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Abstract Although left‐right scales are an inherent feature of much cross‐national research, they have necessarily been created on a somewhat ad hoc basis, since the empirical foundation for valid cross‐national scales rarely exists. This paper seeks to provide such a foundation by using judgements of party ideological position which are both explicit and non‐idiosyncratic across a wide range of countries. These judgements derive from a so‐called 'expert' survey of leading political scientists in Western Europe, the USA, and elsewhere. It is our hope that the scales which we derive in this way may prove useful in a wide variety of contexts of comparative research.

Why do we use the terms "left" and "right" to characterize political matters? Left and right in themselves have no political significance. Apparently there is something inside us that connects these bodily terms to politics. This book is the first to discover that "something".Political use of the terms "left" and "right" originated in the French Estates General on the 7th of May 1789, two days after its grandiose opening session, in a simple ad hoc measure for a short event that afternoon. However, this measure embodied the unforeseen emergence of the political left/right dichotomy. Its continual developments are discussed here, with examples not only from politics, but also from everyday life, anthropology, genetic engineering, a novel by Turgenev, ingenious experiments with volunteers, and much more. But above all, the dichotomy is enshrined in unconscious urges deep within us--as illustrated 2,400 years ago by Sophocles in his tragedy Antigone.

Nomination:'Some expert judgments ' live on by Mogens N. Pedersen, p.147 Reflections: Revisiting expert judgements by Peter Mair & Francis G. Castles, p.150

Cover -- Introduction -- Living in a Populist Era -- Surveying the Phenomenon: Precursors and Regional Variation -- Origins -- Nativism and Rural Populism: The United States and Elsewhere -- Presidentialism and Social Mobilisation: Latin American Populism -- The Western European Populist Right: From Protest Politics to Migration and Identity -- Identity Politics in Post-transition Societies: Populism in Central and Eastern Europe -- Protest Movements and Mediterranean Populism -- Variation in the Manifestation and Perception of Populism -- Populism as a Theoretical Problem: Towards a New Conceptualisation? -- Populism as an Empirical Phenomenon -- Empirical Challenges and New Research Agendas -- Populism and the Communication Dimension -- Final Note -- References -- PART I: Defining and Analysing the Concept -- CHAPTER 1: POPULISM: A HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT -- Conjuncture and Controversy in Politics and Science -- Lexical History of the Concept -- The Founding Forms of Populism -- Transnational and Transdisciplinary Expansion -- Populism as a Strategy or Ideology? -- Conclusions -- References -- CHAPTER 2: POPULISM AND POLITICAL REPRESENTATION -- Populist Parties, Representation and the Crisis of Representation -- Representing the People: Which People? -- Representing the Populist Parties -- References -- CHAPTER 3: CONCEPTUALISING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULISM AND THE RADICAL RIGHT -- Introduction -- Populism and the Radical Right: A Historical Perspective -- From the Extreme Right to the Contemporary Radical Right -- From Populism in the World to "Neo" Populism in Europe -- Populism: More than a Thin Ideology? -- A New Party Family: Populist, Radical and Right-wing -- Terminology, Ideology, Concepts -- Economic Protectionism: Class Politics for 'Modernisation Losers' -- Cultural protectionism: nationalism and Islamophobia