulation substanziell verkürzt worden. An virtuellen Prototypen gewonnene Ergebnisse können zunächst optimiert und anschließend am realen Prototypen validiert werden. Untersuchungen der Fahrdynamik, des Crash-Verhaltens, der Innenraumakustik und der Außenhautumströmung sind nur einige Anwendungsfelder, in denen Computer-basierte Technologien zur Senkung der Entwicklungskosten beitragen. Nach den Vorgaben aus dem Design wird ein Konstruktionsmodell erstellt; die erzeugten CAD-Daten beschreiben die Fahrzeugkomponenten anhand parametrischer Flächen und zusätzlicher Materialinformationen. Um die Daten in numerischen Simulationen verwenden zu können, müssen die Flächenbeschreibungen zunächst diskretisiert werden. Für die Strukturmechaniksimulation wird das CAD-Modell daher in ein Finite-Element-Modell umgewandelt, das dann zum größten Teil aus drei- und viereckigen Schalenelementen besteht. Das Finite-Element-Modell wird in einem Vorverarbeitungsschritt aufbereitet und mit zusätzlichen Daten ergänzt, bevor es dem Simulationsprogramm als Eingabedaten übergeben wird. Nach der meist sehr zeitintensiven Simulation, die für Gesamtfahrzeugmodelle mehrere Tage in Anspruch nehmen kann, liegen als Ergebnis große Datenmengen vor. Diese können aufgrund ihres Umfangs und ihrer Komplexität nur mit ausgereiften Visualisierungswerkzeugen ausgewertet werden. Die Erkenntnisse aus der Simulationsanalyse fließen an den Konstrukteur zurück. So schließt sich der Zyklus, der den virtuellen Prototypen solange iterativ verbessert, bis alle Zielgrößen erreicht werden. Bereits Anfang der achtziger Jahre wurden Strukturanalysen mit Hilfe numerischer Simulation anhand einfacher Balkenmodelle durchgeführt. Die Modellkomplexität geht mit der Leistungssteigerung der Hardware und der Weiterentwicklung der Simulationssoftware einher: die Modellgröße hat sich seitdem alle drei Jahre mehr als verdoppelt. Der Notwendigkeit, dem Entwicklungsingenieur entsprechende Visualisierungswerkzeuge zur Verfügung zu stellen, wurde bisher von den Herstellern der Simulationssoftware mit eigenen Lösungen begegnet. Anfangs entstanden einfache Darstellungsanwendungen, die das Fahrzeug als Gittermodell zeichneten, ohne einen räumlichen Eindruck zu vermitteln; die Applikationen wurden weiterentwickelt, entsprechen jedoch heute in der Regel nicht mehr dem, was im Bereich der Softwareentwicklung und vor allem der Visualisierung Stand der Technik ist. Der Fortschritt durch wissenschaftliche Forschung in der Computergraphik und die Weiterentwicklung der Hardware, insbesondere der Graphiksubsysteme, lässt die Lücke zwischen dem, was in der Visualisierung möglich ist, und dem, was in kommerziellen Produkten zur Datenanalyse angeboten wird, immer größer klaffen. Zudem ist die Wissenschaft im Bereich der angewandten Informatik stets bemüht, Einsatzgebiete zu identifizieren, in denen neu entwickelte Methoden evaluiert und verbessert werden können. Eine enge Zusammenarbeit zwischen Ingenieuren und Wissenschaftlern erscheint daher als sehr vielversprechend und zwingend notwendig. Die vorliegende Arbeit ist im Rahmen einer engen Kooperation mit der Berechnungsabteilung der BMW-Gruppe entstanden. Sie hat zum Ziel, den bestehenden Fahrzeugentwicklungsprozess im Umfeld der Strukturmechaniksimulation zu analysieren und durch Adaption neuer Methoden der Computergraphik aus anderen Bereichen sowie durch Entwicklung neuer Visualisierungstechniken und Interaktionsmechanismen zu beschleunigen. Eine Evaluation der eingesetzten Konzepte soll anhand einer prototypischen Applikation vorgenommen werden. Bisher wurde in der Visualisierung im Bereich der Strukturmechaniksimulation auf Basis von vierseitigen Schalenelementen nur wenig geforscht. Für die Analyse von Crash-Simulationsergebnissen müssen große, zeitabhängige Datensätze effizient verarbeitet werden. Dabei soll die Netzstruktur des Finite-Element-Modells erhalten bleiben, ohne dass dabei auf hohe Interaktionsraten verzichtet werden muss. Eine schnelle Datenaufbereitung spielt dabei eine ebenso wichtige Rolle, wie die Navigation durch das virtuelle dreidimensionale Fahrzeugmodell mit Hilfe der an einem Standardarbeitsplatz vorhandenen Eingabegeräte. Die Weiterentwicklung der Simulationscodes hat es ermöglicht, Teilstrukturen mit Randbedingungen zu versehen, so dass nun Berechnungen an Teilmodellen vorgenommen werden können. In der Karosserieberechnung werden anstatt homogen vernetzter Gesamtmodelle seitdem unabhängig voneinander vernetzte Bauteile zu virtuellen Fahrzeugmodellen zusammengesetzt. Der Netzanschluss benachbarter Bauteile wird nun nicht mehr über das aufwändige Abgleichen und Nutzen gemeinsamer Randknoten hergestellt; stattdessen überlappen die Bauteilnetze in Flanschbereichen, wo sie durch neu entwickelte Verbindungselemente aneinander gebunden werden. Dies hat unter anderem den Vorteil, dass einzelne Bauteile durch Varianten ausgetauscht werden können, ohne dass die Umgebung neu vernetzt werden muss. Wichtige Entscheidungen müssen bereits in der frühen Phase eines Fahrzeugprojektes aufgrund der durch numerische Simulation gewonnenen Erkenntnisse getroffen werden. Das setzt voraus, dass die bis dahin verfügbaren Konstruktionsdaten in rechenbare Simulationsmodelle umgesetzt werden können. Durch die unabhängige Vernetzung einzelner Bauteile und den unterschiedlichen Konstruktionsstand der verschiedenen Fahrzeugkomponenten kommt es nach der Zusammenführung häufig zu Berührungen und Durchdringungen der Bauteilnetze im diskretisierten Finite-Element-Modell. Diese müssen zunächst detektiert und beseitigt werden, da sie ansonsten die Simulationsergebnisse verfälschen würden. Darüber hinaus müssen die Bauteilnetze miteinander durch Verbindungselemente verbunden werden. Da die Konstruktionsdaten in der frühen Phase jedoch keine vollständigen Verbindungsdaten beinhalten, muss der Berechnungsingenieur den Datensatz mit entsprechender Information aufbereiten. Die Vorverarbeitung von Eingabedaten für den Simulationsprozess nimmt angesichts steigender Variantenrechnungen und einer halbwegs automatisierten Standardauswertung der Simulationsergebnisse gegenüber der Nachbearbeitung einen immer höheren Stellenwert ein. Derartige Ergänzungen der Simulationsmodelle mussten bisher mit Hilfe eines Text-Editors direkt an den Eingabedateien vorgenommen werden. Netzfehler und fehlende Anbindungen zwischen Bauteilen konnten lediglich durch Anrechnen des Modells entdeckt werden. Dazu wurde der Simulationsprozess gestartet und nach einiger Zeit wieder abgebrochen. Durch die Analyse der bis dahin berechneten Zwischenergebnisse werden derartige Unzulänglichkeiten des Eingabemodells sichtbar. Vorweggenommene Konsistenzprüfungen machen zeitaufwändige Anrechnungen überflüssig. Weiteres Prozessoptimierungspotenzial liegt in der Integration und Angleichung verschiedener Werkzeuge. Eine enge Kopplung des Simulationsprozesses an die Vor- und Nachbearbeitung der Daten durch ein und dieselbe Applikation, die sowohl Ein- als auch Ausgabedaten verarbeiten kann, schafft die Grundlage für eine schnelle Iteration im Optimierungsprozess und trägt zur angestrebten Reduzierung der vom Ingenieur zu bedienenden Vielzahl von Applikationen bei. In Zeiten fortschreitender Globalisierung und Fusionierung, aber auch durch zunehmendes Outsourcing der Teilmodellerstellung an darauf spezialisierte Dienstleistungsunternehmen steigt der Kommunikationsbedarf über räumliche Grenzen hinweg zusammenarbeitender Entwicklungsteams. Kostenintensive Besprechungen, zu denen sich alle Beteiligten an einem Ort zusammenfinden müssen, können nur durch Verbesserung der bereits vorhandenen Fernkommunikationsinfrastruktur reduziert werden. Da auf die gemeinsame Betrachtung der Modelldaten als Diskussionsgrundlage bei Besprechungen nicht verzichtet werden kann, bietet sich eine netzwerkbasierte Kopplung entfernter Arbeitsplätze an, um kleinere Besprechungstermine durch Telefonate mit zeitgleicher kooperativer Visualisierungssitzung am Arbeitsplatzrechner ersetzen zu können. Ein weiterer Aspekt befasst sich mit der Absicherung der Zuverlässigkeit von Simulationsergebnissen. Um eine Aussage darüber machen zu können, welche Modifikation der Fahrzeugstruktur das simulierte Verhalten positiv beeinflusst hat, müssen zunächst alle Einflussfaktoren, die auf die Simulation wirken, analysiert werden. Dies geschieht in Stabilitätsanalysen, in denen anhand gleicher Eingabedaten die Streuung der Simulationsergebnisse gemessen und die Ursache dafür erforscht wird. Durch konstruktive Maßnahmen soll in Ursprungsbereichen maximaler Streuung das Modell dahingehend modifiziert werden, dass gleiche Eingabedaten zu annähernd gleichen Simulationsresultaten führen. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist, das Pre- und Postprocessing von Strukturmechaniksimulation im Fahrzeugentwicklungsprozess bezüglich neuer Funktionalität und Leistungsfähigkeit durch die Einbeziehung neuer Graphiktechnologien sowie durch die Entwicklung neuer Visualisierungsalgorithmen signifikant voranzubringen. B) Beiträge dieser Arbeit Da die Arbeit in enger Zusammenarbeit mit der Karosserieberechnungsabteilung der BMW-Gruppe entstand und die Forschungsergebnisse direkt von den Ingenieuren an alltäglichen Problemstellungen eingesetzt werden sollten, mussten zunächst Voraussetzungen für eine erhöhte Akzeptanz bei den Anwendern geschaffen werden. Dazu gehören vor allem kurze Ladezeiten der Daten, eine intuitiv zu bedienende Benutzerschnittstelle sowie komfortable Funktionalität, die es ermöglicht, die Aufgaben schneller zu lösen als mit anderen Applikationen. Die Analyse der zu verarbeitenden zeitabhängigen Simulationsdaten und der zum Einlesen zur Verfügung gestellten Bibliothek führte zu einer geeigneten internen Datenstruktur, die eine effiziente Datenaufbereitung erlaubt und damit zu geringeren Start-up-Zeiten führt als bei vielen kommerziell verfügbaren Visualisierungswerkzeugen. Ferner resultiert aus der Evaluation verschiedener Szenengraphbibliotheken unter Berücksichtigung der Rechnerplattform im Anwenderumfeld die Entscheidung zu Cosmo3D / OpenGL Optimizer. Durch die Datenstrukturen und Funktionalitäten der Bibliothek bleibt der Ressourcenbedarf im Zusammenspiel mit einem optimierten Szenengraph-Design im Rahmen dessen, was auf einem Standard-Arbeitsplatzrechner zur Verfügung steht. Zur Beschleunigung der Bildsynthese werden bereits bekannte Verfahren zur Optimierung polygonaler Modelle für die Weiterverarbeitung in der OpenGL Pipeline mit adaptierten Algorithmen verglichen, die unter Berücksichtigung der zugrunde liegenden Daten Quadrilateralstreifen maximaler Länge bilden. Zusätzlich wird der Einsatz verschiedener Detailstufen im CAE-Umfeld untersucht und eine Lösung zur deutlichen Steigerung der Bildwiederholrate während der Navigation durch das Finite-Element-Modell präsentiert. Durch die Entwicklung und Evaluation Textur-basierter Visualisierungsverfahren werden deren Vorzüge anhand verschiedener Beispiele aus dem Berechnungsumfeld verdeutlicht. Daraus lässt sich die Notwendigkeit ableiten, Standard-Arbeitsplatzrechner in Zukunft mit entsprechender Graphik-Hardware auszustatten, um von den Möglichkeiten moderner Visualisierungsalgorithmen profitieren zu können. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Möglichkeit geschaffen, nach dem interaktiven Zusammenführen der Modellkomponenten aus verschiedenen Datenquellen auftretende Netzfehler zu visualisieren und selektiv zu beheben. Dazu kommen auf hierarchischen Datenstrukturen basierende Algorithmen zum Einsatz. Verbunden mit Methoden zur Darstellung und interaktiven Modifikation von Verbindungselementen sowie der Detektion fehlerhafter Schweißpunktdaten wird die Grundlage geschaffen, um Finite-Element-Modelle für die Crash-Simulation effizient aufzubereiten und die Modellerstellung für Variantenrechnungen stark zu vereinfachen. Speziell auf die Bedürfnisse der Berechnungsingenieure zugeschnittene Interaktions- und Navigationsmechanismen sowie frei bewegliche Clip-Objekte erleichtern den Umgang mit den Modelldaten. Durch die Entwicklung dreidimensionaler Selektionsobjekte und eine effiziente Schnittkraftberechnung steht die Kraftflussvisualisierung mit Hilfe dynamischer Kraftflussröhren nun auch als interaktives Analysewerkzeug im Postprocessing zur Verfügung. Die Berechnung der notwendigen Größen im Batch-Betrieb und die anschließende Zwischenspeicherung in einem eigenen Dateiformat ermöglicht die Standardauswertung von festgelegten Kraftflussverläufen im Anschluss an die Simulation. Dies trägt weiterhin zur Beschleunigung und Automatisierung der Nachverarbeitung bei. Mit der Entwicklung eines Bild- beziehungsweise Filmgenerators konnte mit Ergebnissen dieser Arbeit zur Entwicklung eines Integrationswerkzeuges für die Ablaufsteuerung und das Datenmanagement in der Karosserieberechnung beigetragen werden. Es werden zwei Lösungen für Szenarien einer kooperativen Sitzung mit mehreren Rechnern präsentiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen auf, wie zeitaufwändige Treffen zwischen Ingenieuren durch Telefonate mit gleichzeitiger kooperativer Visualisierungssitzung ersetzt werden können. Das vorgestellte Verfahren zur Stabilitätsanalyse von Simulationsprozessen hilft, Ursprünge von Instabilitäten aufzudecken und die Aussagekraft der Simulationsergebnisse verbesserter Modelle zu erhöhen. Durch diese Arbeit ist eine prototypische Visualisierungsplattform für die Vor- und Nachbereitung von Strukturmechanikdaten namens crashViewer entstanden. Das objektorientierte Softwaredesign des Prototypen erlaubt die Integration weiterer Datenformate sowie die Implementierung neuer Algorithmen zu deren Evaluation im produktiven Einsatz in der Karosserieberechnung, aber auch in anderen CAE-Bereichen. C) Gliederung der Arbeit Im Folgenden wird ein Überblick über den Aufbau dieser Arbeit gegeben, woraus der Zusammenhang der Kapitel untereinander hervorgeht. Kapitel 2 motiviert die Entwicklung einer in die Simulation integrierten Vor- und Nachverarbeitungsapplikation. Zu Beginn führt das Kapitel in das breite Feld der digitalen Fahrzeugentwicklung ein. Das Umfeld der Crash-Simulation wird detaillierter betrachtet, wodurch ein Fundament für ein besseres Verständnis der darauffolgenden Kapitel geschaffen wird. Kapitel 3 gibt einen Überblick zu den Grundlagen der interaktiven Computergraphik und der Visualisierung. Darüber hinaus werden die der Crash-Simulation zugrunde liegenden Daten beschrieben, indem zunächst die Strukturen, aus denen sich ein Gesamtfahrzeugmodell im Allgemeinen zusammensetzt, erläutert werden und anschließend auf die Datenformate der Simulationseingaben beziehungsweise der Simulationsergebnisse eingegangen wird, um die breite Spanne der zu verarbeitenden Daten zu beleuchten. Kapitel 4 präsentiert ein effizientes Szenengraph-Design für zeitabhängige Finite-Element-Modelle mit invarianter Topologie. Dazu werden die notwendigen Grundlagen der verwendeten Graphikbibliotheken vermittelt und Erweiterungsmöglichkeiten diskutiert. Kapitel 5 erläutert die Architektur des im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entstandenen Prototypen und gibt einen Überblick über entwickelte Interaktionsmechanismen zur effizienten Datenanalyse. Kapitel 6 diskutiert verschiedene Verfahren zur Darstellungsbeschleunigung. Während sich die Quadrilateralstreifengenerierung und die Simplifizierung mit der Optimierung der modellierten Geometrie für eine effiziente Verarbeitung in der Graphik-Hardware auseinandersetzt, zeigt der letzte Teil dieses Kapitels, wie durch den Einsatz von Texturen zusätzliche Geometrieverarbeitung überflüssig wird. Kapitel 7 stellt spezielle Funktionalitäten für die Vorverarbeitung von Eingabemodellen vor. Außer der in verschiedenen Bereichen eingesetzten Distanzvisualisierung wird das interaktive Modifizieren von Schweißpunktdaten und die Parameterübertragung zwischen inkompatiblen Gittern erläutert. Kapitel 8 veranschaulicht Konzepte für die Nachverarbeitung von Simulationsergebnissen. Es werden Techniken zur Visualisierung skalarer und vektorieller Größen präsentiert. Darüber hinaus werden die interaktive Kraftflussvisualisierung und die Darstellung von Instabilitäten in Simulationsergebnissen betrachtet. Die CORBA-basierte Erweiterung zum gemeinschaftlichen Arbeiten räumlich getrennter Anwender, sowie die Batch-basierte Bild- und Film-Generierung von Strukturmechanikdaten schließen die Vorstellung der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit neu entwickelten Methoden ab. Kapitel 9 stellt die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit in einen Kontext. An Beispielen aus dem produktiven Entwicklungsprozess werden die erzielten Fortschritte verdeutlicht und die Akzeptanz bei den Anwendern kritisch beleuchtet. Abschließend wird ein Überblick über weiterführende Arbeiten gegeben, die auf den vorliegenden Ergebnissen basieren. ; This thesis presents visualization techniques and interaction concepts that have been developed for the pre- and post-processing of structural mechanics. This work was done in cooperation with the crash simulation department of the BMW Group. The automotive industry's main goal is ensuring its share of a global market, which is becoming ever more competitive and dynamic. On the one hand, product quality has to be increased in relation to fuel consumption, weight, and passive safety. On the other hand the development process needs to be streamlined in order to reduce development costs and time to market. These objectives are hoped to be achieved by making extensive use of virtual prototyping. The vehicle development process has completely changed during the past two decades. In the early eighties finite element analysis found its way into the simulation of structural mechanics in the German automotive industry. Initially developed for military purposes, in 1983 a group of engineers of several automotive companies started feasibility studies based on finite element models containing less than 5,000 beam elements. Seven years later productive results of finite element analysis in structural mechanics started to influence car body development. In the second half of the nineties important project decisions were made during the early phase of the development process based on a deeper insight into crash behavior provided by crash-worthiness simulation results. Today, numerical simulation is an indispensable part of the computer aided product development chain in the automotive industry. After the design of a new car model is completed, a digital model is constructed by means of computer aided design (CAD). In a meshing step the created parametric surfaces defined by spline curves are discretized. The results describe the geometry of the car body by finite elements, for crash simulation mainly three- or four-sided shells but also beams and volumetric elements. The finite element model is completed, for example, with material properties, contact information, and boundary conditions. This is done in a preprocessing step. Once the simulation input data is available, the whole model is handed over to the simulation process which takes about one or two days using massive parallel processing. The deformation is recorded in a large result file. Commonly, the first 120 milliseconds of a crash are simulated and each two-thousandth time step is stored. A time step of less than one microsecond leads to a result file containing more than sixty snapshots. Typically, physical data such as acceleration, velocity, displacement, and forces per nodes or thickness, stress, strain, and other energies per element are recorded. During post-processing the information is analyzed in order to evaluate crash-worthiness. The feedback provided for the construction department closes the loop when all goals set for the car body structure have been attained. The virtual car body development in the pre- and post-processing of crash simulation divides into two main phases: (1) In the concept phase, new ideas are discussed and evaluated in order to reach a priority objective like minimizing car body weight. Only few people per car project are involved for a period of 12 to 18 months in this first stage. (2) After the basic decisions have been made regarding new concepts, a second phase follows which compromises all other fields to refine those concepts with respect to other objectives coming from the area of stability, dynamic or NVH. This phase requires many engineers from different departments for a period of more than 30 months to optimize the product. The later undesirable properties are revealed the higher the cost will be for the then necessary changes. Until the late nineties transitions between adjacent car body parts were modeled as two finite element meshes that share common nodes at the border. Each time a car body part was replaced by an optimized variant in order to enhance the crash behavior either the whole car model had to be re-meshed or border nodes had to be adapted manually. Therefore, preparing such variant models was a very time consuming task. After simulation codes like PAM-CRASH were able to simulate car body connections like for example spotwelds, finite element models became more like their counterparts made of steel. Now, a flange is constructed, along which adjacent car body parts can be connected without sharing common nodes. This allows for an independent meshing of car body parts and therefore for more variant computations. However, independent meshing lead to mesh penetration or even perforation in flange areas when inhomogeneous meshes are assembled. Thus, a new task arose for preprocessing where those mesh errors have to be removed in order to avoid error-prone simulation results. On the post-processing side, large time-dependent data sets require dedicated visualization methods that help the engineers to interpret the huge amount of data at interactive frame rates. Therefore, finite element meshes need to be prepared for an optimized processing in the graphics pipeline. Typical types of data that have to be visualized are scalar values, vectors, tensors or any combination thereof. In 1997, when most of the commercial visualization tools provided by solver companies as add-on to the simulation software could no longer provide state-of-the-art graphics, a demand arose for new visualization techniques available for productive use. Besides, the growing throughput caused by an increasing number of car body variants and the acceleration of computation hardware allowing more optimization cycles, made it necessary to automate as much processing steps as possible. The growing outsourcing of development tasks to suppliers and the number of merges in the automotive industry, which entail cooperation of corresponding departments at different sites, require a client-server-solution for cooperative work. Finally, the simulation community is concerned about the validity of their results compared to real crash-tests. It is important to detect and minimize the sources of scattering in the results originated by the simulation model or process. This is also a precondition for stochastic simulation, which is used in order to optimize the crash behavior by varying input parameters. The goal of this thesis is to provide solutions to some of the issues just stated. First of all, the applicability of different scene graph APIs is evaluated for large time-dependent data sets. APIs such as Performer or Cosmo3D / OpenGL Optimizer have been developed to take advantage of multiprocessing. Those APIs can perform model optimization during scene graph creation and benefit from multiprocessing using frustum culling and occlusion culling while traversing the scene graph to increase frame and interaction rates. Because of the large time-dependent databases and the limited memory of the workstations an efficient scene graph design is very important in order to handle the complex data interdependencies and to achieve high rendering speed. While five years ago the models consisted of about 250,000 finite elements with nearly the same number of nodes, today the size of the models has almost quadrupled. Since the element topology does not change in crash simulation, the connectivity of the finite elements needs to be stored just once. An index set representing the topology is shared across the sub-graphs of all time steps. A Gouraud shaded surface requires to do the edge detection on the state where geometry is deformed most, which is in general the last one. In order to minimize memory consumption, the index set is used for both coordinates and normals. Therefore, coordinates at vertices with multiple normals need to be added once per normal. Other scene graph nodes, e.g. the one specifying the appearance, can also be shared. Handling triangular elements as degenerate quadrilaterals allows to represent a mesh of three- and four-sided shell elements in one scene graph node. The prototype application named crashViewer, which was implemented to evaluate the methods developed in this thesis, uses Cosmo3D / OpenGL Optimizer for historical reasons: this bundle had been presented as predecessor of the 1997 announced Fahrenheit project, which was aborted two years later. Nevertheless, the proposed scene graph design allows to visualize 60 time steps of a model containing half a million elements and the same number of nodes with a memory consumption of 360 MB (flat-shaded) or 970 MB (Gouraud-shaded), provided that a crease angle of 20 degree leads to 40% more normals than vertices. One basic requirement for an interactive visualization application is that the frame rate does not fall below an acceptable minimum threshold. What "acceptable" means depends on data and experience with other tools. Generally speaking, visualization data should be rendered as fast as possible. For this reason, one aim of this work is to point out methods to optimize the finite element meshes' rendering acceleration. Two approaches are examined: (1) concatenation of adjacent elements to reduce data redundancy during geometry processing and (2) mesh simplification to remove information that does not significantly influence the shape of a car body part. Although OpenGL Optimizer provides a tri-stripper (opTriStripper) that is able to convert any polygonal mesh into strips of triangles, it is not applicable in this field because the original mesh structure should still be visible in wireframe mode. Hence, a quadrilateral stripper was developed, which analyses the mesh structure and generates many parallel bands of maximum length. As a matter of fact, quad-strips are not as versatile as tri-strips because each turn costs two extra vertices. However, compared to opTriStripper's reduction to 63.5% the proposed bandification algorithm reduces the number of referenced vertices to 54% of an unstripped representation averaged over 3,274 car body parts. Depending on the availability of vertex arrays the bandification leads to a rendering speed-up factor of about 4.5 without and 1.7 with vertex arrays in comparison to the unstripped geometry. In order to achieve even higher frame rates during camera interaction, a two-stage level-of-detail concept is developed. In addition to a fine level displaying the original mesh resolution, which is essential for the visualization in pre- and post-processing of structural mechanics simulation, a second level with coarse triangles is used as intermediate model for camera movement. Each time the user modifies the view, a previously simplified mesh is rendered until the camera parameters are no longer changed. Then the finer level of detail is displayed. An simplification algorithm was implemented which uses the one-sided Hausdorff distance as an error measure and which is compared to the Successive Relaxation Algorithm provided by OpenGL Optimizer as opSRASimplify. Aside from the interface opSRASimplify, which turns out to be unsuitable for getting an optimal decimated mesh with respect to a predetermined error tolerance, the resulting mesh quality is not as high as with the new HECSimplify simplifier. Breaking the error criterion can be avoided by defining an appropriate cost function for opSRASimplify, which causes less triangles to be removed compared to HECSimplify. If the decimation target is specified to achieve the same level of reduction, then the resulting triangle mesh contains gaps and the model appears distorted. Different car body models are reduced to 9-18% of the original number of triangles applying HECSimplify. This leads to a rendering speed-up factor of between 3.4 and 6.7. There is a trade-off between rendering speed and memory consumption. HECSimplify only applies half-edge collapses to the polygonal mesh. These operations just modify the topology, not the vertex coordinates. Therefore, the original and the reduced mesh are able to refer to the same set of coordinates. On the one hand, coordinate set sharing requires less memory, on the other hand the speed-up factor of a model that could be reduced to 9% of the original triangles is far away from 11. Both modules, the quad-stripper and the simplifier, are embedded into the Cosmo3D / OpenGL Optimizer framework by providing corresponding action objects and new scene graph nodes. Furthermore, the scene graph API was extended by several other new objects to overcome the restrictions with line picking or to provide new functionality. For example, the csClipGroup node enables the user to control a freely movable clip-plane, which affects only the underlying scene graph. This provides better insight into heavily deformed car body structures. Another form of clipping that is developed within this thesis uses one-dimensional RGBA texture maps in order to hide geometry that should not be displayed under certain conditions. This visualization method can be used, for example, to mask out those model regions that do not correspond to a given critical value range. In combination with distance values to adjacent car body parts the rendering can be restricted to potential flange regions of the model. For that purpose, first of all the parameter has to be transformed into a texture coordinate with respect to the specified parameter range. Then, a color scale is defined as a texture map. Using the GL_DECAL environment the color coding can be limited to regions of certain value ranges. Using the same mechanism in the GL_MODULATE environment with the alpha-test enabled allows for clipping the geometry where the corresponding values map into texture regions with an alpha component set to be fully transparent. This technique facilitates the accentuation of critical structures, because the user is able to interactively modify the texture map or the texture lookup table, if an index texture is used to control the visualization. As stated above, the most important change in finite element modeling for crash simulation was the introduction of independently meshed car body parts. Since the assembly of such inhomogeneous meshes may include perforations or penetrations, for example, caused by a shifted discretization along curved flanges, there was a growing demand for an interactive method to detect and remove this kind of mesh errors. Perforating regions can be detected by applying collision detection to the finite element model. Efficient collision detection as proposed by Gottschalk et al. requires hierarchical sub-structuring of the car body model. Consequently, in this study, each car body part is subdivided by a bounding volume tree (BVT). Different bounding volume types are tested: spheres, axis-aligned (AABB), and object-oriented bounding boxes (OBB). For perforation detection, where computation-intensive element-element-intersection tests are necessary at the lowest BVT level, OBBs turn out to be most efficient because they are very tight positioned around the element structure. Hence, downward traversals in the BVT can be terminated early because any one of 15 separating axes that defines a plane disjoining both volumes can be found. In order to detect penetrating nodes the minimum node-element-distances need to be computed. The BVT traversal algorithm is adapted appropriately. Children of a BVT node are visited only if their distance falls below a specified maximum distance of interest. Penetrating node-element-pairs are collected in a list for subsequent visualization. Using an interface to the original PAM-CRASH algorithm for penetration removal it is possible to provide the desired interactive mechanism that allows the engineers even to restrict mesh modification to selected car body parts. This is a big advantage over starting the simulation until initial forces move penetrating nodes apart from penetrated elements and restoring the computed mesh modification in the input data deck. First, the interactive method gives direct feedback and the engineers do not have to switch tools. Second, during the optimization of the car body structure by replacing single car body parts by variants this procedure enables the engineers to keep everything but the variant part fixed. Thus, only the nodes of the incoming part are aligned to its neighborhood and the confined modification makes it easier to compare the results of two simulations runs. What is more, the bounding volume hierarchy provides beneficial effects on many other tasks in pre- and post-processing of crash-worthiness simulation. It can be used to detect and follow flanges automatically or to spot flange regions that have only been inadequately connected. A basic task is the verification of connecting elements. For example, a spotweld must not exceed a maximum distance to those parts it should connect. Otherwise, a pending spotweld may suspend the simulation run delaying the development process and raising costs. In this study, several criteria for the validation of connecting elements are elaborated. Erroneous spotweld elements are emphasized by different colors and/or geometry. The engineers are successively guided to each problematic connection. Without this feature it would not be possible to find these model errors in such a short time. Furthermore, a method is developed that enables the computation engineers to effectively add missing connection information by means of spotwelds to the input model. Thus, it becomes even practicable to start with crash-worthiness simulations before detailed connection data is available from CAD data. One aim in virtual vehicle development is to combine the results of several areas in numerical simulation. In order to map the real development chain closely onto the virtual one, material properties influencing preliminary steps like forming have to be considered. For example, a deep-drawn blank sheet has a lower thickness in areas of high curvature than in other areas. As long as the material of a car body in crash simulation is assumed to be constant the before mentioned manufacturing influences cannot be properly represented. A hardware-based method is developed in this thesis for the efficient mapping of any type of data between incompatible meshes that are geometrically congruent. It utilizes the transformation and interpolation capability of the graphics subsystem. Element identifiers of one mesh are color-coded. For each element of the other mesh the view matrix is set up appropriately and the visible part of the first mesh is rendered. The colors that represent the element IDs can be read back into main memory. After the correlation between elements is finished in graphics hardware, the values are finally transfered in software. The post-processing of crash-worthiness simulation results necessitates the handling of large data sets. Since a binary result file may contain 2 GB of data but an engineer's workstation often is limited to 1 GB of main memory these boundary conditions need to be considered while designing data structures and algorithms of visualization software for this application area. On the other hand, interactivity and high rendering performance is a precondition to obtain acceptance by the user. The required tool should provide interaction mechanisms that assist the user in exploring and navigating through the data. Mainly, it should help to interpret the data by making the invisible visible. Besides an effective scene graph design, in this study, the internal data structures of the developed prototype application have been implemented with memory consumption in mind. Parameter transfer in post-processing is done state by state very fast by pointer-based data structures. The extensive use of texture mapping enhances the rendering performance. Visualization techniques are proposed that use textures for the direct mapping of scalar values onto the car body geometry, for the animated display of vector data, and for the visual discretization of the finite element mesh in the form of a wireframe texture map. All these approaches spare the transformation stage of the graphics pipeline additional processing of vertex-based data. For example, the traditional display method for shaded geometry with visible element borders is two-pass rendering, which halves the frame rate. The application of a black-bordered luminance texture, which is white inside, onto each geometric primitive balances the load between geometry and texture unit. Also, the encoding of a vector's direction by applying an animated texture onto a line reduces geometry load and leaves the underlying structure mostly visible in contrast to conventional vector visualization with arrows. Force flux visualization, first presented by Kuschfeldt et al. gives an overview over which components of the car body model absorb or transfer forces. It is necessary to detect and to understand the force progression within the car body structure. For example, the longitudinal structures within the front part of a car body play an important role for increasing the ability of the body to absorb forces in a frontal crash. Force flux visualization enables the engineers to design car components with an optimal crash behavior. This technique was made available for interactive daily use in crash simulation analysis. Providing a dedicated interaction mechanism, the prototype application allows to interactively define a trace-line along which the force flux can be visualized. For each section plane positioned in small intervals perpendicular along the trace-line the simulated node forces are accumulated. The resampling is accelerated by utilization of the bounding volume hierarchy. Each section force sum is then represented by color and radius of one ring of a tube around the trace-line. The dynamic trace-line definition aligns the force tube to the deforming structure of the analyzed car body part, for example, a longitudinal mounting. The specified trace-lines can be stored in order to precompute force tubes off line. This can be done by another prototype application in batch processing after simulation has finished. During a visualization session the precomputed values can be directly converted into time dependent force tube representations. The decoupling of time consuming computation and the interactive visualization further accelerates the analysis of crash-worthiness simulation. Starting multiple simulation runs with the same input data deck will produce different results. The scattering in results has to be minimized in order to be able to evaluate the influence of structure modifications. This work presents a method to detect and visualize instabilities of the simulation. The above stated texture-based visualization points out sources of instability and helps the engineers to determine if a branching is caused by the model structure or if it was originated by the solver. The pros and cons of different measurement functions are discussed. Furthermore, a CORBA-based synchronization of multiple viewers displaying different data sets is presented. This allows to analyze the simulation results of one run in direct comparison to those of other runs. It is very useful to view the differences in crash behavior of multiple car body models on one workstation. Moreover, this functionality can be used in combination with a telephone call to supersede a meeting between a computation engineer and his external supplier. The visualization is done locally on each client. Providing that data and software is available at each participating client, the only data that have to be transferred during a cooperative session are the events triggered at the steering master-client and propagated to one or more slave-clients. A master token decides which participant is able to send generated events to the other instances. This mechanism avoids conflicting camera control when multiple users try to modify their view at the same time. Another approach describes how an image-based client-server model can be used in this context. After a frame has been rendered on the server, it is encoded to reduce the amount of data. The encoded image stream is transferred to any client that is able to decode and display. There are less requirements for the client but the connection needs to provide a certain bandwidth. This scenario can also be used for remote visualization. The prototype crashViewer can be connected to a Java applet running inside a web-browser. Finally, a method for standardized analysis of crash-worthiness simulation is presented. A batch-processing prototype application has been developed to generate digital movies using a predetermined camera path. The contributions of this thesis aim at further acceleration of the virtual vehicle development process, for example, by introducing new interaction mechanisms, making extensive use of hierarchical data structures, using hardware-accelerated visualization techniques, and providing solutions for process automation.

Curriculum material is generally considered the subject matter of information, talents, dispositions, understandings, and principles that make up research programs in the field. At a more complex level, the curricula need to contain historical and socio-political strengths, traditions, cultural views, and goals with wide differences in sovereignty, adaptation, and local understanding that encompass a diversity of cultures, laws, metaphysics, and political discourse This study aims to develop a curriculum with local content as a new approach in early childhood science learning. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) is compiled and developed to preserve the uniqueness of local culture, natural environment, and community crafts for early childhood teachers so that they can introduce local content to early childhood. Research and model development combines the design of the Dick-Carey and Dabbagh models with qualitative and quantitative descriptive analysis. The results showed that local content curriculum products can be supplemented into early childhood curricula in institutions according to local conditions. Curricula with local content can be used as a reinforcement for the introduction of science in early childhood. The research implication demands the concern of all stakeholders to see that the introduction of local content is very important to be given from an early age, so that children know, get used to, like, maintain, and love local wealth from an early age. Keywords: Early Childhood, Scientific Learning, Local Content Curriculum Model References: Agustin, R. S., & Puro, S. (2015). Strategy Of Curriculum Development Based On Project Based Learning (Case Study: SMAN 1 Tanta Tanjung Tabalong South Of Kalimantan ) Halaman : Prosiding Ictte Fkip Uns, 1, 202–206. Agustina, N. Q., & Mukhtaruddin, F. (2019). The Cipp Model-Based Evaluation on Integrated English Learning (IEL) Program at Language Center. English Language Teaching Educational Journal, 2(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v2i1.1043 Altinyelken, H.K. (2015). Evolution of Curriculum Systems to Improve Learning Outcomes and Reduce Disparities in School Achievement, in Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2015. Andrian, D. (2018). International Journal of Instruction. 11(4), 921–934. Andrian, D., Kartowagiran, B., & Hadi, S. (2018). The instrument development to evaluate local curriculum in Indonesia. International Journal of Instruction, 11(4), 921–934. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11458a Aslan, Ö. M. (2018). From an Academician' s Preschool Diary: Emergent Curriculum and Its Practices in a Qualified Example of Laboratory Preschool. 7(1), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v7n1p97 Bakhtiar, A. M., & Nugroho, A. S. (2016). Curriculum Development of Environmental Education Based on Local Wisdom at Elementary School. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 3(3), 20–28. Barbarin, O. A., & Wasik, B. H. (2009). Handbook of child development and early education. Guilford Press. Baron-gutty, A. (2018). Provision in Thai basic education". March. Bodrova, E. (2008). Make-believe play versus academic skills: A Vygotskian approach to today's dilemma of early childhood education. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 16(3), 357–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/13502930802291777 Bohling-philippi, V., Crim, C., Cutter-mackenzie, A., Edwards, C., Desjean-perrotta, B., Finch, K., Brien, L. O., & Wilson, R. (2015). International Journal of Early Childhood. 3(1), 1–103. Brooker, L., Blaise, M., & Edwards, s. (2014). The SAGE handbook of play and learning in early childhood. Sage. Broström, S. (2015). Science in Early Childhood Education. Journal of Education and Human Development, 4(2(1)). https://doi.org/10.15640/jehd.v4n2_1a12 Childhood, E., Needs, T., & Han, H. S. (2017). Implementing Multicultural Education for Young Children in South Korea: Implementing Multicultural Education for Young Children in South Korea: Early Childhood Teachers' Needs 1 ). March. Dabbagh, N & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online Learning: Concepts, Strategies, and Application. Pearson Education, Inc. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., & Pence, A. (2013). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Languages of evaluation. Routledge. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., & Pence, A. (2013). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Languages of evaluation. Routledge. Daryanto. (2014). Pendekatan Pembelajaran Saintifik. Gava Media. Dick, C. & C. (2009). The Sistematic Design of Instruction. Upper Saddle River. Elde Mølstad, C., & Karseth, B. (2016). National curricula in Norway and Finland: The role of learning outcomes. European Educational Research Journal, 15(3), 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904116639311 Eurydice. (2018). Steering Documents and Types of Activities. Farid, MN. (2012). Peranan Muatan Lokal Materi Batik Tulis Lasem Sebagai Bentuk Pelestarian Budaya Lokal. Jurnal Komunitas, 4(1), 90–121. Fisnani, Y., Utanto, Y., Ahmadi, F., Tengah, J., Technology, E., Semarang, U. N., Education, P. T., Semarang, U. N., & Info, A. (2020). The Development of E-Module for Batik Local Content in Pekalongan Elementary. 9(23), 40–47. Fitriani, R. (2018). The Effect of Scientific Approach Applied on Scientific Literacy to Student Competency at Class VIII Junior High School 12 Padang. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies (IJPSAT), 7(1), 97–105. Fleer, M. (2015). Pedagogical positioning in play-teachers being inside and outside of children's imaginary play. Early Child Development and Care, 185(11–12), 1801–1814. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03004430.2015.1028393 Hakk, İ. (2011). Curriculum Reform and Teacher Autonomy in Turkey: The Case of the HistoryTeachi̇ng. International Journal of Instruction, 4(2), 113–128. Haridza, R., & Irving, K. E. (2017). The Evolution of Indonesian and American Science Education Curriculum: A Comparison Study. 9(February), 95–110. Hatch, J. A. (2012). From theory to curriculum: Developmental theory and its relationship to curriculum and instruction in early childhood education. In & D. W. N. File, J. Mueller (Ed.), Curriculum in early childhood education: Re-examined, rediscovered, renewed (pp. 42–53). Hos, R., & Kaplan-wolff, B. (2020). On and Off Script: A Teacher' s Adaptati on of Mandated Curriculum for Refugee Newcomers in an Era of Standardization On and Off Script: A Teacher' s Adaptati on of Mandated Curriculum for Refugee Newcomers in an Era of Standardization. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 9(1), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v9n1p40 Hosnan, M. (2014). Pendekatan saintifk dan kontekstual dalam pembelajaran abad 21. Ghalia Indonesia. Hussain, A., Dogar, A. H., Azeem, M., & Shakoor, A. (2011). Evaluation of Curriculum Development Process. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(14), 263–271. Maryono. (2016). The implementation of schools' policy in the development of the local content curriculum in primary schools in Pacitan , Indonesia. Education Research and Reviews, 11(8), 891–906. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2016.2660 Masithoh, D. (2018). Teachers' Scientific Approach Implementation in Inculcating the Students ' Scientific Attitudes. 6(1), 32–43. Mayfield, B. J. (1995). Educational curriculum. Journal of Nutrition Education, 27(4), 214. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3182(12)80438-9 Muharom Albantani, A., & Madkur, A. (2018). Think Globally, Act Locally: The Strategy of Incorporating Local Wisdom in Foreign Language Teaching in Indonesia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 7(2), 1. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.7n.2p.1 Nasir, M. (2013). Pengembangan Kurikulum Muatan Lokal dalam Konteks Pendidikan Islam di Madrasah. Hunafa: Jurnal Studia Islamika, 10(1), 1–18. Nevenglosky, E. A., Cale, C., & Aguilar, S. P. (2019). Barriers to effective curriculum implementation. Research in Higher Education Journal, 36, 31. Nuttal, J. (2013). Weaving Te Whariki: Aotearoa New Zealand's early childhood curriculum framework in theory and practice (2nd ed.) (2nd ed.). NZCER Press. Oates, T. (2010). Could do better: Using international comparisons to refine the National Curriculum in England. O'Gorman, L., & Ailwood, J. (2012). 'They get fed up with playing': Parents' views on play-based learning in the preparatory year. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 13(4), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.2304/ ciec.2012.13.4.266 Orakci, S., Durnali, M., & Özkan, O. (2018). Curriculum reforms in Turkey. In Economic and Geopolitical Perspectives of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Eurasia (Issue July 2019, pp. 225–251). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-3264-4.ch010 Organization for Economic and Co-Operation and Development. (2019). Change Management: Facilitating and Hindering Factors of Curriculum Implementation. 8th Informal Working Group (IWG) Meeting, 1–25. Poedjiastutie, D., Akhyar, F., Hidayati, D., & Nurul Gasmi, F. (2018). Does Curriculum Help Students to Develop Their English Competence? A Case in Indonesia. Arab World English Journal, 9(2), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no2.12 Prasetyo, A. (2015). Curriculum Development of Early Childhood Education through Society Empowerment as Potential Transformation of Local Wisdom in Learning. Indonesian Journal of Early Childhood Education Studies, 4(1), 30–34. https://doi.org/10.15294/ijeces.v4i1.9450 Ramdhani, S. (2019). Integrative Thematic Learning Model Based on Local Wisdom For Early Childhood Character. Indonesian Journal of Early Childhood Education Studies, 8(1), 38–45. Reifel, S. (2014). Developmental play in the classroom. In & S. E. L. Brooker, M. Blaise (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of play and learning in early childhood (pp. 157–168). Sage. Reunamo, J., & Suomela, L. (2013). Education for sustainable development in early childhood education in finland. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 15(2), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.2478/jtes-2013-0014 Saefuddin, A., & Berdiati, I. (2014). Pembelajaran efektif. Remaja Rosda Karya. Sagita, N. I., Deliarnoor, N. A., & Afifah, D. (2019). Local content curriculum implementation in the framework of nationalism and national security. Central European Journal of International and Security Studies, 13(4), 91–103. Saracho, O. (2012). An integrated play-based curriculum for young children. Routledge. Schumacher, D. H. (1995). Five Levels of Curriculum Integration Defined, Refined , and Described. Research in Middle Level Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/10825541.1995.11670055 Scott, D. (2014). Knowledge and the curriculum. The Curriculum Journal, 25(1), 14–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2013.876367 Setiawan, A., Handojo, A., & Hadi, R. (2017). Indonesian Culture Learning Application based on Android. 7(1), 526–535. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v7i1.pp526-535 Syarifuddin, S. (2018). The effect of using the scientific approach through concept understanding and critical thinking in science. Jurnal Prima Edukasia, 6(1), 21–31. https://doi.org/10.21831/jpe.v6i1.15312 Ulla, M. B., & Winitkun, D. (2017). Thai learners' linguistic needs and language skills: Implications for curriculum development. International Journal of Instruction, 10(4), 203–220. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.10412a van Oers, B. (2012). Developmental education: Foundations of a play-based curriculum. In B. van Oers (Ed.), Developmental education for young children: Concept, practice, and implementation (pp. 13–26). Springer. Wahyono, Abdulhak, I., & Rusman. (2017). Implementation of scientific approach-based learning. International Journal of Education Research, 5(8), 221–230. Wahyudin, D., & Suwirta, A. (2017). The Curriculum Implementation for Cross-Cultural and Global Citizenship Education in Indonesia Schools. EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 10(1), 11–22. Westbrook, J., Brown, R., Pryor, J., & Salvi, F. (2013). Pedagogy, Curriculum , Teaching Practices and Teacher Education in Developing Countries. December. Wood, E., & Hedges, H. (2016). Curriculum in early childhood education: Critical questions about content, coherence, and control. The Curriculum Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2015.1129981

La presente Tesis Doctoral tiene como finalidad realizar un estudio exploratorio sobre la innovación tecnológica en los servicios de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima (Perú). Asimismo, realizar un diagnóstico y diseñar líneas estratégicas para su desarrollo. Las bibliotecas municipales de Lima, se ubican en la capital del Perú. Estas instituciones tienen un escaso apoyo, lo que ocasiona un desaprovechamiento de su potencial en el acceso al conocimiento, igualmente, tienen un insuficiente desarrollo en el ámbito tecnológico y de gestión, por consiguiente, carece de innovación tecnológica en sus servicios. Por tanto, para alcanzar los objetivos trazados y describir la situación, la investigación está constituida en cinco partes esenciales. En primer lugar, se presenta el estado de cuestión, donde se muestran conceptos y características primordiales que se utiliza para el análisis del objeto de estudio, que son: sociedad del conocimiento, innovación tecnológica, innovación bibliotecaria y el futuro de la biblioteca pública. Dentro de la innovación bibliotecaria, se contemplan tipos de innovaciones, elementos de innovación, áreas de innovación; así también, se muestra las tendencias en el ámbito bibliotecario. En relación con el futuro de la biblioteca pública, se indica los nuevos escenarios y el entorno de cambio al que se enfrenta. En segundo lugar, se describe las áreas de innovación tecnológica en bibliotecas públicas con sus respectivas herramientas, siendo para esta investigación siete categorías, donde se aprecia tanto el concepto, antecedentes, las funciones, sus aplicaciones y prácticas realizadas por bibliotecas públicas alrededor del mundo, estas son las siguientes: Los servicios basados en la Web Social (2.0) y sus herramientas blogs, microbloggings, wikis, sindicación de contenidos – RSS, plataformas de documentos, fotografías y videos, redes sociales, catálogo social, podcasting, geoaplicaciones, mashup, chat, entre otras aplicaciones; los servicios basados en el entorno móvil y sus herramientas, aplicaciones móviles, códigos QR, realidad aumentada, mensajería instantánea móvil, balizas (en inglés, beacons) y tecnología de comunicación de campo cercano (en sus siglas en inglés, NFC); sedes web de bibliotecas, uso y acceso a Internet, servicio de autopréstamo y circulación documental, servicios basados en plataformas para gestión de contenidos y; los servicios basados en nuevas tecnologías y sus herramientas realidad virtual, inteligencia artificial, impresoras tridimensionales, robots, drones y cartelería virtual. En tercer lugar, se describe el entorno de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima, a partir, de las cifras de sociedad del conocimiento del Perú y aspectos, como el proceso histórico, políticas públicas, acceso a las TIC, características del usuario de Internet, la lectura digital y uso de redes sociales. Seguidamente, se expone aspectos legales e históricos de la biblioteca pública municipal en el Perú y características generales de la ciudad de Lima. Para luego, realizar un análisis cuantitativo que aborda datos de cobertura, 21 colección, servicios, personal, infraestructura, equipos tecnológicos y usuarios con datos proporcionados por el Registro nacional de Municipalidades (RENAMU) (2013-2018). Así también, se realiza una medición del desempeño de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima, a través de los "Estándares para bibliotecas públicas municipales" diseñado por la "Biblioteca Nacional del Perú" y un análisis comparativo entre las bibliotecas de Lima y Madrid basado en los indicadores de rendimiento de las "Comunidades Autónomas" y el "Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte" (MECD). En cuarto lugar, se presenta los resultados del estudio sobre innovación tecnológica en Bibliotecas Públicas Municipales de Lima aplicando un cuestionario para la recolección de datos elaborado para este estudio, donde se demuestra el bajo nivel de uso de tecnologías, lo cual ocasiona un insuficiente desarrollo de innovación en las bibliotecas entre 2017-2018. En esta parte, se examina los escasos servicios innovadores que tienen las bibliotecas de la ciudad en las siete categorías propuestas, asimismo, se manifiesta las percepciones de los encargados de estas unidades de información sobre el tema de innovación, como la labor de la biblioteca en el contexto actual y el aprovechamiento de las tecnologías. Además, se expone una serie de buenas prácticas realizadas por las bibliotecas, y se demuestra que a pesar de las limitaciones se pueden realizar diversas actividades para sus comunidades. Por último, en quinto lugar, se presenta un diagnóstico de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima y las líneas estratégicas para iniciar la renovación de estas instituciones. Dentro del diagnóstico prevalecen tres asuntos que son: la escasa visibilidad de las bibliotecas dentro de los gobiernos locales, asimismo, la carencia de tecnologías en los servicios y la escasez de profesionales de la Información dirigiendo estos centros. Por tanto, se muestra una serie de temas fundamentales que son considerados en este diagnóstico, que son: La posición de las bibliotecas de Lima en el Siglo XXI, personal especializado ausente, la tecnología fuera del alcance de las bibliotecas, los usuarios jóvenes, la experiencia de la meta 27 y 06 en la promoción de la lectura, la ausencia de la red de bibliotecas en la ciudad, recursos limitados, bibliotecas escasamente inclusivas, necesidad de un marco legal adecuado, la inclusión de las bibliotecas en la agenda nacional y la cultura de la participación en las bibliotecas. De este diagnóstico, se diseñaron una propuesta de cinco líneas estratégicas con sus respectivos objetivos, acciones e indicadores que son las siguientes: Red de bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima, personal capacitado e innovador, presencia digital de la biblioteca, diversificación de servicios y espacios, y biblioteca centrado en la comunidad. ; The aim of this doctoral thesis is to realize an exploratory study on the technological innovation of the services in Lima's (Peru) public municipal libraries. Also, purpose a diagnostic is undertaken and strategic lines for its development are designed. The municipal libraries of Lima, are located in the capital of Peru. These institutions have little support, which leads to a waste of their potential with regards to access to knowledge. Also, their development in the technological and administrative field is insufficient, which is the reason for a lack of technological innovation regarding their services. Therefore, to achieve the objectives set and to describe the situation, the investigation consists of five essential parts. In the first place, the state of the art is presented, referencing fundamental concepts that are used for the analysis of the object of study. They encompass: knowledge society, technological innovation, library innovation and the future of the public library. Within library innovation, types of innovations, elements of innovation, and areas of innovation are reflected upon; likewise, current trends in the field of library studies are pointed out. With respect to the future of the public library, new scenarios and the changing environment it faces are indicated. Secondly, areas of technological innovation in public libraries with their respective tools are described, for this research referencing seven categories in which the concept, background, functions, applications and practices carried out by public libraries around the world are recognized. These are the following: the specific services on the Social Web (2.0) and its tools blogs, microblogging, wikis, content syndication – RSS, document platforms, photographs and videos, social networks, social catalogue, podcasting, Geoapplications, mashup, chat, among other applications; the services specified in the mobile environment and its tools, mobile applications, QR codes, augmented reality, mobile instant messaging, beacons and near-field communication technology (NFC); library web sites, use and access to the Internet, automatic loan service and document circulation, controlled services on platforms for content management and; the services identified in new technologies and their tools virtual reality, artificial intelligence, three-dimensional printers, robots, drones and virtual signage. Thirdly, the environment of the Lima public municipal libraries is described, based on Peru's knowledge society indicators and aspects such as the historical process, public policies, access to ICTs, characteristics of the Internet user, digital reading and use of social networks. Next, legal and historical aspects of the municipal public library in Peru and general characteristics of the city of Lima are presented. Then, a quantitative analysis is performed that addresses coverage, collection, services, personnel, infrastructure, technological equipment and user data, relying on data provided by the Registro Nacional 23 de Municipalidades (RENAMU) (2013-2018). Likewise, a measurement of the performance of the municipal public libraries of Lima is carried out, through the "Estándares para bibliotecas públicas municipales" designed by the "Biblioteca Nacional del Perú" as well as a comparative analysis between the libraries of Lima and Madrid based on the performance indicators of the "Comunidades Autónomas" and the "Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte" (MECD). Fourth, the results of the study on technological innovation in Lima's Municipal Public Libraries are presented applying a questionnaire for data collection prepared for this study, which demonstrates the low level of use of technologies, which causes an insufficient development of innovation in libraries between 2017 and 2018. In this part, we examine the few innovative services that the city's libraries exhibit in the seven proposed categories, as well as the perceptions of those persons responsible for these information units on the topic of innovation, such as the work of the library in the current context and the use of technologies. In addition, a series of good practices carried out by libraries is shown, and it is demonstrated that despite the limitations, various activities can be carried out for their communities. Finally, in the fifth place, a diagnosis of the municipal public libraries of Lima and the strategic lines to initiate the renovation of these institutions is presented. Within the diagnosis, three issues prevail: the limited visibility of libraries within local governments, the lack of technology in services and the shortage of information professionals directing these centres. Therefore, a series of fundamental issues can be observed that are specific for this diagnosis, namely: The position of the libraries of Lima in the 21st century, lack of specialized personnel, technology outside the reach of libraries, young users, the experience of goal 27 and 06 in the promotion of reading, the absence of a library network in the city, limited resources, poor performance in terms of inclusiveness, the need for an adequate legal framework, the inclusion of libraries in the national agenda and the culture of participation in libraries. From this diagnosis, a proposal of five strategic lines was designed with the following strategic objectives, actions and indicators: Network of public libraries in Lima, trained and innovative personnel, digital presence of the library, diversification of services and spaces, and community-centered library. ; Programa de Doctorado en Documentación: Archivos y Bibliotecas en el Entorno Digital por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: José Antonio Moreiro González.- Secretario: Juan Carlos Marcos Recio.- Vocal: Martín Alonso Estrada Cuzcano

I løbet af det seneste årti er man begyndt at erkende, at mikroplast (plastpartikler <5 mm) på globalt plan er allestedsnærværende i både hav- og ferskvandsmiljø. Som konsekvens af den lille størrelse kan mikroplast potentielt påvirke en lang række vandlevende organismer. Selvom antallet af studier omhandlende effekter af mikroplast er stærkt stigende, er forståelsen af processerne, hvormed organismer interagerer med mikroplast og de medfølgende indvirkninger på økosystemer, stadigvæk begrænset. Der er yderligere usikkerhed omkring mikroplastens kemiske sammensætning og dens potentielle rolle som vektor for kemikalier til organismer. På det seneste er der rejst opmærksomhed om den humane eksponering for mikroplast og mulige resulterende helbredseffekter – et emne hvor videnskaben stadig er i sin vorden. I den sammenhæng er målene med denne afhandling: 1) At vurdere og anvende kontrollerede laboratorieforsøg til at analysere optag og effekter af mikroplast i hvirvelløse dyr i både hav- og ferksvandsmiljøer. 2) At undersøge interaktioner mellem plastpartikler og hydrofobe organiske kemikalier. 3) At gennemgå den aktuelle debat og tilgængelige viden indenfor human mikroplasteksponering og mulige humane effekter af denne. De fleste undersøgelser af mikroplasts effekt på hvirvelløse dyr har været med fokus på effekter som følge af indtagelse. For at forstå og fortolke den slags effekter, er det vigtigt at kvantificere indtagelsen og udskillelsen af mikroplast, da disse processer er bestemmende for den overordnede eksponering. I denne afhandling påvises det, at fluorescerende partikler kan bruges til at kvantificere processerne, særligt når partiklerne er i størrelsesordenen af nanometer og få mikrometer. For en pålidelig kvantificering er det ofte nødvendigt at opløse dyrevæv. Baseret på anvendelse og udvikling af forskellige enzymatiske protokoller i denne afhandling, anbefales det at anvende enzymer til at opløse vævet. Enzymatisk opløsning og kvantificering af partikelfluorescens blev anvendt til at måle indtagelse og udskillelse af 100 nm og 2 µm partikler i vandloppen Daphnia magna og blåmuslingelarver (Mytilus edulis). For begge arter blev det påvist, at partikler med en størrelse svarende til dyrenes normale bytte blev optaget i en større grad end mindre partikler. Med hensyn til udskillelse fandtes flere artsspecifikke forskelle. Denne proces kan påvirkes markant af partikelstørrelsen og tilstedeværelsen af føde. Desuden kan partiklerne blive i organismen i længere tid end den tid, det normalt tager at passere gennem tarmsystemet. I både D. magna og larver af M. edulis havde de mindre partikler større negative effekter på dyrenes fysiologi. Kontrollerede laboratorieforsøg, som anvendt i denne afhandling, kan forbedre den mekanistiske forståelse af organisme-partikel interaktionen og derved højne pålideligheden og øge sammenligneligheden mellem studier. En detaljeret karakterisering af partiklerne og eksponeringen mangler dog ofte og dermed mangler også en tilstrækkelig forståelse af partiklernes egenskaber og skæbne i det givne forsøg. På grundlag af erfaringer gjort i forbindelse med nanomaterialer anbefales det, at man også analyserer mikroplastpartiklers størrelse, sammensætning, massefylde, overfladekemi og elektriske ladning såvel som undersøger for mulig partikelaggregering, dispersion og sedimentation. Samtidig er det vigtigt, at eksponeringssystemer har en højere grad af miljørealisme. Det kan opnås ved at bruge lavere partikelkoncentrationer, flere forskellige partikelformer (især fragmenter og fibre), flere forskellige plastpolymere, partikler med biofilm og inkludere kontroller med naturlige partikler såsom ler og silikat. Mikroplast kan ikke altid behandles som inerte partikler, for de kan indeholde mange forskellige kemikalier, som enten stammer fra plastproduktionen, eller er absorberet til plasten fra det omgivende miljø. I begge tilfælde kan kemikalierne transporteres og afgives, og på den måde kan mikroplast måske være en vektor for eksponering af vanddyr til hydrofobe organiske kemikalier. Derfor anbefales det på det kraftigste at inkludere undersøgelser af mikroplastpartiklernes potentielle kemiske toksicitet, når der udføres effektstudier af mikroplast. Som vist i denne afhandling, er sorption af hydrofobe organiske kemikalier til plast styret af diffusionsprocesser og kan optræde som absorption, adsorption eller en kombination af begge. Processen er afhængig af plastpartiklernes egenskaber, de hydrofobe kemikalier og det omgivende miljø. I naturlige matricer som havvand, opløst organisk kulstof og kolloider kan mikroplastens rolle som vektor muligvis være forsvindende lille (i særdeleshed på global skala). I denne afhandling understreges det dog, at rumlig variation på lokal skala samt eksponering af mikroplast-associerede kemikalier til organismer nødvendigvis må adresseres. I de sidste år har der været et øget fokus på human eksponering og de mulige resulterende helbredseffekter. Bekymringen blev primært vakt på grund af fund af plastpartikler i vanddyr, som bruges til mad, og andre fødevarer. Der er grund til at antage, at mikroplast kan have partikel- eller kemikalier-relateret toksicitet, men ingen studier har endnu undersøgt helbredseffekter relateret til indtagelsen af mikroplast. Mennesker er eksponeret til mikoplast og associerede kemikalier fra en række forskellige kilder og selvom forurenede fødevarer har fået mest opmærksomhed, argumenteres der i denne afhandling for, at den største eksponering kommer fra brug af plastmaterialer i hverdagen. På grund af mange usikkerheder og manglende viden er det ikke muligt endnu at konkludere i hvilken udstrækning mikoplast udgør en trussel for miljø og mennesker. Der er i dag en stærk folkestemning imod plastforurening i miljøet, som fremmer handlinger i samfund og lovgivning. Processen går hurtigere end konsensus i det videnskabelige miljø og dermed er der en risiko for, at fokus ikke er rettet mod mest pressende emner set fra et videnskabeligt synspunkt og der derved ikke bliver taget de mest effektive skridt for at begrænse plastforureningen i miljøet. ; Within the past decade, it has been widely recognised that microplastics (commonly referred to as plastic particles <5 mm) are ubiquitous in freshwater as well as in marine environments globally. Owing to their small size, microplastics can interact with and potentially affect a wide range of aquatic organisms. Although the number of studies on microplastic effects is quickly increasing, there is still limited understanding of the processes by which organisms interact with microplastics as well as impacts in natural ecosystems. Further uncertainties relate to the chemical nature of microplastics and their potential role as vectors for chemical pollutants to organisms. More recently, questions have been raised about human exposure to microplastics and potential health effects – a topic where science still is at the very start of providing answers. In this context, the aims of this thesis are: 1) To critically evaluate and use controlled laboratory experiments for analysing uptake and effects of microplastics in aquatic invertebrates. 2) To examine the interaction between plastic particles and hydrophobic organic chemicals. 3) To review the current debate and state of knowledge on microplastic exposure and potential effects on humans. Most effects of microplastics on aquatic invertebrates have been studied as a result of particle ingestion. In order to understand and interpret such effects, it is important to quantify ingestion and egestion of microplastics, as this determines the overall exposure that an organism is facing. In this thesis, it is shown that fluorescent particles can be used to quantify these processes. This is especially useful for particles in the nano- and small micrometre size range. To achieve a reliable quantification, it is often necessary to digest animal tissue. Enzymes are recommended for digestion, based on the use and development of different enzymatic protocols within this thesis. Enzymatic digestion and quantification of particle fluorescence were successfully applied to measure ingestion and egestion of 100 nm and 2 µm particles in the water flea Daphnia magna and larvae of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis. For both species, it was found that, on a mass basis, a higher amount of particles which are similar to the size of normal prey were ingested than smaller particles. Regarding particle egestion, more species-specific differences were observed in comparison to ingestion. It was found that egestion can strongly be influenced by particle size and the presence of food. Also, particles have the potential to remain in organisms for a time exceeding the normal gut passage time. Both for D. magna and larvae of M. edulis the smaller particles were found to cause more adverse effects on the animals' physiology. Controlled laboratory tests, as employed in this thesis, can be a useful tool to obtain a mechanistic understanding of organism-particle interactions and increase the reliability of and comparability between studies. It was, however, found that a detailed particle and exposure characterisation is often missing and thus particle behaviour and fate in laboratory exposure systems are not well understood. Drawing on experience and developments within the field of engineered nanomaterials, it is therefore recommended to include analyses of particle size, composition, density, surface chemistry and charge, as well as particle aggregation/agglomeration, dispersion and sedimentation. At the same time, it is important that exposure systems attain a higher degree of environmental realism. To achieve this, it is suggested to use lower particle concentrations, a variety of particle shapes (especially fragments and fibres), a variety of different plastic polymers, biofouled particles, and to include controls with natural particles, such as clay or silica. Moreover, microplastics cannot always be treated as inert particles since they may contain a multitude of different chemicals, either stemming from plastic production or having sorbed to the plastics in the environment. In both cases, chemicals have the potential to get transported and released, and in this way microplastics may act as vectors for hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs) to aquatic animals. It is therefore strongly recommended to include controls for potential chemical toxicity in microplastic effect studies. As reviewed in this thesis, sorption of HOCs to plastics is governed by diffusive mass transfer and occurs as either adsorption, absorption or a combination of both. The process strongly depends on the properties of the plastic particle, the chemical and the surrounding environment. In comparison to natural matrices, such as water, dissolved organic carbon and colloids, the role of plastics as a vector may be negligible on a global scale. However, in this thesis it is emphasised that spatial variation on a smaller scale as well as the exposure route of microplastic-associated chemicals to organisms are important to consider. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on human exposure to and potential health effects of microplastics. This was mainly sparked by findings of plastic particles in aquatic species used for human consumption as well as other food products, and has evoked many concerns. While there is reason to assume that microplastics can exhibit particle- and/or chemical-related toxicity, no studies have investigated human health effects of consuming microplastics to date. Humans are exposed to plastic particles and associated chemicals by a variety of pathways. Even though contaminated food products have received most attention, in this thesis it is argued that the main exposure is most likely related to abrasion of particles from the use of plastic materials in everyday life. Because of many uncertainties and knowledge gaps, it is to date not possible to conclude to what degree microplastics are a threat to the environment and to humans. However, a strong public opinion against environmental plastic pollution has formed, which drives societal and legislative action. This is moving faster than consensus within the scientific community and thus entails the risk that not the most urgent issues are addressed or the most effective measures to reduce environmental plastic pollution are taken.

Tras largos siglos de impasse teórica, la evolución del concepto de soberanía se reiniciaría en la Edad Media. Sabido es que la Edad Media fue un período consagrado casi que por entero al logro de la trascendentalidad, a la meditación religiosa, al cultivo cuidadoso de la fe, a la búsqueda de una estrecha relación con Dios. De un contexto así, de exuberante espiritualidad, sería natural esperar que un concepto político-jurídico tan ligado al "aquí", a las "cosas de este mundo", como el de soberanía, no tuviera cabida alguna. Sin embargo, eso no es para nada correcto. Contra todo pronóstico apresurado, la Edad Media, aún moviéndose dentro del rígido código religioso que la caracterizó, resultó ser un período particularmente fértil para el desarrollo de la noción de soberanía. Una serie de factores son los que explican esa peculiaridad.Para finales de siglo XI, asistimos a una gran recuperación del Derecho romano. En el artículo anterior, señalamos que los romanos no habían logrado articular ninguna teoría de la soberanía, sino que tan sólo se habían limitado a elaborar una serie miríada de conceptos que evocaban, de manera indirecta, la idea de un poder soberano. Con el renacimiento medieval del Derecho romano, todos esos conceptos irrumpirán en la escena medieval, tomando parte activa en la conformación de la realidad jurídica y política de la época. Viejas nociones romanas, como la de "potestas" o la de "iurisdictio", fueron traídas a colación para subsanar un grupo de problemas jurídicos que no habían alcanzado solución hasta entonces. Las fórmulas romanas pasaron así a ocupar un lugar importante en la discusión jurídica medioeval.En gran parte por el influjo aristotélico, durante la Edad Media los estudios jurídicos se habían avocado esencialmente a dilucidar el funcionamiento de la que se entendía era la unidad político-jurídica por excelencia: la "civitas" (la ciudad). Para la jurídica medieval, entonces, la "civitas" aparecía como una entidad jurídicamente hermética. Aún así igualmente existía una pregunta por la soberanía pero ésta reenviaba al problema de quién ostentaba el poder máximo dentro de los estrechos límites de la ciudad. Sin embargo, con la resurrección del Derecho romano, el talante de la pregunta cambió. Se trataba ahora de dar cuenta de quién es el que detenta el poder supremo por encima de la "civitas", lo que equivalía a investigar quién era el mismísimo punto cúspide del ordenamiento jurídico o de lo que los romanos llamaban "iurisdictio". Dado el lugar de preeminencia que ostentaban cada uno, surgieron dos contendientes naturales: el Papa y el Emperador.Comienza así una larga disputa que tendrá en vilo a Europa por largo tiempo y que se enconará, sobre todo, a partir del ascenso de la casa de los Hohestaufen al trono Imperial en el siglo XII. La duración e intensidad del enfrentamiento sólo es explicable si se atiende al inmenso valor de lo que estaba en juego. Al pugnar por el vértice de la "iurisdictio", el Papa y el Emperador, se disputaban, nada menos, que el monopolio judicial y legislativo a ejercerse dentro de las fronteras de la "Res publica christiana". Ése monopolio era lo que los romanos habían sintetizado bajo el concepto de "plenitudo potestatis", que otorga a quien lo posee el máximo poderdesde el punto de vista jurídico-político; siendo, entonces, el antecedente medieval más claro de lo que hoy conocemos como soberanía.La tesis de la "plenitudo potestatis" fue expuesta en el "Dictatus Papae" de Gregorio VII en el año 1075. De los varios puntos que exhibe el "Dictatus", el que aquí más interesa destacar es el que señala que el Papa es el señor supremo del mundo, estando por encima, obviamente, de todos los reyes y, por supuesto, de su enemigo primero: el Emperador. Según señalaba la Iglesia, el poder del Papa procedía, nada menos, que de emular la omnipotencia divina, la llamada "suprema et absoluta potestas". La reafirmación del poder papal, como el máximo poder dentro del ordenamiento jurídico-político del Medioevo, será continuada por el Papa Inocencio III que, en su calidad de especialista en Derecho canónico, rectificará el "plenitudo potestatis". No sólo eso, Inocencio III aducirá que el poder papal es, por naturaleza, ilimitado e independiente de cualquier otra autoridad terrenal; una aseveración que no sólo dio pie a la idea de un poder supremo sino que preparó el terreno para la concepción absolutista del poder soberano. Como habrá de decir, tiempo después, el jurista y teólogo Roberto Belarmino: "Papae est supra ius, contra ius et extra ius". Esta línea, digamos, "dura" de reivindicación de las potestades papales, no acabaría con Inocencio III. Para principios del siglo XIV, Bonifacio VIII tomaría con ímpetu la posta, aunque sería también quien vería frustrarse para siempre el viejo sueño de Gregorio VII de someter a toda la "Res publica christiana" al dominio inescrutable del papado. En efecto, la lucha papal por consolidar su poder naufragaría pero no a manos del Emperador, como cabría esperarse, sino por obra de la consolidación de las monarquías nacionales. El "Atentado de Agnani", que significó la captura de Bonifacio VIII por parte de Felipe IV, rey de Francia, será la prueba fehaciente de ello. Sobre todo, dicho episodio, dejará en claro que las insaciables aspiraciones del Papa no se correspondían en nada con el ya, sino en caída libre, arrumbado poder que poseía en los hechos.Lo importante a subrayar de todo esto es el hecho de que tanto en su disputa con el Sacro Imperio como con las monarquías nacionales, el papado "reelaboró" y "produjo" nociones que terminarían siendo de capital importancia para el desarrollo de la idea de soberanía.En efecto, la presentación del poder papal, como un poder "omnímodo", esculpido a imagen de la imponencia divina, que desconoce cualquier tipo de obstáculos o restricciones más allá de las que se auto-impone, devino en la concepción de lasoberanía absoluta que, un tanto irónicamente, al final no habría de servir de base al papado sino a las monarquías que afianzaron su poder a partir de la Reforma luterana. Ello se hace patente en aquellos teóricos defensores de la monarquía de Derecho divino que, para los siglos XVI y XVII, defenderán abiertamente el carácter supra terrenal del poder del Rey y su autonomía con respecto a cualquier forma de control. La concepción de Jacobo I, Rey de Inglaterra, de que "los reyes son la imagen viva de Dios en la tierra", constituye acaso la expresión más acabada de una visión de la soberanía que se impondría, cada vez con más fuerza, para los siglos XVI y XVII y que hallaría sus orígenes más inmediatos en las reivindicaciones papales, de fuerte propensión absolutista, que acabamos de exponer. Sin embargo, el pensamiento de la Edad Media no sólo proveyó de un suelo teórico para la configuración de la soberanía absoluta. También lo hizo para justificar un ejercicio más atemperado, si se quiere más "limitado", de las potestades soberanas.Nutriéndose de la doctrina platónico-aristotélica, retocada y profundizada por los estoicos, la cultura jurídica medieval concebiría al soberano, es decir, al "Príncipe", como sujeto a ciertas reglas de orden "natural". Si bien se le reconocía a éste el poder de crear legislación, empero, las normas que expedía debían estar enperfecta armonía con el orden que se deduce del cosmos; un orden que, aparte de ser inmanente a la propia Naturaleza, era imaginado por los juristas como "justo". En otras palabras, el soberano puede gozar de una libertad amplísima, pero a condición de que, cuando la ejerza, lo haga manteniéndose dentro de los estrictos parámetros definidos por la "Lex naturalis". Tal era la observancia que debía el soberano al orden natural que incluso algunas doctrinas de Derecho natural sostenían que el pueblo tendría derecho a deponer al soberano en caso de que cayera en tiranía, esto es, si violase alguna norma de carácter natural. De hecho, durante la "edad de oro del papado", se le reconocía al Papa la potestad de excomulgar a un Príncipe por "razón de pecado" («ratione peccati»). Asimismo, se le atribuía el poder para romper el llamado "juramento de fidelidad", lo que habilitaba a los súbditos católicos a desobedecer a una autoridad que, por un comportamiento impropio, es considerada "injusta".Por otro lado, el Medioevo coadyuvaría también en la gestación de la idea desoberanía popular. Propiciado por el ya mencionado resurgir de la dogmática romana, el Imperio, en su puja con el Máximo Pontífice, reafirmaría la idea de que era una continuación jurídica del viejo Imperio Romano. De esa suerte, pretendía reclamar no sólo los atributos de todos los emperadores romanos anteriores sino también la noción de que la autoridad última del Imperio radica exclusivamente en el pueblo romano al que, en cierta medida, pretendía representar. El dogma de la soberanía popular, tal y como era pretendido por el Imperio, resultaría ser medular en el orden político medieval. En efecto, "[…] from the end of the 13th century it was an axiom of political theory that the justification of all government lay in the voluntary submission of the community ruled." [1]De ese modo, la Edad Media se presenta como un período en donde no sólo se prepara la idea de soberanía sino que también se adelantan sus diferentes: a saber, la idea de soberanía absoluta, la de soberanía limitada y la soberanía popular. La Modernidad habrá de secularizar, es decir, habrá de dar manumisión a estas nociones de su subordinación religiosa. La concepción absolutista de la soberanía adquirirá ropaje secular bajo la obra de Hobbes, la idea de un poder limitado bajo la de Bodino y Locke y la de soberanía popular bajo la de Rousseau. En los próximos números veremos en detalles el trabajo de quienes inauguran el concepto moderno de soberanía: Juan Bodino y Thomas Hobbes.*Depto. de Estudios Internacionales FACS - ORT Uruguay [1] MERRIAM, C. E. Jr. 2001. History of the Theory of Sovereignty since Rousseau. p. 6. [online] Canada: Batoche Books Kitchener. Disponible en Internet:http://ideas.repec.org/b/hay/hetboo/merriam1900.html *Departamento de Estudios Internacionales. Depto. de Estudios Internacionales. FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay[1] En efecto, "[…]since citizens are, by definition, those who hold sovereign power in every state, it follows that this power is the deliberative, since citizenship is also defined in terms of sharing in deliberative power." (Johnson, 1985, 338) [2] Bien dice Jellinek que "[…] el reconocimiento y la afirmación de la soberanía, sería contradecir la política romana, la cual gustosamente otorgaba al pueblo –qui maiestatem populi Romani comiter servant-la apariencia de un Estado independiente." (http://www.soberania.es/Subpaginas/Concepto/Roma.html)

From the introduction: The rapid adoption of wind energy in the renewable energy mix can be seen in many industrialized nations in the past decade, 'in particular the need to agreed greenhouse gas reduction and stable energy supply are seen as a sound vision for a sustainable energy policy'. In an emerging market such as South Africa there are abundant renewable resources including wind energy, however there is low adoption observed to date. This study aims to investigate barriers to entry in the South African wind energy sector and what the priorities are to remove such barriers for successful deployment of wind technology. Therefore, it was required to examine successful deployment of wind energy in the European Union and how such barriers were removed; this was set in the current status of the renewable energy sector and existing barriers in South Africa. It was necessary to gain insight of the inter-related issues on opening a traditional fossil fuel based energy market to a transitional implementation of renewable energy provisioning, also considering the current utility monopoly based energy landscape in South Africa. Chapter one considers the global shift for the need to implement renewable energy and highlights key issues such as security of supply, carbon reduction linked to climate change. Section three looks at the global benefits of renewable energy within the energy mix. Section four highlights key policy shifts and wind energy potential and section five gives an overview of South Africa's renewable energy policies. Chapter two looks at the research question of the need to answer what barriers exist and how to remove these in South Africa. Section three and four describe the qualitative research method applied and the setting of sampling. Section five, six and seven look at the tools used for telephone interviews. Section eight and nine describe the literary research applied, the key institutional papers reviewed and barriers identified. Chapter three describes the lessons learned in a global context on policies for renewable energy to deploy wind energy successfully. Section three looks at the background on European lessons learned with key European wind markets focused on such as Denmark, Germany, Spain and UK. Sections four to thirteen look at the barriers to entry, key mechanism such as feed-in tariffs, tendering, effectiveness of support schemes in various EU markets and conclusion on support schemes. Sections fourteen to twenty two look at specific barriers to entry, offshore, grid access, distribution, socio-economic effects, public and environmental issues with conclusion on removal of barriers. Chapter four sections one to three look at the energy mix, policy status and wind potential in South Africa. Sections four and five look at current support mechanisms and provincial initiatives. Sections six to eight describe distribution and small scale wind barriers and socio-economic considerations. Section nine and ten look at non implementation at regulatory and legal level, issues on power purchase agreements, and inconsistencies in integrated resource planning. Chapter five looks at the survey methods used the raw data analysis and limitations of the survey. Chapter six looks at the qualitative findings in South Africa. Section two to six describes the analysis is themed on successful initiatives, unsuccessful measures, barriers to entry, on priorities to remove barriers. Chapter seven presents the discussion based on the results. Chapter eight draws conclusions and chapter nine recommends and identifies further areas of research.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Abstract3 Acknowledgements5 List of Abbreviations8 List of Illustrations9 Introduction9 Background and aims of study10 1.1.1Reasons for renewable energy in a world context12 1.2Global lessons on barriers to renewable energy12 1.3Global benefits of renewables in the energy mix14 1.4South Africa's Emissions15 1.5Scaling up wind energy17 1.6South Africa's wind energy potential18 2.Research Question20 2.1Research objective20 2.2Research method20 2.3Qualitative research method20 2.4Defining the qualitative research setting: Sampling21 2.5Method Tools21 2.6Questionnaires22 2.7Stakeholder interviews22 2.8Literary research outline22 2.9Academic sources23 3.Lessons from Europe24 3.1Lessons from Europe background24 3.2Barriers to entry25 3.3Support mechanisms26 3.4Regional harmonisation of support schemes26 3.5Tendering26 3.6Feed-in Tariffs27 3.7Fiscal mechanisms overview27 3.8Evaluation of specific support schemes29 3.9Effectiveness of support mechanisms29 3.10Effective mechanism in key wind markets in Europe31 3.11Conclusion on EU support mechanisms32 3.12Exploring barriers to entry33 3.13Gale force offshore barriers33 3.14Grid access34 3.15Smart grid and decentralized electricity34 3.16Renewable energy and socio economic effects35 3.17Public acceptance and property35 3.18Environmental impact assessment36 3.19Adverse Effects: Noise, visual and electromagnetic impact36 3.20Conclusion on removal of barriers37 4Energy Landscape in South Africa38 4.1Background38 4.2Renewable energy policy status40 4.3Barriers to wind energy in South Africa41 4.4Eskom and renewable energy sector42 4.5Barriers - Mapping the wind potential43 4.6Support mechanisms for removal of barriers45 4.7Provincial and local Initiatives47 4.8Distribution and decentralized Energy48 4.9Small scale wind49 4.10Renewable energy and socio-economic Impact50 4.11Measures remaining to remove existing barriers51 4.12Slowly off the mark – Refit53 4.13Priorities for removal53 5.1Survey Methods54 5.2Data analysis54 5.3Stakeholders interviewed55 5.4Limitations56 6.1Qualitative Findings57 6.2On current status of the South African RE sector57 6.3On successful support initiatives for renewable energy58 6.4On unsuccessful measures59 6.5On barriers to entry60 6.6On removal of barriers61 6.7On priorities to remove barriers61 7.1Discussion63 7.2Institutional and administration barriers63 7.3A question of liberalization63 7.4Market transformation65 7.5RE tradable certificates66 7.6Grid access66 7.7Issues of rising land prices67 7.8Skills transfer and training67 8.Conclusion67 9.Recommendations, Research and Development69 Appendix 1Energy from Wind70 Appendix 2Historical Overview of Promotion Strategies in European Countries73 Appendix 3Inventory of Current Support Systems74 Appendix 4Questionnaire Example78 Appendix 5Summary Research Results from Coded Analysis79 References80Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.15, Smart Grid and Decentralised Electricity: The further liberalisation of the energy markets in Europe has made decentralised energy (DE) more feasible as seen in the RE sector in Germany. A combination of RE sources and more cost effective control can balance out short-term fluctuations. Providing reliable electricity from 100 percent RE sources is shown in the combined power plant (CPP) projects linking 36 wind, solar biomass and hydropower installations throughout Germany. This follows, the World Alliance for Decentralized Energy claims that potential for DE in realizing electrification objectives is great anda far cheaper method of supplying power to local areas than grid extension including environmental benefits. Denmark for example benefits from a fifty percent shift to DE such as in case of wind turbines placed along transmission corridors, highways or train tracks. DE could therefore be of importance in the context of this investigation on support strategies in rural community electrification programmes in South Africa and improving energy efficiency. A wide range of technologies are available from the RE sector to benefit local ownership. However, barriers remain in the EU where it is recognised that inadequate progress has been made on lighter procedures for small projects implementation at local ownership level. The introduction of digital technology could present a further opportunity in form of the smart grid which allows more-efficient use of existing power capacity and of transmission and distribution, in addition to better handling of fluctuations in energy from wind and sun. Renewable Energyand Socio Economic Effects: The adoption by the European Council of the Renewable Energy Directive for 2020 sets ambitious targets for each Member State to achieve a twenty percent share of RE. In a study the EU investigated the macro- economic gross effects and net effects of RE policies in Europe, more specifically the findings suggest that the RE sector is already a very important one in terms of employment and value add. 'An estimated 2.8 million jobs by 2020 and 3.4 by 2030 will be created'.As a result of the RE support policies, the positive investment effect is currently based on installations in Europe and exports globally. However, it is recognized that inherent uncertainties about the future support of RE sources exist. In this context in the UK, the employment opportunities had been hitherto significantly underestimated. It is claimed an additional '130,000 jobs in the wind sectorby 2020 are a possibility'. Contrary to the report which claims that from a current 5000 jobs in the wind, wave and tidal energy sector, an increase to as many as 60,000 employees by 2020. However, the report suggests ' that the UK does not yet have a coherent approach to training' and step changes are required to achieve this goal. Whilst in Germany, the wind energy industry now employs close to 100,000 people. Public Acceptance and Property: In terms of property or land prices near wind farms, there appears to be conflicting and subjective evidence. A Canadian study noted that buying decisions are effected by different criteria's near wind farms such as some people finding it interesting and others do not like the look. (Wind farms and Land Values 2003 p.1) In further studies in the UK 60 percent of respondents in a Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors survey experienced negative impact on house prices. However, the EWEA observes the social acceptance of wind farms depends on the way they are developed and managed. This also means authorities learn from past experience and find mechanisms to maintain and expand public engagement in wind development. Environmental Impact Assessments: The European Directive on Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) would suggest a common approach, this however is not the case and carried out 'in different ways, in different countries and requires a more unified approach'. With specific regard to the approach in Germany, the Federal Building Code regulation is important as wind energy plants are regarded as so called 'privileged projects'. The local authorities thereby can allocate zones for wind energy utilization, or restrict construction (BWE 2009). Therefore, EIA can facilitate in this important decision process, at the same time regulation appears to give room for development. In the UK the combination of EIA and local planning may have hindered more rapid wind energy deployment as opposed to Denmark, Germany and Spain. As in other EU countries the majority of wind farm projects in the UK an Environmental Statement (ES) is required and used as a decision tool, identifying the environmental, social and economic impacts of a development. Whilst engaging local communities is a vital process in the successful deployment of RE such as wind technology. Contrary to this, however it is recognised that a more streamlined approach may be required to drive delivery of targets through the planning process. This appears to acknowledge the large body of studies on implementing EIA,linked to existing barriers as part of the planning process in the UK wind sector. Adverse Effects of Wind Technology: Noise, Visual Impact, electromagnetic interference Broadly, some observers cite concerns such as turbine noise and aerodynamic noise, in addition to electromagnet interference and migrating birds. Whilst wind turbine noise studies observe that the siting of wind turbines must take sound levels in consideration. A large body of literature exists confirming such barriers exist to implementation. Further, visual impact is a concern that has been raised and many studies have been made in this regard for on and off shore wind that can adversely effect deployment. In the wider context of environmental impact however, it is generally acknowledged that wind energy has a key role to play in not only combating climate change but also reducing CO2 emissions from electricity generation.

Newspaper Article - 'Relief is Large Demand on Women's Institutes'. Calgary Albertan Paper ; AWI Collection ; 8 C A L G A R Y ALBE A Page About All Relief Is Large Demand On Women's Institutes T% ELIEF for distressed families in their communities has been a " major demand on the local branches of the Women's Institute of Alberta. • Reports of all constituencies read at the convention of Dis­trict Four which met in Paget Hall Wednesday showed strenuous effort to raise money and help with food and clothing the unfortunate in the districts. But in this activity the other objects of the Institute have not been neglected. Reports told of the establishment of libraries, of household economics courses arranged in the districts, of medical clinics arranged by the Institute, of school fairs and many other projects successfully undertaken. Mrs. M. L. Thompson of Coaldale, district director, presided and a spe­cial guest was Mrs. J. P. Ferguson of Trochu, president of the Alberta Women's Institute. Following the sessions of the day, the delegates were guests of the Cal­gary branch at a banquet in the Elizabethan room of the Hudson's Bay . Companys' store, when Mrs. C. H. Stout presided, and afterwards at the performance of the British Gull<* Flayers. Recreation ' Wise use of leisure time is one of the challenges of the new age which has been ushered in by labor- saving devices and machinery," said Mrs. J. P. Ferguson of Trochu, president of the Alberta Women's Institutes, In her address Wednesday afternoon. Need for recreation in its widest sense to meet the increase in leisure time, and to fill the gaps— physical, mental and moral— which the changes have brought, is pressing, and in this field the Women's Institutes have a splen­did opportunity for leadership, Mrs. Ferguson believed. Lack of sufficient recreation has been responsible to a large extent for the drift to urban centres, and now to hold the rural population, and encourage others to return, farm life must be made more attractive; Drawing, as it does, its membership from all classes and creeds, the In­stitute is the logical leader in or­ganized recreation for the rural dis­trict, Mrs. Ferguson said. She sug­gested golf, hiking, tennis, badminton, dancing, particularly folk- dancing, as suitable activities to be inaugurated, and for those less interested in sports, libraries, sewing groups where skilled teachers might instruct in embroid­ery and, of great importance, the revival of handicrafts. Tastes, skills and habits formed in adolescence exert their influence strongly through­out life, the speaker continued, and care should be taken to see that there were worthwhile things at hand for young people in the country to em­ploy their free time. Congratulates Members Mrs. * Ferguson congratulated the members on the wide scope of their activities, which embraced relief work, public health clinics and studies, peace work, child welfare, supplying garden seeds to dried- out areas, assisting with libraries, and recreational projects. In speaking of the scheme wherein the Provincial Women's Institute was co- operating with the I. O. D. E. and U. F. W. A. to provide assistance for needy mothers, under the direction of Miss Kate Brighty, Mrs. Ferguson told the mem­bers the council had hesitated to ask for donations to the central fund for this purpose, since so many branches were already doing work of this sort, " out that the W. I. had offered to pre­pare necessary bundles containing layettes and medical supplies, to the number of 50 during the year. Names of the needy mothers would be for­warded by Mrs. Ferguson to various W. I. branches for help in this con­nection. , Spiritual Disarmament In all the millions of people in the world going quietly about their own business there are none who de­sire war, said Dr. George Kerby, speaking at the afternoon session on " A Call to Peace.". The task of cap­italizing the universal sentiment against war is difficult but is the first step in progress toward peace. The minds of the nations must be prepared for peace. For war is born of faults of the spirit;— of the greed and jealousy of nations all striving for commercial supremacy, erecting artificial barriers, creating artificial antipathies and hatreds. Patriotism is a passion and must be controlled and restrained as other passions. " Not that I love my country less, but that I love humanity more" must be the policy of statesmen. Dr. Kerby told of the ever- increas­ing armament race, leading inevit­ably toward war. He quoted Lord Grey, who had declared that there is no security in competing armaments. The soldiers of the last war were con­vinced that they died for peace, but the generation that has followed them is betraying them. Nursing Schools The need of a reorganization of the nursing schools was discussed by Miss Eleanor McPhedran of the Alberta Joint Study Committee on Nursing Education. Other professions are 1 taught in schools supported by the state— teaching, law, medicine, but nurses are expected to pay for their I training in physical labor, she said. J The disadvantages of nursing schools operated by hospitals were clearly outlined. The d* ty of the hospital is to its patients and in maintaining the hospital on a paying basis. Too often the education of the nurses is sac­rificed to these other considerations. The students are exploited for cheap nursing and maid service. Each hospital is a law unto itself and no standard of knowledge and experience is demanded. As a result many half- trained nurses are gradu­ated from the poorer training schools. The training of nurses has not kept pace with the advance in scientific treatment of disease, Miss McPhedran said. What is needed is more study in the classroom and less duty on the wards. The bill passed at this session of the legislature requiring students to have junior matriculation standing was commended as a step in the right direction toward standardizing the qualifications of the members of the profession. Girls' Clubs Suggestions for the work of leaders in the girls' clubs were given by Mrs. R. E. Wood of Stony Plain, supervisor of the girls' clubs. She recommended division according to age in four groups and told of the different needs of each group. The little girls from 6 to 10 years of age are all enthusiasm and eagerly absorb teaching. The next age, to J 4 years, is an egotistical time when they crave recognition of their personalities. Nothing is too strenuous for them to undertake. The girl from 14 to 16 years of age needs inspiration. She is a day- dreamer, is hungry for books, but needs to be guided in her reading as she is strongly influenced by all she reads but has not learned to discriminate. The girl of 16 to 18 years is begin­ning to use her reasoning powers, takes life very seriously and questions everything. It is a poetic age. It is the best time to Interest her in social problems. Acting Mayor J. H. Ross brought greetings to the delegates who were welcomed by Mrs. C. H. Stout, presi­dent of the Calgary branch. Mrs. A. E. Clark of Oluny replied. Greetings were read from the provincial officers. Musical selections were heard dur­ing the day, the program arranged by Mrs. H. E. Kelley. Mrs. Harry Hutchings sang at the morning ses­sion and following the banquet; W. Rothwell sang, accompanied by Mrs. Rothwell; Max Bishop sang, accom­panied by Miss Dulcie Bishop; pupils of Miss Marjorie Hall gave clever dances and Mrs. J. Welsh gave read-lings. Following the banquet Miss Foster played \' iolin selections, Miss Claire Powell gave pianologues, and Mrs. Slater sang, Mrs. Kelley was accompanist. Mrs. Stout presided at the banquet and spoke of the function of he In­stitutes in fostering the well- being of community life. Mrs. F. G. Grev-ett proposed a toast to the guests anc Mrs. Powell of Maple Leaf local re­sponded. A toast to the press was proposed by Mrs. W. Rothwell anc Miss M. McLean replied. Mrs. Fergu­son, Mrs. R. E. Wood and Mrs. W. Harold Riley spoke briefly and Mrs. Moreau MeCallum moved a vote of thanks to the artists. Mrs. Ferguson and Mrs. Wood were speakers at the separate session of the Girls' Club Wednesday morning when Miss Esther Oliver, vice- presi­dent, of Drumheller presided. Reports from constituencies were read and messages from Miss Lily Sahlen of Cardston, provincial president, Miss Vivian, Berg of Clareshotai, district director, and Miss Jane Popham of Barons, publicity convenor. Co- operation With League of Nations Vital Need, Claimed " Canada's prosperity and her des­tiny lie in working in co- operation with the League of Nations. Having solved her own bi- lingual, bi- racial and minority problems, she is in po­sition to give advice on these prob­lems, and her opportunities for serv­ice and molding opinion in the League are broad." This was the opinion voiced by H. S. Patterson, K. C., in addressing the fortnightly Calgary women's peace, meeting held in the Palliser hotel tea room Wednesday afternoon. Mrs. D. A. McKerricher presided. Introduced the speaker and urged those present to broadcast the announcements of these meetings to all women's organizations. " What Does Partnership in the Col­lective System Involve for Canada?" was the topic of Mr. Patterson's talk, and, prefacing his subject, he traced advancements made in the past cen­tury in the field of science, which had resulted in drawing into close contact all the nations of the world. Friendly rivalry of nations in art, music, liter­ature and kiftdred fields had given spice and variety to the resultant products, but, in the struggle to ad­vance materially, nations had come into conflict. Quarrels between na­tions were the same as struggles in primitive society. In olden days war could procure territory, material goods, security and advancement. With the drawing together of countries through science, however, nations were now like school children who had been playing and quarreling among them­selves at recess, but who found that, on going into . school they could not continue so without detriment, to | themselves. Fear resulting from the past war j had induced the nations to become self- sufficient. Canada, in her need,; . had turned to the commonwealth of the British Empire in an attempt to construct within its bounds a situation of markets and supply which had ex­isted in the world before the war. Canada produced more food than she could consume, and markets were es- j sential. Hence, her destiny lay In i close co- operation with countries; which could assure her those markets, the speaker said. Through participation in a collect­ive system of nations, Canada shared the responsibility of contributing " whole- hearted Co- operation, aid for the helpless, strength for the weak, and her share in the creation of or­ganizations for curing the ills of mankind," the speaker quoted from an address by Sir Robert Borden. Mr. Patterson answered a number of questions at the'end of his address, and a general discussion period fol­lowed.

"As the cool and deliberate sense of the community ought, in all governments, and actually will, in all free governments, ultimately prevail over the views of its rulers; so there are particular moments in public affairs when the people, stimulated by some irregular passion, or some illicit advantage, or misled by the artful misrepresentations of interested men, may call for measures which they themselves will afterwards be the most ready to lament and condemn. In these critical moments, how salutary will be the interference of some temperate and respectable body of citizens, in order to check the misguided career, and to suspend the blow meditated by the people against themselves, until reason, justice, and truth can regain their authority over the public mind?" James Madison, Federalist No. 51At the end of its annual term, the Supreme Court has proven itself once again as a "temperate and respectable body" of justices by delivering, among others, two landmark decisions. The first one demolishes the infamous Bush legacy of sacrificing the Constitution's article I section 9 Suspension clauses in its bogus "war against terror". The second one represents a literal interpretation of the Second Amendment as the unambiguous individual right to bear arms. The first decision has already inflamed political discussions and will no doubt be at the center of the presidential debates leading to the national election in November. Surprisingly, the second one has proved much less controversial, a sign of changing times in the American discourse.On June 12, 2008, in its ruling in Boumediene v. Bush, the court recognizedhabeas corpus rights for the Guantánamo prisoners. Less than a week later, in another landmark ruling, District of Columbia v. Heller, it overturned the Washington DC ban on handguns by rejecting the view that the Second Amendment's "right to bear arms" applied only to the collective service in a "well regulated militia". Instead, it recognized it as an individual right.Since most likely it will fall to the next president to replace some of the Supreme Court judges, Americans should put aside for a moment the media- induced frenzy about the candidates' increasingly fierce competition to get the last sound bite in, the minute-to-minute coverage of exchange of insults and name-calling, and reflect upon the far-reaching ideological consequences that electing one or the other candidate will have on the composition of the Supreme Court.Both Supreme Court rulings were passed by a 5 to 4 vote, showing a deeply divided court over matters that affect the essence of American constitutional system of government and will have long-term consequences for life in America. As it stands now, the court is evenly divided between a conservative and a liberal bloc of four justices each, with Anthony Kennedy delivering the decisive swing vote. Since the future of the court will be decided by the next election, this consideration should be given at least as much weigh as any other in the voters' choice for president.In Boumediene v. Bush, the court delivered a critical decision in the protection of the basic right of any prisoner, including the ones in Guantánamo, to challenge their confinement before a federal judge. This constituted the court's third rejection of the Bush administration's policy on those it detains in its fight against terrorism. The Guantánamo base in Cuba, which has been controlled by the Unites States since the Spanish-American War (1898) under a long-term lease, was considered by this administration to hold a unique legal status that had allowed the Pentagon to avoid review of its activities by federal courts. By declaring unconstitutional a provision of the Military Commission Act of 2006 which denied jurisdiction to the federal courts on habeas corpus petitions by those detainees to challenge their designation as enemy combatants, the Court repudiated the fundamentals of the practice of using Guantánamo as a jail where federal jurisdiction could not reach.The majority decision was written by Justice Anthony M. Kennedy, a Reagan appointee, who often plays the deciding role of "balancer", sometimes siding with the conservative bloc, sometimes with the progressive one. He was joined by the more liberal judges, John Paul Stevens, David H. Souter, Stephen G. Breyer and Ruth Bader Ginsburg. The dissenting opinion was authored by Justice Antonin Scalia, also a Reagan appointee and the most reactionary of the group, who stated, in apocalyptic terms, that the "nation will live to regret" this decision and that more Americans were going to be killed as a result of it. He was joined by George W. Bush's appointees, Samuel Alito and Chief Justice John G. Roberts.In the second decision, District of Columbia v. Heller, after seven decades of holding that the Second Amendment's right to bear arms is a collective right (only as part of a "well-regulated militia"), the court now ruled that to keep arms at home for self protection is an individual right. This decision was criticized by authorities of the major U.S cities as a setback in their fight against crime and gun violence. However, both presidential candidates Obama and McCain praised the decision as an endorsement of individual rights. Obama emphasized the court's description of the right as "not absolute and subject to reasonable regulations enacted by local communities to keep their streets safe." Although most liberals do not share this view, the Democratic Party's platform in 2004 had already endorsed the Second Amendment as an individual right, as part of the strategy of appealing to the center of the political spectrum in general, and to independent voters in particular, on matters of security. In Senator Obama's case, even if it does not directly contradict any earlier statements, the endorsement surprised some groups, since it does not fit his ideological profile. The media pundits interpreted it as his present strategy to capture the center of the political spectrum, which is probably correct. But it may also be a sign of how accurately Barack takes the pulse of the country. After episodes such as the Virginia Tech massacre that shook the country last year, many law-abiding citizens both young and old, both Republican and Democrat, have increasingly been vocal about the need to own a gun for self-protection.It was now the turn of Antonin Scalia to write the majority decision. A Reagan appointee and, together with Clarence Thomas, the most ideologically conservative of the nine justices, Scalia argued that this is a fundamental constitutional right that takes certain policy choices off the table. While recognizing the problem of handgun violence in the country, Scalia maintained that the "intactness of the Constitution" takes precedence over any other concerns. Ironically, his dissenting opinion on Boumediene v. Bush shows no concern for the wholeness of the Constitution's Suspension clause on habeas corpus, a sign of how human contradiction is not the preserve of presidential candidates only.The dissenting opinion to District of Columbia v. Heller by Justice John Paul Stevens, who was appointed by President Ford but most of the time votes with the liberal bloc, stated that the majority's decision was based on a "strained and unpersuasive reading of the Constitution", which omits any mention of other purpose (other than a "militia") related to the right to bear arms, such as hunting or personal self-defense. Justices Breyer, Souter and Baden-Ginsburg joined him in the dissenting opinion. Justice Kennedy sided with the conservative majority in this case.The majority's decision has enormous symbolic significance. It overturned a 70-year old decision that had rejected the individual-right interpretation, but one that, in the popular debate was extremely controversial and divided people along ideological and regional lines. But in reality, the narrow way in which the Scalia decision was written gives enough reassurance that other gun-control laws and regulations will not be affected. For example, the prohibition of carrying concealed weapons is upheld, as are the federal ban on possession of machine guns and longstanding prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill. It has defused rather than inflamed the political debate, and both candidates have endorsed it. It is thus fair to say this was not a major setback for liberal-minded Americans.On the other hand, the Boumediene v. Bush decision is a blow to all those who have made the "war on terror" a centerpiece of their new value system after 9-11. Senator Lindsay Graham (Republican from South Carolina) called it "irresponsible and outrageous" and said he would do anything in his power to have it overturned, even if that may take a Constitutional amendment.The decision ignited a serious debate between the two presidential candidates.While Obama praised the Boumediene decision, McCain was outraged by the court's decision to give rights to "unlawful combatants." He sent former Republican candidate and New York mayor Rudy Giuliani to represent him on CNN's American morning. Giuliani accused Obama of having a "pre-September 11th mentality". Obama later defended his position saying he clearly understands the threats America faces but emphasized the fact that it is the failed policies of George Bush that cause the US so many problems around the world. He added that McCain clearly would represent a continuation of those policies based on fear and his unwillingness to look toward the future.This year the Supreme Court has delivered an equal amount of victories to each bloc. This balance may shift if some of the judges were to die or retire on the next eight years. Given that the conservatives are the youngest members of the Court (Roberts and Alito, the George W. appointees, are in their 50s, Thomas Clarence is 60 and Scalia is 72), a McCain presidency may have to replace some of the most reliable liberal judges (John Paul Stevens is 88, Ginsburg is 75) and thus shift the balance in the conservatives' direction. Of course, appointing Supreme Court judges is not an accurate science since, as seen by the decisions above, it is hard to predict, when nominating them, what thinking processes will determine their opinions. The greatest examples of this are Justice Kennedy, who was a Reagan appointee, but often leads the more liberal bloc, as well now retired Sandra Day O'Connor, another Reagan appointee that brought non-ideological balance to the Rehnquist court. At any given time, two opposing forces shape the judges' opinions: the pull of precedent that gives a binding continuity to court decisions, and the push of social change that propels some of the thinking forward, in accordance to the prevailing cultural mood. The final decision is then further shaped by the judges' erudition, idiosyncrasy and ideology. Given the fragile balance present in the Roberts court, and with so many important cases decided by such a narrow margin, the power of the next President to set the future direction of the high court is a vital element that should enter into the voters' considerations next November 4th.Briefly put, the future of the Supreme Court and its ability to make the best decisions so that "reason, justice, and truth can regain their authority over the public mind", is in the hands of American voters. Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

As elsewhere in the ex-communist/socialist countries, the former planning system in Yugoslavia has been dismantled as from the beginning of 1990s, and the planning practice has from then onwards been steered by an apart mixture of old habits, few institutional innovations and the social, economic and political turbulence of the transition period. The previous system and practice of socioeconomic planning collapsed, so far not to be substituted for by new arrangements, to match the impact of the key factors of the transition period, i.e., political pluralization, privatization and marketisation. On the other hand, albeit the system of spatial/urban and environmental planning has been 're-touched' in the 1990s, the adjustments undertaken have not either been harmonized with the factors mentioned. What can now be recognized as the existing 'planning system' is, however, an strange mix of heterogeneous elements from a number of disparate modes, i.e., 'crisis-management-planning', 'planning-supported-wild-marketisation-and-privatisation', 'project-based-planning', etc. In effect, there is no overall professional and political consensus on the direction and content of reform in this field (which also applies to other key issues). In sum, the existing situation in the planning system and practice reads as follows: (1) The system has almost lost its legitimacy, partly because the majority of the former public interests collapsed, and new, indisputable public interests still not being established. Under such circumstances, new roles of planning are hardly known to the public at large, in part as a consequence of an overall anti-planning stance among the majority of political, economic and expert elites. (2) The inertia rules the professional landscape, since there has been a lack of new approaches and methodologies, to match the impact of new dominant factors and the miserable social and economic conditions in the country. Regarding the approaches and methodologies applied, the traditional ex ante planning evaluation still prevails, and more ex post and ex continuo evaluation is still missing. (3) The planning system is too centralized (within the two republics), since the radical recentralization of Serbia was undertaken in 1990, and subsequently the sub-national tiers were deprived of almost any effective planning instruments. In addition to this, the majority of regional entities ('districts') and communes lack a competent administrative machinery and expertise, as well as other support (e.g., research, planning information support etc.) for effecting autonomous planning policies. (4) There has been no more ambitious strategic planning (which is, however, somehow understandable vis-à-vis only now ended international sanctions and isolation of the country). On the other hand, the majority of the development documents that have been passed in the meantime, grossly lack elaborated implementation devices (policies and instruments). Especially in the field of urban planning, the detailed ('land use') schemes prevail over the more strategic development schemes for larger urban and regional areas. Specific development projects (and, only sometimes, more harmonized programmes) by far outnumber other planning schemes. (5) The integration and harmonization of various aspects of planning and policy, i.e., social, economic, spatial/urban, environmental, is very poor. In effect, physicalism still dominates the scene in spatial and urban planning, and the elements of socioeconomic development and environmental policy are scarce within this block. (6) The stipulated legal propositions pertaining to the openness, participativeness and transparency of the planning/policy procedures fall easily frail in the planning practice, resulting in the very poor content in this regard. (7) There has been a lack of planners and other experts experienced and knowledgeable in practicing planning under the new circumstance of political pluralism and radically changed structure of stakeholders and concomitant institutional arrangements. This also applies to 'educators' in general, because the prolonged international isolation of the FR Yugoslavia has caused the gross of their knowledge and capabilities irrelevant. In sum, it seems that many planners would not be able to assume new roles that they are expected to on the part of the society at large. (8)The planning/policy information, research, institutional and other support provided by the state and other agents often does not satisfy even the most basic needs in this fields, partly for a general scarcity of resources concomitant to the overall and deep social, economic and political crisis the society found itself in the 1990s. (9) Most frightfully, manipulation, paternalism and clientelism still represent dominant forms of power, which is a problem by itself in Yugoslavia being one of the most corruptive countries in the world. What is now most missing is a non-manipulative persuasion, as well as the authority of professional values, as the communication and interaction forms that seem only promising for and supportive to developing of a democratic, emancipatory and transformative planning mode. A number of attempts during the last decade to embark upon the preparation of the new 'Master Plan of the City Belgrade' (in the sequel: MP) came into realization not before the democratic political changes of October 2000 took place in Serbia. However, the so far undertaken steps do not seem promising, as they failed to satisfy a number of methodological and other standards, as well as to introduce necessary innovations. Unfortunately, the MP was commissioned to the Bureau of Urban Planning of the City of Belgrade (otherwise a 'faithful ally' of all non-democratic regimes in the City's urban planning and related matters over the last more than ten years now, during which there has been a so far unrecorded squandering and illegal privatization of public urban assets, mostly uncontrolled and not paid-for). Similarly, vested are to lead and complete the work mostly the experts/planners who 'controlled' and still 'control' the academic and professional scene in the same period (notwithstanding that were compromised and their abilities proved passé on many occasions), now recycled to perform new mission. Albeit the entire project had not been adequately prepared, already two interim documents have been elaborated now, viz., 'A Hypothesis of the Master Plan of Belgrade 2021', and 'A Concept of the Master Plan of Belgrade 2021'. In what follows, a brief review of the work done so far is presented: (1) The role of the MP is poorly defined, which is strange vis-à-vis the pronounced thesis on the 'insuperable role of market', which one renders puzzle about the veritable role of the MP. In addition to this, physicalism features as the key characteristic of this document: social and economic aspects of development are insufficiently present and poorly integrated into the MP, and so are the environmental aspects. The MP will however have to assume a part of socioeconomic development planning and policy as well, because the latter is predictably not likely to get recuperated in some time to come. Furthermore, the social, economic and environmental problems of Belgrade are so tremendous (e.g., extremely high rate of unemployment, probably around 40% of the total work force, obsolete technological, market and other structure of the larger part of Belgrade economy, prolonged crisis of economic growth, overall pauperization of the overwhelming majority of people, many hundred thousand refugees, few hundred thousand of young and educated people who left the country, disproportionate environmental pollution as compared to the level of economic development, etc.), that they must not be ignored in the development documents like the MP. (2) There is no sound conception on the public interests, particularly under the circumstances of a large number of legitimate individual interests fast emerging on the political scene, some of which also persisting to impose themselves as new and legitimate public interests. This results in a feeble notion on the existing and predictable future conflicts, as well as on the planning mechanisms and instruments that will be used in their control and management. (3) The concept of sustainable development has been only 'flirted with' in the MP, whereby a sound doctrine upon which development is to be directed and articulated is also missing (i.e., that which is of relevance for a territorial entity with the GDP of not more than some USD 1 500 per capita). (4) No efforts have been made to introduce more relevant methodological approach, i.e., those which would contrast the miserable socioeconomic and environmental fixities, viz.: (i) A more rigorous ex post evaluation of past decisions has not been performed, implying that future steps will be undertaken upon rather anecdotal insights in the existing power structure, institutional and organizational arrangements and dominant communication and interaction modes in planning. In the same context, the most significant problem of Belgrade area, i.e., how to approach the economic and ecological renewal and rehabilitation of its economy, has been hardly paid sufficient attention to. (This also applies to the position of Belgrade in the broader regional Euro-Asian context, which has terribly eroded over the last decade). (ii) Although the intention of the whole exercise is to work out a 'hard product', i.e., a urban development plan, no ex ante evaluation scheme has been produced so far, implying that the job is not being performed lege artis. Apart from other implications, this failure is particularly handicapping regarding the criteria of ex ante evaluation, leaving the professional audience and the public at large without the sound answers on key questions: What are the criteria upon which the evaluation has been undertaken? Whose are they? What interests stand behind them? Who decides on the criteria that will be applied? Apart from softening the rigour of the expertise, this flaw also allows for too ample 'maneuvering space' for the subsequent arbitrating to be performed by the politicians. (5) A trend-based extrapolation has been used as the key prognostic technique, which is absolutely unacceptable, keeping in mind the poor predictive power (I) and unstable institutional arrangements in planning and elsewhere (II). Instead, the political community would necessitate a number of veritable alternative scenarios of possible/desirable future development elaborated and presented for discussion, deliberation and decision-making in expert arenas and public forums. (6) Perhaps the weakest part of the MP goes to the issue of implementation of planning decisions, giving way to 'visioning' (in effect, to another planning 'phantasmagory'), which is again unacceptable vis-à-vis the pressing and burning realities of Belgrade and its broader surroundings. (7) Finally, an open, transparent and publicly verified 'offer to strategic partners' would also be needed, as the City does not have enough internal resources to cope with the problems of its economic, social, physical and environmental renewal. To conclude, major improvements are needed regarding the planning approach and methodology applied in the preparation of the Master Plan of the City of Belgrade 2021. As this project is likely to carry considerable demonstrational effects throughout the planning scene in Yugoslavia, its highly professional execution is of necessity, so that a major damage is avoided, i.e., that of a further loss of the legitimacy of planning and erosion of the planning profession.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY SMALL-SCALE FARMERS' STRATEGIES IN DEALING WITH CRISES: AN ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD RESPONSES TO CRISIS IN FOUR VILLAGES IN RURAL ZIMBABWE Crises caused by natural and human-induced disasters have always been part of farmers' lives, but recently they have proliferated through the emergence of new economic, political and environmental challenges. Generally, it is the ordinary poor people, many of them living in the vulnerable contexts of the rural tropics, who are bearing the brunt of these changes. This is particularly true for many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, where more than two-thirds of the population still depend on agriculture, and a large proportion of rural households suffer from poverty, food insecurity and social unrest. In such contexts, national governments and numerous NGOs, often supported by international donors, become active in supporting small farmers with training programs, the diffusion of technology, credits, social payments, subsidies and infrastructural investments. These efforts have had a remarkable success, except in stopping a general process of local marginalization and environmental degradation. In the end, the vast majority of small-scale farming families are left on their own to face the challenge of sustaining their livelihoods and guarantee food for their families under precarious conditions. More effective measures to support poor rural farmers in Africa are urgently needed that take better account of and stimulate their adaptive capacity to find responses to the manifold challenges. The research in this thesis aimed to generate empirical insights into farmers' responses to crises as a basis to supporting small-scale farmers more effectively, particularly those in Sub-Saharan Africa, in times of crisis. This includes three specific objectives: (1) to describe how crises changes the conditions for small-scale farmers' activities; (2) to learn how small-scale farmers are responding to these changes; and (3) to find out what factors are driving farmers' 'decisions. To comply with these objectives, the study analyzed in depth the dynamics in four rural villages in Zimbabwe, which represent three typical agricultural contexts in Sub-Saharan Africa: (1) communal agricultural lands with traditional social configurations; (2) agricultural landscapes formed by individualized settlers; and (3) areas resettled in the course of land redistribution programs. Zimbabwe was chosen because it is a prime example of a crisis that brought about severe multi-layered political, economic, social and environmental challenges, especially during the presidency of Robert G. Mugabe between 2000 and 2017. Data were gathered, processed and analyzed using a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach. Household surveys were conducted with lead farmers and extension agents to gain an understanding of the factors and conditions that influence farmers' behavior and choices and to establish categories of farmers. Households were surveyed to determine their characteristics at the personal level (family size, head, level of education, financial situation, and farm experience), the farm level (assets, size, land tenure, remoteness) and the institutional level (extension services, financial support, social organization). Besides, farmers' households that represented the strategies typically used to cope with the situation of crisis were selected for in-depth interviews to learn about the operational details, underlying rationalities and effects of the strategies they had adopted. Expert interviews and participatory mapping exercises with local experts and leaders were conducted to gain an understanding of how the Zimbabwean crisis changed the conditions under which the farmers live and to grasp the range and spatial relevance of strategies adopted by the farmer in response to the changed conditions. Also, secondary sources were systematically explored for relevant information, including reports from international organizations, non-governmental agencies, local NGOs, public research organizations, farmers' groups, dairy associations, Internal Savings and Lending Clubs (ISACs) and government agencies. The study made three principal findings: (1) crises strongly affected farming households; (2) most farmers managed to respond effectively to crisis situations; and (3) support and resource endowments are critical to overcoming crises. The crises strongly affected farmers. More than fifteen years of political and economic crises in Zimbabwe, in combination with frequent droughts, profoundly changed the conditions under which rural farmers live and produce. Most strikingly, the manifestation of this complex situation of crises was the breakdown of public services, including progressive reductions of public services providing farmers with technical and financial assistance and, partly related to this, increases in corruption. For example, although the ruling party announced million-dollar tractor and farm mechanization programs during elections, not one of the farmers from the four case studies received anything. Most critical was also the fact that the state-driven Grain Marketing Board failed to continue offering support to maize farmers with regard to pricing and payment patterns, which led to a massive decline in the production of maize, the key business of many farmers at that time. This withdrawal of the state was further compounded by a massive distortion of markets, which for the farmers made the profitable marketing of their own production considerably more difficult or even impossible, as well as making agricultural input prices unaffordable. The latter development forced a majority of farmers to skip using fertilizers, certified seeds and pesticides. Some few only managed to apply sub-optimal amounts of fertilizers occasionally on smaller parts of their fields. Devastatingly, farmers also suffered animal losses to drought (especially the extreme drought of the 2015/2016 season) and animal diseases that hampered their practice of using manure to maintain soil fertility. In parallel, farmers were heavily affected by climate change, manifested through an increase in dryness, soil erosion and unpredictable rainfall. This was especially hard for farmers acting in the dry conditions that are typical of large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, where water is the limiting factor of production and where agricultural activities depend on the predictability of rainfall during the sowing period and the availability of groundwater or water reservoirs in the mountains during the growing period. This critical situation was, at least partly, mitigated for more than a third of farmers (38%) through the intervention of donors, NGOs and private companies, who, in contrast to the government's initial strategy of diffusing technical packages, promoted low-cost technologies in the case of development organizations and contract farming in the case of private companies. Nevertheless, the situation of crisis resulted in considerable losses of harvests, plants and animals, particularly in very dry years (2002-2003, and 2015-2016), when some crops were a complete write-off, but also due to political violence, when livestock and harvests were looted, for example, in the aftermath of the 2008 election. Despite these difficulties, the vast majority of families remained on their properties and tried to cope with the challenging situation. In the resettlement area too, where the government distributed the land of expropriated white farmers, all those farmers who had settled there at the beginning of 2000 remained on their farms and in 2015were joined by new farmers settling on grazing land. Roughly a third of households (29%), however, decided to send a member or two to urban centers, abroad or other farms to search for remunerative employment off the family farm. As it was mostly young male adults who were drawn into leaving the farm for jobs, across all case studies it was common for women, children and the elderly to be left with the task of managing farm operations. Effective responses of the farmers. In response to the situation of crisis, the farmers in the case studies employed a wide range of strategies. Responses included orientation towards livestock, the reduction of the land area under cultivation, the adoption of low-input farming systems, intensification, and on and off-farm diversification, as well as migration, a re-orientation to subsistence farming and the unsustainable exploitation of common resources. Most farmers combined two or more of these responses. Where possible nearly all households (84%) started to buy livestock when a crisis broke, whether cattle or small livestock, the latter being seen as resistant to drought and more easily convertible into cash. To improve food security, many farmers (71%) reduced and concentrated inputs on the most suitable parcels of land to optimize the application of scarce resources. Upon realizing surpluses, some farmers (15%) then included tobacco as a cash crop, or even diversified their production portfolios more strongly (20%). Only traditional dairy farmers (10 %) mostly continued their production because, often belonging to the second or third generation of farmers, they had the knowledge and experience to continue and even intensify production. Also, migration and, relatedly, the transfer of remittances became a central resource for many families (29%). Accordingly, concentration and diversification were closely linked with an orientation to the market. The farmers who produced for markets were well connected with relevant platforms and networks (e.g., tobacco auction floors, milk collection points, the Grain Marketing Board, millers, etc.) and used their surpluses to invest in the farm and grow their asset base. Those farmers who received remittances also invested in farming, often accompanied by a diversification of production. The switch to low-cost technologies and the concentration of production on the most suitable parcels of land massively reduced the dependence on government subsidies. In parallel, many farmers managed to significantly enhance their areal productivity, so that overall production remained stable, despite a significant reduction in the land area under cultivation. Some farmers even managed to increase their gross incomes by intelligently combining on-farm with non-farm strategies. The concentration of farming activities on the most fertile land parcels also allowed fields to be left fallow and promoted other ecologically valuable land-use resources, such as woodlots. This effect was particularly visible in contexts that already showed a high level of degradation. Only 7% of farmers became engaged in unsustainable exploitative activities, but, every tenth household was forced to re-orient itself towards subsistence farming. However, about 75% of households in the case-study sites had somehow found effective ways to cope with crises, implying that the vast majority of farmers substantially changed or strongly adapted their livelihood strategies. While in 2000 most farmers were dedicated to the production of maize and dairy for income generating purposes, in 2016 livelihood strategies were diversified and included the production of food, dairy and cash crops, as well as off-farm employment. Support and resource endowments are critical. The specific choice and quality of farmers' responses varied strongly in accordance with institutional, farm and personal features, except the consistent orientation towards livestock across all farmers and case studies. In particular, a set of four factors had a highly significant positive influence on the successful actions of farmers, based on concentration, market orientation and diversification, namely the availability of farm assets (particularly ownership of cattle), financial support, the level of social organization and formal tenure arrangements. Market orientation was also favored by accessibility. Other factors had a comparatively low influence on farmers' responses, except a preference for diversification by older and female-headed households. Concerning remittance support, higher educational levels and the good financial situation of the households played a moderately positive role. The picture was less clear concerning factors that influenced responses with questionable livelihood outcomes, such as re-orientation towards subsistence farming (lack of assets, low level of education, households headed by females without husbands) and exploitative strategies (male-headed households and households headed by females without husbands). There were also large differences between the case studies in respect of the factors listed above, partly due to important contextual differences. Most strikingly, the better the situation of a case study with regard to accessibility, water availability and social organization, the stronger the external support. In response, more farmers in the favored case studies exploited the opportunities offered to them mainly by tobacco companies and development organizations (irrigation and dairy farming). One exception was the resettlement case study, which, as a contested area, was disregarded by development organizations, despite favorable environmental conditions. Accordingly, in the least favorable case study, "community in impoverished landscape", households were largely left to face their difficult situations alone. They were more likely to re-orient themselves to subsidence farming and switched to small livestock, thereby managing at least to secure their food basis. In particular, these results provide three important suggestions for how farmers can be better supported in crises. First, effective water management is key. There is an urgent need to diffuse in- field water-harvesting techniques and to further optimize appropriate agricultural practices, such as mulching and gravity-fed irrigation. Second, farmers are creative in finding solutions. This includes farming responses, as well as off-farm strategies. Both are effective from a local perspective. However, only the better-off farmers may have the means and capacities for the necessary investments, whereas the challenges may exceed the possibilities of poorer farmers. The proper management of livestock and the use of manure in agricultural production is another important requisite. Third, support measures are critical. However, rather than distributing of costly technology packages, support should take advantage of and promote capacity of farmers to take meaningful decisions. Thus, support should build on the resources and capacities that are available locally and accordingly highlight low-cost strategies and efficient water-use management, stimulate financially attractive options for diversification, and develop existing market opportunities further rather than creating new ones. In this regard, in particular, the frequently observed strategy of farmers to reduce and concentrate inputs on the most suitable land shows an immense potential for optimization. Supporting such promising attempts by farmers to build robust farming systems following their capacities and interests can help achieve development, social equality and sustainability in Sub-Saharan Africa. To operationalize such an approach requires well-trained extension agents working in well-equipped organizations. Also, the provision of tenure security plays a critical role in motivating farmers to invest and develop the land, as well as to turn land into a bankable asset and collateral that enables farmers to secure bank loans for farm improvements. Equally important is investment in research and development regarding basic infrastructure, particularly the maintenance of public infrastructure, such as roads and bridges, which have largely been neglected due to economic hardships. The government can also assist farmers by providing market facilities for small livestock and small grains whose markets are still limited. The private sector has and continues to play an important role in supporting farmers through contract farming arrangements. But they need to consider more intensively weaker farmers who are located far from markets and have to cope with unfavorable situations. Farmers' associations should prioritize programs and actions that support the frequent and most common response of concentration, as well as market participation and diversification of production. Through the local sharing of information and knowledge, they can guide farmers in reducing their dependence on government subsidies and the use of costly inputs such as fertilizers, certified seeds and pesticides. The farmers themselves need to organize themselves better in order to lobby collectively and campaign for technical assistance, credits and secure tenure arrangements. Farmers should intensify crop–livestock integration with livestock, thus equipping farmers with the means to produce much needed inexpensive animal manure to improve soil fertility and to opt for long-term strategies that protect their resource base. Finally, research also has its part to play. More knowledge is needed about farmers' actions and rationalities as a basis for finding more effective ways of consolidating the socio- ecological diversity of Zimbabwe, Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere, despite the political, economic and climatic challenges that are to be expected in the future.

Werden Wälder hinreichend geschützt und bewusst bewirtschaftet, so können sie extrem vielfältige und wertvolle Ökosysteme bereitstellen, die gleichzeitig auch eine Vielzahl von Leistungen für ein gesundes globales Klima, die Umwelt und für die Lebensgrundlage des Menschen erbringen. Letztlich sind es gerade solche Ökosystemdienstleistungen, die Wälder zu einem wichtigen Teil der neuen "grünen Ökonomie" gemacht haben, worin globale Lebensmittel-, Holz- und Klimamärkte das ökologische Kapital der Wälder vermarkten. Auch deshalb ist heute generell bekannt, dass Waldökosysteme durch geeignete Regulierung der Waldbewirtschaftung und durch effektive Forstpolitik geschützt werden müssen. Nur so kann das ökologische und ökonomische Potential der Waldökosysteme für heutige und für zukünftige Generationen, also nachhaltig, bereitgestellt werden. Für den Zweck solcher wichtigen forstpolitischen Entscheidungen brauchen Politiker jedoch verlässliche Informationen aus der Wissenschaft. Die UN Konventionen zu den sektoralen Themen Biodiversität (CBD), Klimawandel (UNFCCC), Degradierung (UNCCD) und Luftverschmutzung (CLRTAP), sowie die Berichtspflichten, die solche Konventionen ihren Mitgliedstaaten auferlegen, sind Ausdruck dieses Informationsbedarfs. Allerdings sind viele Leistungen der Wälder nur schwer messbar, auch weil sie ideell aufgeladen sind und weil sie sozio-ökonomischen Wertvorstellungen entsprechen müssen, die nur im Kontext gesellschaftlicher Hintergründe definiert werden können. Rein wissenschaftlich, also neutral und frei von sozialen Wertvorstellungen, sind sie daher kaum messbar. Das betrifft insbesondere die Vorteile und Werte die die Biodiversität bereitstellt, beispielsweise die genetische Ressourcen, landschaftliche Schönheit oder abstraktes Wissen, das biotischen Systemen innewohnt und das möglicherweise durch technische Wissenschaften wie Biotechnologie und Pharmazie nutzbar gemacht werden kann. Solche Werte müssen über Interessenvertreter der Gesellschaft, also durch gewählte Regierungen und deren Verwaltungen herausgearbeitet und vertreten werden. Ein Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation ist es, solch politisch relevante Komponenten der Biodiversität und deren Informationsbedarf zu identifizieren. Zu diesem Zweck analysiert die vorliegende Arbeit politische Berichtsprozesse und deren Datenbedarf auf drei verschiedenen Verwaltungsebenen: Von der (1) globalen- (Biodiversitätskonvention der Vereinten Nationen UN-CBD), zur (2) europäischen (Flora-Fauna-Habitat Richtlinie der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, EG FFH Richtlinie) bis zur (3) nationalen Ebene. Um den nationalen Informationsbedarf herauszuarbeiten, analysiert die Studie ferner Datenquellen, die nationale Autoritäten als relevant für die Erfüllung der oben genannten EU- und UN- Berichtspflichten erachten. Diese Analyse beinhaltet Fallstudien dreier Länder: Deutschland, Schweden und Polen. Sprachbarrieren führten allerdings dazu, dass sich die polnische Fallstudie auf die UN Berichte beschränken musste. Zudem wurde der parlamentarische Diskurs von 2010 über die Novelle des Bundeswaldgesetzes als Beispiel für die Relevanz von Waldinformationen in politischen Diskursen und Entscheidungsverfahren gewählt. Ein Ausblick eröffnet zum Abschluss denkbare Ansatzpunkte für die Wissenschaft, zur besseren Quantifizierung schwer messbarer Variablen und zur umfassenderen Berichterstattung über politische Aspekte der Biodiversität als essentiellen und integrativen Teil einer "nachhaltigen" Waldbewirtschaftung. Obwohl diese Arbeit die Bereitstellung von politisch relevanten Informationen als wissenschaftliche Aufgabe betrachtet, muss dennoch beachtet werden, dass die Beteiligung an politischen Prozessen und Entscheidungen durchaus Risiken für die Wissenschaft bergen kann. So gibt Guildin (2003) zu bedenken, dass die Einbindung von Wissenschaftlern in politische Fragestellungen als politische Parteilichkeit wahrgenommen werden könnte und somit ein Risiko für die Glaubwürdigkeit der Wissenschaft darstellt. Einige Autoren sprechen sogar von der "Politisierung der Wissenschaft" (Krott, 2012; Krott et al., 2014; Pregernig, 2007) und meinen damit einen Schaffungs- und Selektionsprozess von Informationen, der inhärent politisch voreingenommen und verzerrt ist, da er sich weitestgehend einseitig an politischen Agenden und den drängendsten Fragen der Politik ausrichtet (Hellström, 2000 zitiert von Janse, 2008). Dabei ist es allgemeine Auffassung, dass Entscheidungsträger voreingenommene und verzerrte Informationen akzeptieren, um im Interesse einzelner Akteure, sub-optimale Entscheidungen zu unterstützen, die aber zum Nachteil der Mehrheit sind (Krott, 2012, 2013). Im Lichte der fortschreitenden Waldzerstörung und der Unfähigkeit von Entscheidern, diese Zerstörung durch Kompromisse und eine harmonisierte internationale Waldkonvention zu bekämpfen, sprechen manche Autoren sogar von einem "fragmentierten", "politisch gewollten", "ineffektiven" oder "verfehlten" Wald- "Regime Komplex" (Humphreys, 2006, 2009; Chaytor, 2001; Dimitrov, 2005; Dimitrov et al., 2007; Rayner et al., 2010). Dieser "fragmentierte" Regime-Komplex sei, so die Ansicht mancher, durch die selektive Nutzung, Manipulation oder absichtliche Ignoranz wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse unterstützt (Hertin et al., 2009; Krott, 2012; Pregernig, 2007). Die vorliegende Dissertation vertritt die Ansicht, dass man bei solchen Zuschreibungen politischer Voreingenommenheit, klar zwischen den Aufgaben der "Wissenschaft" als solcher und der "politischen Entscheidungsfindung" unterscheiden muss. Es wird argumentiert, dass für die jeweiligen Seiten im Grenzbereich von Politik und Wissenschaft nur dann ein Risiko für politische Voreingenommenheit oder Verzerrung ("risk of political bias") besteht, wenn die jeweiligen Seiten zwei grundlegende Prinzipien untergraben, die ihre Existenz in demokratischen Systemen legitimieren. Für Wissenschaftler ist dieses grundlegende Prinzip primär die "Transparenz", d.h. die Verifizierbarkeit des Schaffungsprozesses von Informationen durch die wissenschaftliche Gemeinschaft. Für politische Entscheider hingegen ist das primäre Prinzip die "Transparenz" des Entscheidungsfindungsprozesses selbst. Diese Annahme basiert auf Krotts (2012) Theorie über "nicht verifizierbare Informationen", welche davon ausgeht, dass "nicht verifizierbare Informationen", d.h. intransparente Informationen, politischen Interessen Vorschub geben, indem sie die Verzerrung von Ergebnissen in Richtung politisch gewollter Ergebnisse ermöglichen. Basierend auf diesem theoretischen Konzept, ist das zweite Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation, bei Wissenschaftlern ein Bewusstsein über solche Risiken politischer Verzerrungen ("risk of political bias") zu wecken. Die Aufmerksamkeit gilt dabei sowohl "wissenschaftlichen" Prozessen, wie der Bereitstellung und Generierung von Informationen, als auch politischen Aufgabenbereichen, wie der Interpretation und Entscheidungsfindung. Letztlich will die Dissertation somit auch Vorschläge für die Vermeidung entsprechender Risiken erarbeiten. Für analytische Zwecke wurde das Risiko politischer Verzerrungen durch Verifizierung zweier grundlegender Annahmen ermittelt: (1) das Vorliegen "politischer Motivationen" (d.h. politische Ziele, die Interessenvertreter motivieren könnten, auf Ergebnisse Einfluss zu nehmen) und (2) "Intransparenz" der Datenakquise, bzw. der Entscheidungsprozesse (d.h. Prozesse im wissenschaftlichen, bzw. politischen Aufgabenbereich, die es ermöglichen, Ergebnisse stillschweigend entsprechend spezifischer Interessen und Ziele zu verzerren). Beide Annahmen werden jeweils anhand von 3 Fallstudien untersucht, die repräsentativ für die verschiedenen Etappen des Wissenschafts-Politik Dialogs sind, beginnend mit der "wissenschaftlichen" Aufgabe der Datenerhebung und Bereitstellung, bis hin zur "politischen" Aufgabe der Entscheidungsfindung. (1) Dabei stellt der parlamentarische Diskurs von 2010 über die Novelle des deutschen Bundeswaldgesetzes exemplarisch eine nationale Fallstudie über die Risiken politischer Verzerrung im Aufgabenbereich der Entscheidungsfindung dar. Die beiden darauf folgenden Fallstudien beleuchten wissenschaftliche Aufgabenbereiche der Datenerhebung und Bereitstellung im Waldbereich, beginnend mit (2) den nationalen Berichtspflichten unter der EG FFH Richtlinie und dann überleitend zu den (3) internationalen Verpflichtungen unter der Biodiversitätskonvention (CBD) der Vereinten Nationen. Im Ergebnis zeigte der parlamentarische Diskurs schließlich, dass Entscheider abhängig von Parteizugehörigkeit und den entsprechenden Interessen der jeweiligen Wählerschaft, Informationen tendenziell dahingehend selektierten und interpretierten, dass sie entweder eher utilitaristische oder umweltbezogene Ziele forcierten. Obwohl die im Parlament zitierten Nachweise und Schlussfolgerungen teilweise intransparent waren, blieben sie dennoch weitgehend transparent. Nicht verifizierbare Informationen warfen hingegen Kritik auf und waren generell nicht in der Lage, Vertreter gegenläufiger Meinungen zu überzeugen und einen Konsens herbeizuführen. Im folgenden zweiten Ergebnisteil der Analyse, der sich mit dem wissenschaftlichen Aufgabenbereich der Datenerhebung befasste, stellte sich die Durchführung solcher "wissenschaftlichen" Aufgaben als größtenteils transparent heraus. Diese Transparenz eröffnete letztlich nur wenige Möglichkeiten zur versteckten politischen Einflussnahme auf die entsprechenden Kaskaden der Datenakquise, seien es die Messverfahren, die Analyse oder die Zusammenstellung in der Berichterstattung. Dies traf insbesondere auf nationale Waldinventuren zu, die sich generell auf Ökosystemdienstleistungen konzentrieren die leicht zu quantifizieren sind (z.B. Holzvolumen und Zuwachs) und die häufig genug sind, um in Stichprobenverfahren erfasst zu werden (z.B. bestimmte Baumarten im Gegensatz zu Arten der Bodenvegetation wie Moose oder Flechten, Pilze und Tierarten). Durch Biodiversität und (Wald-) Ökosysteme bereitgestellte Ressourcen und Ökosystemdienstleistungen (im Sinne der CBD-Definition) waren hingegen schwer zu messen. Daher blieben entsprechende Berichtspflichten generell so vage, dass die Mitgliedstaaten die Möglichkeit hatten, individuelle Komponenten der Biodiversität entsprechend ihrer Relevanz in den jeweiligen nationalen oder lokalen Kontexten zu definieren. Obwohl sich die Selektion von Definitionen und Analysemethoden nationaler Berichte dabei im Allgemeinen als transparent herausstellte, waren in einigen Fällen, die zugrundeliegenden Inventurmethoden und Variablen, die ein Feldbiologe für seine Aufnahmen und Messungen wählte, nicht immer uneingeschränkt transparent. Das muss generell noch kein Problem sein und man könnte annehmen, dass die Ergebnisse dennoch objektiv sind, wenn man davon ausginge, dass persönliche Interessen nicht im Wiederspruch zu den erzielten Ergebnissen stünden. Jedoch deuten Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass Gutachter in einigen Fällen Aufgaben hatten, die im Konflikt mit Monitoring Ergebnissen stehen könnten. Entsprechend der oben beschriebenen Theorie aus der Politikwissenschaft, könnte dieser Konflikt unter Umständen als ein Risiko für wissenschaftliche Glaubwürdigkeit (miss-) verstanden werden. Um dieses Thema anzugehen, versucht die vorliegende Dissertation im Ausblick und am Beispiel der schwedischen Nationalen Waldinventur, denkbare Ansätze für eine mögliche Harmonisierung von Messverfahren und eine Neuausrichtung von Mandaten vorzulegen. Interessenkonflikte, zweideutige Vorgaben und das damit verbundene Risiko für verdeckte und interessengerichtete, d.h. politische Einflussnahme durch die Selektion spezifischer Methoden könnten so möglicherweise vermieden werden. Die Anwendbarkeit solcher Vorschläge hat jedoch klare Grenzen. Bei der Lektüre dieser Dissertation und der Interpretation ihrer Ergebnisse muss stets beachtet werden, dass Vorschläge und Schlussfolgerungen auf einer theoretischen Argumentation beruhen und nur auf eine sehr begrenzte Evidenzbasis zurückgreifen konnten, bei der die Unsicherheiten in Bezug auf die Richtigkeit der erzielten Ergebnisse nicht messbar und daher unbekannt ist. So konnte sich die Dissertation ausschließlich auf wenige Interviews, öffentlich verfügbare Berichte, Gesetzestexte, Mandate und andere Publikationen zu stützen. Wobei diese Quellen aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach nicht in der Lage gewesen sein konnten, ein allumfassendes Bild aller beteiligten politischen Interessen zu vermitteln. Zudem ist es auch schwierig, alle in politischen Kontexten verfügbaren und verwendeten Waldinformationen vollständig zu ermitteln. Daher stellen weder die Schlussfolgerungen über politische Motivationen, noch jene über die (In-)Transparenz der politischen Informationsquellen einen Anspruch auf Vollständig- oder Richtigkeit. Auch wenn Intransparenz von Waldinformationen politischen Interessen theoretisch genützt hätten, lässt sich letztendlich unmöglich feststellen, ob Interessenvertreter die Möglichkeit versteckter politischer Einflussnahme tatsächlich genutzt haben, um "wissenschaftliche" Daten in Richtung eines politisch gewollten Ergebnisses zu lenken oder zu verzerren. Die vorliegende Studie identifiziert daher ausschließlich Risiken und macht keine Annahmen über die (statistische) Sicherheit der erzielten Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen. ; If preserved and managed wisely, forests have the potential to be extremely diverse and valuable ecosystems that generate a multitude of benefits for a healthy global climate, the environment and human livelihoods. It is, in the end, such multitude of ecosystem services that have made forests an important component of a new "green economy" that markets the ecological capital of forests on global food-, timber- and carbon markets and turns them to economic assets. It is not least for that reason why today, it is generally understood that forest ecosystems have to be preserved through forest policies that effectively regulate forest management. Only then, the ecological and economic benefits of forests can be preserved such as to guarantee sustained provision for today and for future generations. Yet, for the purpose of making such important decisions, forest policy-makers need reliable scientific information. The UN Conventions on the topics of biodiversity (CBD), climate change (UNFCCC), degradation (UNCCD) and air pollution (CLRTAP), and the reporting obligations they impose on member states mirror that requirement. Yet, many benefits provided by forests are difficult to measure, not least because they are connoted by socio-economic backgrounds and charged by ideologies. From a purely scientific perspective, i.e. neutral and void from ideologies or social values, they are therefore difficult to assess and interpret. This relates specifically to assets provided by biodiversity such as genetic resources, scenic beauty or abstract knowledge intrinsic to biotic systems that may be used in sciences such as biotechnology and pharmacy. Such values have to be defined and defended by representatives of public interests, i.e. by elected politicians and their respective administrative bodies. The first objective of this study is to identify such components of biodiversity that are relevant for policy-makers. For this purpose, this thesis analyses biodiversity reporting processes and their data requirements at three different jurisdictional levels: Ranging from (1) Global (UN-CBD) to (2) European (EC-Habitats Directive) and (3) national reporting processes. To identify national data requirements, the study further analyses data sources that national authorities deemed to be relevant for meeting the aforementioned EU- and UN obligations. The analysis looks at three case-study countries: Germany, Poland and Sweden. However, language barriers meant that the Polish case-study remained restricted towards the analysis of UN reports. The 2010 parliamentary discourse on the amendment of the German forest act is further taken as a case-study for the relevance of forest information in political discourse and decision-making. An outlook eventually proposes ideas or starting points for future research such as to improve the quantification of variables that are difficult to measure and to report more comprehensively to the political aspects of biodiversity as an integral part of "sustainable forest management". Even though this thesis regards the provision of policy relevant information as a scientific responsibility, it also has to be recognized that the involvement in the political arena of policy-making may imply certain risks for scientists. As Guldin (2003) note, the involvement of scientists in political questions may create perceptions of advocacy and thus poses a risk to scientific credibility. Some authors have even introduced the notion of the "politicization of science" (Krott, 2012; Krott et al., 2014; Pregernig, 2007) where information generation and selection is inherently biased towards hot topics of political interest (Hellström, 2000 quoted by Janse, 2008). The assumption is that policy-makers accept biased information to support sub-optimal decisions that are in the interest of a selective group of powerful stakeholders, but to the disadvantage of the majority (Krott, 2012, 2013). In the face of continued forest destruction and the inability of stakeholders to combat such destruction by compromise and an international forest convention, some authors, even speak of a "fragmented", "politically wanted", "ineffective" or "failed" forest "regime-complex "(Humphreys, 2006, 2009; Chaytor, 2001; Dimitrov, 2005; Dimitrov et al., 2007; Rayner et al., 2010). Such a "fragmented" regime-complex is, as some argue, supported by the selective use, manipulation or intentional ignorance of scientific evidence (Hertin et al., 2009; Krott, 2012; Pregernig, 2007). This thesis argues that when attributing political bias to either side of the policy-science interface, it is important to make a clear distinction between the responsibilities of "science" and "policy-making". It is argued that either science or policy-makers may be perceived as politically biased only, when they undermine democratic systems by violating two basic principles that justify the existence of science and policy-making respectively. For scientists that primary principle is "transparency", i.e. verifiability, of information generation processes through the scientific community. For policy makers the primary principle is "transparency" of the decision-making process itself. These assumptions base on Krott's (2012) theory of "unverified information", which assumes that "unverified information", i.e. information that is neither verifiable nor transparent, allows political motivations to skew or bias results towards a politically favored result. Based on that theoretical concept the second objective of this thesis is to make scientists aware of the risks of political bias within data provision- and decision making processes, and to provide recommendations as how to avoid such risks. For analytic purposes, "risk of political bias" was identified by verifying two assumptions: (1) "political motivations" (i.e. political objectives that could motivate stakeholders to come to biased results) and (2) "non-transparency" of data acquisition or decision making processes (i.e. processes that allows political objectives to tacitly bias results). These assumptions are identified in 3 case studies where each is illustrative for different stages of the science-policy interface, ranging from scientific data generation to political decision-making: (1) the 2010 parliamentary discourse on the amendment in the national forest act of Germany represents a national case study on risks of bias in political responsibilities of decision-making. Subsequently, two following case studies represent scientific responsibilities of monitoring and reporting forest status from (2) the national level under reporting obligations of the EC Habitats Directive, to (3) the international level under reporting obligations under the United Nations CBD. Results on the parliamentary process eventually showed that policy makers tended to select and interpreted information such that they supported either utilitarian or environmentalist objectives, depending on party-membership and the interest of their respective groups of voters. However, apart from a few exceptions, the quoted evidence and conclusions made were largely transparent. Unverified information in contrast, tended to raise criticism and generally failed to convince opponents and did not contribute to consent. Then, in the second part of analysis, which looked at scientific responsibilities of data generation, the execution of such scientific tasks showed to be largely transparent. That transparency then provided little options of political interests to tacitly influence any stage of the data generation process, be it measurement, analysis or data compilation and reporting. This applied especially to assessments made by National Forest Inventories, which typically focus on forest resources that are easy to quantify (e.g. timber volume and increment) and common enough to be assessed by sampling (e.g. specific tree-species rather than species of the ground vegetation or mosses, lichen, fungi and species of fauna). Ecosystem services and resources provided by biodiversity and (forest) ecosystems (as defined by CBD, 1992) in contrast were more difficult to measure. In such cases reporting obligations were generally vague enough to allow member states to specify those components of biodiversity that they deem to be most relevant in national or site-specific contexts. Even though national reports and the selection of respective definitions and analytic methods proved to be generally transparent, the underlying field measurements and attributes that field experts chose to select were not always completely clear. This is no problem per-se, and we may assume that results are impartial if the assessors' personal objectives were not at odds with monitoring results. However results indicated that in few cases, assessors did have responsibilities that could possibly be at odds with monitoring results. Following the argumentation of political theory, this conflict might be (mis-) perceived as a risk to scientific credibility. To address that issue, and by using the Swedish National Forest Inventory as a role model, an outlook proposes possible options of harmonising and redistributing measurement responsibilities in very specific cases such as to avoid conflict of interest and to remove any remaining ambiguity that could possibly allow such interests to steer the outcomes. The applicability of such recommendations has, however, clear limitations. When reading this thesis and interpreting its findings, it is important to always bear in mind that conclusions drawn are based on a theoretical concept and very limited evidence to verify or measure the certainty of conclusions. The thesis thus had to rely on a few interviews, publically available reports, legal mandates and other publications, all of which are very unlikely to capture the complete picture of the political interests at stake. It is also nearly impossible to capture all the different sources of forest information used or available in forest policy contexts. Therefore, neither the conclusions on political motivations, nor those on the (non-)transparency of data-use make any claim to be complete, accurate or precise. Finally, even if non-transparency of forest information had served political interests, it is impossible to confirm that stakeholders really exploited such options of steering or biasing results towards a favoured outcome. The present study therefore exclusively identifies risks, yet it does not make any claim about the (statistical) certainty of its results and conclusions.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more than 100 genetic variants contributing to BMI, a measure of body size, or waist-to-hip ratio (adjusted for BMI, WHRadjBMI), a measure of body shape. Body size and shape change as people grow older and these changes differ substantially between men and women. To systematically screen for age-and/or sex-specific effects of genetic variants on BMI and WHRadjBMI, we performed meta-analyses of 114 studies (up to 320,485 individuals of European descent) with genome-wide chip and/or Metabochip data by the Genetic Investigation of Anthropometric Traits (GIANT) Consortium. Each study tested the association of up to similar to 2.8M SNPs with BMI and WHRadjBMI in four strata (men 50y, women 50y) and summary statistics were combined in stratum-specific meta-analyses. We then screened for variants that showed age-specific effects (G x AGE), sex-specific effects (G x SEX) or age-specific effects that differed between men and women (G x AGE x SEX). For BMI, we identified 15 loci (11 previously established for main effects, four novel) that showed significant (FDR= 50y). No sex-dependent effects were identified for BMI. For WHRadjBMI, we identified 44 loci (27 previously established for main effects, 17 novel) with sex-specific effects, of which 28 showed larger effects in women than in men, five showed larger effects in men than in women, and 11 showed opposite effects between sexes. No age-dependent effects were identified for WHRadjBMI. This is the first genome-wide interaction meta-analysis to report convincing evidence of age-dependent genetic effects on BMI. In addition, we confirm the sex-specificity of genetic effects on WHRadjBMI. These results may providefurther insights into the biology that underlies weight change with age or the sexually dimorphism of body shape. ; Funding: Funding for this study was provided by the Aarne Koskelo Foundation; the Aase and Ejner Danielsens Foundation; the Academy of Finland (40758, 41071, 77299, 102318, 104781, 117787, 117844, 118590, 120315, 121584, 123885, 124243, 124282, 126925, 129269, 129293, 129378, 130326, 134309, 134791, 136895, 139635, 211497, 263836, 263924, 1114194, 24300796); the Agency for Health Care Policy Research (HS06516); the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR); the Ahokas Foundation; the ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg; the ALK-Abello A/S (Horsholm, Denmark), Timber Merchant Vilhelm Bangs Foundation, MEKOS Laboratories Denmark; the Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament); the American Heart Association (AHA; 13POST16500011); the ANR ("Agence Nationale de la 359 Recherche"); the Ark (NHMRC Enabling Facility); the Arthritis Research UK (19542, 18030); the AstraZeneca; the Augustinus Foundation; the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC; 241944, 389875, 389891, 389892, 389938, 442915, 442981, 496739, 496688, 552485, 613672, 613601 and 1011506); the Australian Research Council (ARC; DP0770096 and DP1093502); the Becket Foundation; the bi-national BMBF/ANR funded project CARDomics (01KU0908A); the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRINL; 184.021.007, CP 32); the Biocentrum Helsinki; the Boehringer Ingelheim Foundation; the British Heart Foundation (RG/10/12/28456, SP/04/ 002); the Canadian Institutes for Health Reseaerch (FRCN-CCT-83028); the Cancer Research UK (C490/A10124, C490/A10119); the Center for Medical Systems Biology (CMSB; NWO Genomics); the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Schools of Public Health (1734, S043, S3486); the Centre of Excellence Baden-Wurttemberg Metabolic Disorders; the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government; the Clinical Research Facility at Guys & St Thomas NHS Foundation Trust; the Contrat de Projets Etat-Region (CPER); the Croatian Science Council (Grant no. 8875); the CVON (GENIUS); the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation; the Danish Centre for Health Technology Assessment, Novo Nordisk Inc.; the Danish Council for Independent Research (DFF 1333-00124); the Danish Diabetes Association; Danish Heart Foundation; the Danish Medical Research Council; the Danish Ministry of Internal Affairs and Health; the Danish National Research Foundation; the Danish Pharmaceutical Association; Danish Pharmacists Fund; the Danish Research Council; the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft; the Diabetes Hilfs-und Forschungsfonds Deutschland (DHFD); the Dr. Robert Pfleger-Stiftung; the Dresden University of Technology Funding Grant, Med Drive; the Dutch Brain Foundation; the Dutch Diabetes Research Foundation; the Dutch Economic Structure Enhancing Fund (FES); the Dutch Kidney Foundation; the Dutch Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports; the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs; the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science; the Egmont Foundation; the Else Kraner-Fresenius Stiftung (2012_A147, P48/08//A11/08); the Emil Aaltonen Foundation; the Erasmus Medical Center and Erasmus University, Rotterdam; the Estonian Ministry of Science and Education (SF0180142s08); the European Commission (223004, 2004310, DGXII, FP6-EUROSPAN, FP6-EXGENESIS, FP6-LSHG-CT2006-018947, FP6-LSHG-CT-2006-01947, FP6-LSHM- CT-2004-503485, FP6-LSHM-CT-2006037593, FP6-LSHM-CT-2007-037273, FP7-201379, FP7-201668, FP7-279143, FP7-305739, FP7313010, FP7-ENGAGE-HEALTH-F4-2007-201413, FP7-EurHEALTHAgeing-277849, FP7-HEALTH-F42007-201550, HEALTH-2011.2.4.2-2-EU-MASCARA, HEALTH-F2-2008-201865-GEFOS, HEALTH-F7305507 HOMAGE, LSHM-CT-2006-037593, QLG1CT-2001-01252, QLG1-CT-2002-00896, QLG2-CT2002-01254); the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Wissenschaftsoffensive TMO; the European Regional Development Fund to the Centre of Excellence in Genomics (EXCEGEN; 3.2.0304.11-0312); the European Research Council (ERC; 2011-StG-280559-SEPI, 2011-294713-EPLORE, 230374); the European Science Foundation (ESF; EU/QLRT-2001-01254); the EuroSTRESS project FP-006; the Finlands Slottery Machine Association; the Finnish Centre for Pensions (ETK); the Finnish Cultural Foundation; the Finnish Diabetes Association; the Finnish Diabetes Research Foundation; the Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research; the Finnish Foundation for Pediatric Research; the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (40058/07); the Finnish Medical Society; the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (627; 2004-2011); the Finnish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs (5254); the Finnish National Public Health Institute (current National Institute for Health and Welfare); the Finnish Special Governmental Subsidy for Health Sciences; the Finska Lakaresallskapet, Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; the Flemish League against Cancer, ITEA2 (project Care4Me); the Folkhalsan Research Foundation; the Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO) Vlaanderen; the Foundation for Life and Health in Finland; the Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) and the Stockholm County Council (560283); the G. Ph. Verhagen Foundation; the Gene-diet Interactions in Obesity' project (GENDINOB); the Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN); the GENEVA Coordinating Center (U01 HG 004446); the GenomEUtwin (EU/QLRT2001-01254; QLG2-CT-2002-01254); the German Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technology (01 AK 803 A-H, 01 IG 07015 G); the German Diabetes Association; the German Ministry of Cultural Affairs; the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; 03IS2061A, 03ZIK012, 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, 01ZZ0403); the German National Genome Research Network (NGFN-2 and NGFN-plus); the German Research Council (SFB1052 "Obesity mechanisms"); the Great Wine Estates of the Margaret River region of Western Australia; the Greek General Secretary of Research and Technology research grant (PENED 2003); the Gyllenberg Foundation; the Health Care Centers in Vasa, Narpes and Korsholm; the Health Fund of the Danish Health Insurance Societies; the Helmholtz Zentrum Munchen-German Research Center for Environmental Health; the Helsinki University Central Hospital special government funds (EVO #TYH7215, #TKK2012005, #TYH2012209); the Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association); the Ib Henriksen Foundation; the Illinois Department of Public Health, and the Translational Genomics Research Institute; the INTERREG IV Oberrhein Program (Project A28); the Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands (ICIN; 09.001); the Italian Ministry of Health "targeted project" (ICS110.1/RF97.71); the Italian National Centre of Research InterOmics PB05_ SP3; the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation Research Networks on Successful Midlife Development and Socio-economic Status and Health; the Johns Hopkins University Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR); the Joint grant from Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany and the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; the Juho Vainio Foundation; the Juselius Foundation (Helsinki, Finland); the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International (JDRF); the KfH Stiftung Praventivmedizin e. V.; the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation; the Kuopio University Hospital; the Leenaards Foundation; the Leiden University Medical Center; the Liv och Halsa; the Local Government Pensions Institution (KEVA); the Lokaal Gezondheids Overleg (LOGO) Leuven and Hageland; the LudwigMaximilians- Universitat, as part of LMUinnovativ; the Lundberg Foundation; the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation; the Medical Research Council (G0601966; G0700931; G0000934; G0500539; G0600705; G1002319; G0701863; PrevMetSyn/SALVE; MC_ U106179471; MC_ UU_ 12019/1); the MRC centre for Causal Analyses in Translational Epidemiology (MRC CAiTE); the MRC Centre for Obesity and Related Metabolic Diseases; the MRC Human Genetics Unit; the Medical Research Council of Canada; the Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center (P30 DK072488); the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Brussels, Belgium (G. 0881.13 and G. 0880. 13); the MIUR-CNR Italian Flagship Project; the Montreal Heart Institute Foundation; the Munich Center of Health Sciences (MC Health); the Municipal Health Care Center and Hospital in Jakobstad; the Narpes Health Care Foundation; the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (NARSAD); the National Cancer Institute (CA047988); the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (UL1TR000124); the National Center for Research Resources (U54RR020278); the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI, 1RL1MH083268-01, 5R01HL087679-02, HHSN268200800007C, HHSN268201200036C, HL043851, HL080467, HL087647, HL36310, HL45670, N01HC25195, N01HC55015, N01HC55016, N01HC55018, N01HC55019, N01HC55020, N01HC55021, N01HC55022, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086, N02HL64278, R01HL086694, R01HL087641, R01HL087652, R01HL087676, R01HL59367, R01HL103612, R01HL105756, R01HL120393, U01HL080295); the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI, U01HG004402); the National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL); the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR, RP-PG-0407-10371); the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease (NIDDKDRC, 1R01DK8925601, DK063491, R01DK089256, P30 DK072488); the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (2007-35205-17883); the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); the National Institute on Aging (NIA; 263-MA-410953, 263-MD-821336, 263-MD-9164, AG023629, AG13196, NO1AG12109, P30AG10161, R01AG15819, R01AG17917, R01AG023629, R01AG30146); the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (5-P60-AR30701, 5-P60-AR49465-03); the National Institutes of Health (NIH; 1R01DK8925601, 1RC2MH089951, 1RC2MH089995, 1Z01HG000024, 2T32 HL 00705536, 5R01DK075681, 5R01MH63706: 02, AA014041, AA07535, AA10248, AA13320, AA13321, AA13326, AG028555, AG08724, AG04563, AG10175, AG08861, DA12854, DK046200, DK091718, F32AR059469, HG002651, HHSN268200625226C, HHSN268200782096C, HL084729, MH081802, N01AG12100, N01HG65403, R01AG011101, R01AG030146, R01D0042157-01A, R01DK062370, R01DK072193, R01DK093757, R01DK075787, R01DK075787, R01HL71981, R01MH59565, R01MH59566, R01MH59571, R01MH59586, R01MH59587, R01MH59588, R01MH60870, R01MH60879, R01MH61675, R01MH67257, R01MH81800, R01NS45012, U01066134, U01CA098233, U01DK062418, U01GM074518, U01HG004423, U01HG004436, U01HG004438, U01HL072515-06, U01HL105198, U01HL84756, U01MH79469, U01MH79470, U01NS069208-01, UL1RR025005); the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre based at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust; the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical research Centre; the Netherlands Heart Foundation (2001 D 032); the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO; Geestkracht program grant 10-000-1002; 050-060-810; 100-001-004; 175.010.2003.005; 175.010.2005.011; 175.010.2007. 006; 261-98-710; 40-0056-98-9032; 400-05-717; 452-04-314; 452-06-004; 480-01-006; 480-04-004; 480-05-003; 480-07-001; 481-08-013; 60-60600-97-118; 904-61-090; 904-61-193; 911-03012; 985-10-002; Addiction-31160008; GB-MW 94038- 011; SPI 56-464-14192); the Netherlands Organization for the Health Research and Development (ZonMw; 91111025); the Nordic Center of Excellence in Disease Genetics; the Nordic Centre of Excellence on Systems biology in controlled dietary interventions and cohort studies, SYSDIET (070014); the Northern Netherlands Collaboration of Provinces (SNN); the Novo Nordisk Foundation; the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, and the Baltimore Geriatrics Research, Education, and Clinical Center of the Department of Veterans Affairs; the Ollqvist Foundation; the Paavo Nurmi Foundation; the Pahlssons Foundation; the Paivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation; the Perklen Foundation; the Republic of Croatia Ministry of Science, Education and Sports research (108-1080315-0302); the Research Centre for Prevention and Health, the Capital Region of Denmark; the Research Foundation of Copenhagen County; the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (014-93-015; RIDE2); the Reynold's Foundation; the Rotterdam Oncologic Thoracic Study Group, Erasmus Trust Fund, Foundation against Cancer; the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043); the Rutgers University Cell and DNA Repository cooperative agreement (NIMH U24 MH068457-06); the Samfundet Folkhalsan; the Sigrid Juselius Foundation; the Social Insurance Institution of Finland, Kuopio, Tampere and Turku University Hospital Medical Funds (9M048, 9N035); the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; the Societe Francophone du 358 Diabste (SFD); the South Tyrolean Sparkasse Foundation; the Stichting Nationale Computerfaciliteiten (National Computing Facilities Foundation, NCF); the Strategic Cardiovascular Programme of Karolinska Institutet and the Stockholm County Council (560183); the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation; the Swedish Cancer Society; the Swedish Cultural Foundation in Finland; the Swedish Diabetes Association; the Swedish Diabetes Foundation (grant no. 2013-024); the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF; ICA08-0047); the Swedish HeartLung Foundation (20120197); the Swedish Medical Research Council (K2007-66X-20270-01-3, 20121397); the Swedish Ministry for Higher Education; the Swedish Research Council (8691, M-2005-1112, 2009-2298); the Swedish Society for Medical Research; the Swiss National Science Foundation (31003A-143914, 3200B0105993, 3200B0-118308, 33CSCO-122661, 33CS30-139468, 33CS30148401); SystemsX. ch (51RTP0_151019); the Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; the TEKES (70103/06, 40058/07); the The Paul Michael Donovan Charitable Foundation; the Torsten and Ragnar Sderberg Foundation; the Umea Medical Research Foundation; the United Kingdom NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre; the Universities and Research of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano, South Tyrol; the University Hospital of Regensburg (ReForM A, ReForM C); the University Hospital Oulu, Biocenter, University of Oulu, Finland (75617); the University Medical Center Groningen; the University of Groningen; the University of Maryland General Clinical Research Center (M01RR16500, AG000219); the University of Tartu (SP1GVARENG); the University of Tromso, Norwegian Research Council (185764); the Vasterbottens Intervention Programme; the Velux Foundation; the VU University Institute for Health and Care Research (EMGO+) and Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam (NCA); the Wellcome Trust (064890, 068545/Z/02, 076113/B/04/Z, 077016/Z/05/Z, 079895, 084723/Z/08/Z, 086596/Z/ 08/Z, 088869/B/09/Z, 089062, 090532, 098017, 098051, 098381); the Western Australian DNA Bank (NHMRC Enabling Facility); the Yrjo Jahnsson Foundation (56358); and the Zorg Onderzoek Nederland-Medische Wetenschappen, KWF Kankerbestrijding, Stichting Centraal Fonds Reserves van voormalig Vrijwillige Ziekenfondsverzekeringen. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. More details of acknowledgements can be found in S2 Text.

Riassunto/Abstract Il presente lavoro di tesi fa parte di un progetto svolto nell'ambito di una collaborazione fra Regione Toscana e Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse (IGG) del CNR di Pisa, avente per obiettivo lo studio di una metodologia per l'individuazione delle zone di protezione di pozzi o sorgenti idropotabili, distribuiti sul territorio regionale toscano, nonché la presentazione di un esempio di delimitazione relativa al campo pozzi Greti, località fiume Greve in Chianti. L'acqua è una risorsa indispensabile per la vita, per lo sviluppo e per l'ambiente. Essa è una risorsa finita e vulnerabile, parzialmente rinnovabile visti i tempi necessari a ripristinare situazioni di eventuali sovra-sfruttamenti, e che richiede un'efficiente gestione per la sua difesa e salvaguardia in modo da garantire la sua utilizzazione anche alle generazioni future. Spesso è soggetta ad emergenze sia dal punto di vista qualitativo che quantitativo. Dal punto di vista qualitativo, le emergenze derivano da eventuali situazioni di inquinamento originato da svariate sostanze utilizzate sui terreni, scarichi di rifiuti di vario genere e composti di origine industriale. Dal punto di vista quantitativo, le acque possono essere soggette a problemi tipo il sovra- sfruttamento, l'abbassamento del livello della falda, la mancanza o la riduzione di nuovi apporti idrici alle sorgenti. E' evidente notare che il manifestarsi delle contaminazioni dell'acqua delle falde idriche dipende non solo dalla vulnerabilità degli acquiferi, ma anche dalla suscettibilità di un acquifero nel processo di interazione acqua-roccia ad assorbire i contaminanti e permettere la loro propagazione lungo l'acquifero stesso. La vulnerabilità degli acquiferi sottende a vari fattori quali la capacità di auto- depurazione del terreno, la soggiacenza della falda, la connessione tra falda e i corsi d'acqua e soprattutto al grado di protezione degli acquiferi. Le zone di protezione, assieme a quelle di tutela assoluta e di rispetto, costituiscono le aree di salvaguardia. In dettaglio, la zona di tutela assoluta rappresenta la zona immediatamente prospiciente l'opera di presa (10 metri di raggio dal punto di captazione); la zona di rispetto costituisce una porzione di territorio intorno alla zona di tutela assoluta che viene sottoposta a vincoli e destinazioni d'uso tali da tutelare la risorsa idrica (in assenza di altre individuazioni ha una estensione di 200 metri di raggio dal punto di captazione); la zona di protezione rappresenta un'area più vasta per la cui delimitazione è necessario tener conto dell'intera area di ricarica della falda, delle emergenze naturali e artificiali e delle zone di riserva. La difesa degli acquiferi dall'inquinamento è rivolta ad aree che sono già interessate da inquinamento, oppure a quelle che potrebbero esserlo ad esempio in aree di urbanizzazione, mediante piani di tutela elaborati dalle Regioni. Queste devono prevedere degli interventi che privilegino la tutela delle zone di captazione dell'acqua e del territorio circostante, attraverso uno stretto controllo delle possibili fonti di contaminazione. In questo lavoro è stata effettuata, prima di tutto, una attenta analisi sulla legislazione inerente le aree di salvaguardia, partendo dalla normativa comunitaria che detta le linee guida per la tutela della risorsa idrica destinata al consumo umano, fino ad arrivare alle norme emanate da alcune regioni italiane. E' infatti compito delle Regioni la scelta del criterio per l'individuazione delle aree di salvaguardia e la delimitazione delle stesse sul territorio. Uno degli obiettivi della tesi è stato quello di affrontare gli aspetti scientifici sulla delimitazione delle zone di protezione intorno ai campi-pozzi, che insieme a quelle di tutela assoluta vanno a formare le aree di salvaguardia. I criteri utilizzati per la delimitazione delle zone di protezione, indicati dalla normativa, sono: (a) di tipo geologico e riguardano la presentazione dell'ubicazione del campo pozzi, il riconoscimento delle strutture geologiche e l'individuazione dei processi geologici che hanno interessato l'area di studio; (b) idrogeologici, questi prevedono lo studio dell'intera area di ricarica della falda e consistono nel definire le aree di salvaguardia mediante considerazioni tecnico- scientifiche basate sulle conoscenze di idrochimica sotterranea e sulle caratteristiche stratigrafico - strutturale dell'acquifero; (c) geochimici, questi si basano su analisi idrogeochimiche e isotopiche delle acque e vengono utilizzati non solo per definirne gli aspetti qualitativi, ma anche per la ricostruzione dei diversi circuiti idrici. Il progetto all'interno del quale si è sviluppata la tesi ha previsto come prima fase l'individuazione, da parte delle varie AATO (Autorità di Ambito Territoriale Ottimale) coordinate dalla Regione Toscana, di opere di captazione ritenute prioritarie nell'intero scenario regionale. In seconda fase si è proceduto all'acquisizione delle informazioni necessarie mediante il recupero e la rielaborazione di tutti i dati relativi alle aree di studio già in possesso delle AATO. Infine, si è proceduto all'esecuzione di nuove analisi, fornendo specifici programmi per la raccolta dei dati. L'acquisizione e la produzione dei nuovi dati sono state curate dalle varie AATO, mentre il mio lavoro, all'interno dell'IGG-CNR è stato rivolto sia alla acquisizione di nuovi dati che all'elaborazione degli stessi. Infine, si è proceduto alla effettiva delimitazione della zona di protezione sul caso specifico Greti, individuata tramite un criterio metodologico d'insieme che si avvale, in una prima fase, dello studio dell'assetto delle formazioni geologiche caratteristiche dell'area, dell'analisi idrogeologica delle stesse, nonché delle deduzioni tratte dall'indagine idrodinamica dell'acquifero. Tutto ciò, validato dai risultati ricavati dalle analisi chimiche e isotopiche effettuate sulle sorgenti poste sui rilievi e su una serie di pozzi individuati nei pressi del campo pozzi, ha consentito di circoscrivere una zona di protezione, che in parte si discosta dalla traccia del bacino idrografico del Fiume Greve in Chianti. In particolare, lo studio delle formazioni geologiche e del loro assetto, tramite l'analisi delle sezioni nell'area di Greve, ha permesso di evidenziare un assetto idrostrutturale che, relativamente agli acquiferi in roccia, favorisce un flusso idrico sotterraneo da N a S. In conclusione, questo tipo di approccio multi-disciplinare ha permesso di studiare nel dettaglio il bacino di alimentazione del campo pozzi "Greti" e di delimitarne la zona di protezione ponendo l'accento su quell'area che contribuisce maggiormente all'alimentazione della falda captata dal pozzo in esame. Sarà compito degli enti locali adottare interventi, come prescrizioni o particolari destinazioni d'uso del territorio, da inserire negli strumenti urbanistici sia generali che di settore che permetteranno una migliore difesa della risorsa idrica sotterranea. Una considerazione generale, che deriva dal presente lavoro, porta a riconoscere nello strumento delle aree di protezione un'utile strategia per la tutela di una così preziosa risorsa: salvaguardia non fine a se stessa ma coniugata al crescente bisogno di sviluppo sostenibile delle aree urbane e sub-urbane e uso sostenibile delle risorse naturali. La nozione di uso sostenibile, in particolare, della risorsa idropotabile, traduce la necessità di trovare un equilibrio tra le esigenze di sviluppo economico legate allo sfruttamento di tali risorse e gli imperativi della loro protezione e conservazione a medio e lungo termine, in maniera tale che l'uso attuale delle risorse naturali non comprometta il loro impiego futuro. Di fondamentale importanza, è il fatto che le risorse del pianeta debbano essere gestite in modo da assicurare il soddisfacimento sia delle generazioni presenti che di quelle future. Ciò implica la possibilità di configurare, anche a livello internazionale, un vero e proprio diritto umano fondamentale all'acqua. A tale diritto individuale, corrisponderebbe un obbligo degli Stati di far sì che le attività di sfruttamento economico delle risorse stesse siano in ogni caso compatibili con l'obiettivo di assicurare acqua potabile in quantità e qualità sufficiente a sostenere le necessità basilari delle popolazioni interessate. Abstract The present job of thesis makes part of a project developed within a collaboration among Region Tuscany and Institute of geosciences and earth resources (IGG) of the CNR in Pisa, having for objective the study of a methodology for the individualization of the zones of protection of wells or rising drinking water , distributed on the Tuscan regional territory, as well as the presentation of an example of delimitation related to the field wells Pebbly shores, place Heavy river in Chianti. Water is an essential resource for the life, for the development and the environment. It is an ended resource and vulnerability, partially renewable visas the necessary times to restore situations of possible overexploitations, and that it asks for an efficient management for her defense and safeguard so that to also guarantee her use to the future generations. It is often subject to emergencies both from the qualitative point of view that quantitative. From the qualitative point of view, the emergencies derive from possible situations of pollution originated from varied substances used on the grounds, unloading of refusals of various kind and mixtures of industrial origin. It 'obvious to note that the occurrence of water contamination of the aquifer depends not only on groundwater vulnerability, but also from the susceptibility of an aquifer in the process of interaction water-rock to absorb the contaminants and to allow their propagation along the same aquifer. The vulnerability of the aquiferis subtends to various factors what the ability of auto-purification of the ground, the depth to of the stratum, the connection between stratum and the courses of water and above all to the degree of protection of the aquifers. The zones of protection, together with those of absolute guardianship and of respect, they constitute the areas of safeguard. In detail, the zone of absolute guardianship immediately represents the overlooking zone the work of taking (10 meters ray from the point of uptake ); the zone of respect constitutes a portion of territory around the zone of absolute guardianship that is submitted to ties and such destinations of use by to protect the water (in absence of other individualizations it has an extension of 200 meters ray from the point of uptake) resource; the zone of protection represents a vast area for whose delimitation it is necessary to take into account of the whole area of recharge of the stratum, of the natural and artificial emergencies and of the backup zones. The defense of the acquiferis from the pollution is turned to areas that are already interested by pollution, or to those that could be for instance it in areas of urbanization, through plans of guardianship elaborated by the Regions. These must foresee some interventions that privilege the guardianship of the zones of uptake of the water and the surrounding territory through a narrow control of the possible sources of contamination. In this job she has been effected, everything, a careful analysis on the inherent legislation the areas of safeguard, departing from the normative community that says the lines it drives for the guardianship of the water resource destined to the human consumption, thin to reach the norms emanated by some Italian regions. And' in fact performs some Regions the choice of the criterion for the individualization of the areas of safeguard and the delimitation of the same on the territory. One of the objectives of the thesis have been that to face the scientific aspects on the delimitation of the zones of protection around the field-wells, that together with those of absolute guardianship they go to form the areas of safeguard. The criterions used for the delimitation of the zones of protection, pointed out by the normative one, are:(a) type geologic and they concern the presentation of the location of the field wells, the recognition of the structures geological and the individualization of the geologic trials that have interested the area of study; (b) hydrogeological, these foresee the study of the whole area of recharge of the stratum and they consist of defining the areas of safeguard through considerations technical - scientific based on the knowledge of underground hydrogeochemistry and on the characteristic structural - stratigraphic of the aquifer; (c) geochemical, these are founded on hydrogeochemical analysis and isotopic of the waters and you/they are not only used for defining its aspects qualitative, but also for the reconstruction of the different water circuits. The project inside which the thesis is developed has as before expectation phase the individualization, from the various AATO (Authority of Optimal Territorial Circle) coordinated by the Region Tuscany, of works of uptake held priority in the whole regional scenery. In second phase already proceeds to the acquisition of the necessary information through the recovery and the reprocessing of all the data related to the areas of study in possession of the AATO. Finally proceeds to the execution of new analyses furnishing specific programs for the harvest of the data. The acquisition and the production of the new data have been taken care of by the various AATO, while my job, inside the IGG-CNR you/he/she has been turned both to the acquisition of new data and to the elaboration of the same. Finally proceeds to the real delimitation of the zone of protection on the case specific Pebbly shores, individualized together through a methodological criterion of that uses, in a first phase, of the study of the order of the geological formations characteristics of the area, of the idrogeological analysis of the same, as well as of the deductions drawn by the hydrodynamic investigation of the aquifer. Everything, validated by the results obtained by the chemical and isotopic analyses effected on the sources mails on the reliefs and on a series of wells individualized near the field wells, has allowed to circumscribe a zone of protection, that partly him far from the trace of the hydrographic basin of the Heavy River in Chianti. Particularly, the study of the geological formations and of their order, through the analysis of the sections in the area of Heavy, she has allowed to underline an idrostructural trim that, relatively to the acquiferis in rock, it favors an underground water flow from N to S. In conclusion, this type of fine-disciplinary approach has allowed to study in the detail the basin of feeding of the field wells "Pebbly shores" and to delimit its zone of protection setting the accent on that area that mostly contributes to the feeding of the stratum gained by the well in examination. she will be performed some local corporate body to adopt interventions as prescriptions or particular destinations of use of the territory, to insert in the urbanistic tools is general that of sector that they will allow a best defense of the underground water resource. A general consideration, that derives from the present job, brings to recognize in the tool of the areas of protection an useful strategy for the guardianship of such a precious resource: safeguard not end to herself but conjugated to the increasing need of sustainable development of the urban and sub-urban areas and sustainable use of the natural resources. The notion of sustainable use, particularly, of the drinking water resources , translates the necessity to find an equilibrium between the tied up demands of economic development to the exploitation of such resources and the imperatives of their protection and maintenance to middle and long term, in such way that the actual use of the natural resources doesn't jeopardize their future employment. Of fundamental importance, it is the fact that the resources of the planet must have managed so that to assure the satisfaction both of the present generations that of those future. This implicates the possibility to shape, also to international level, a real fundamental human right to the water. To such individual right, it would correspond an obligation of States to do yes that the activities of economic exploitation of the resources themselves are in every case compatible with the objective to assure drinkable water in quantity and enough quality to sustain the fundamental necessities of the interested populations.