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In a footnote to Ernest Gellner's theories on relativism (eg, 1985 & 1987), an objectivist defense of the social sciences is offered on the basis of theories that are successful according to Karl Popper's standards. Contemporary relativism & skepticism about the ability of the social sciences to produce objective or true theories arise out of Thomas Kuhn's (1962) work. It is argued that a good theory offers statements describing the necessary & sufficient conditions for the explanation of a phenomenon. Further, the nonempirical elements of this theory should be acceptable. These criteria are met by any number of social scientific theories, eg, Alexis de Tocqueville's discussion of why religion flourishes in the US. The interpretive elements integral to social scientific theories are discussed in relation to the example of the theories of the origins of modernity. The growth of social scientific knowledge offers reason to be optimistic about the theoretical successes of sociology. 28 References. H. von Rautenfeld

The relationship between archaeology and other sciences has only recently become a research topic for sociologists and historians of science. From the 1950s to the present day, different approaches have been taken and the aims of research studies have changed considerably. Besides methodological textbooks, which aim at advancing archaeological knowledge, historians of archaeology have tackled this question by exploring the development of archaeology as a scientific discipline. More recently, collaborations between archaeologists and other scientists have been examined as a general phenomenon regarding transfers of knowledge and power relationships between specialists, organizations, and scientific tools, where archaeology is considered as a scientific practice. Adopting a sociohistorical perspective, this entry examines the specificity of aims, facts, and procedures shared by archaeologists and other scientists regarding the crucial question of measuring time and computations.

Outlines a position in the sociology of science & technology that moves beyond postmodern concerns for relativism to link relativist & nonrelativist conceptions of knowledge to their respective roles. It is shown that there has been a traditional divide between realist & relativist conceptions of science that has recently been bridged by a common focus on the cultural significance of science & technology. Approaches to the sociology of science & technology that adopt this culturalist perspective are favored because they enlist scientific & technological change as vehicles for cultural criticism & as bases for agendas of cultural renewal. However, scientific advances are felt economically as much as culturally, & the Weberian realist tradition of viewing science as an extension of instrumental rationality has its place. This realist perspective is also applied to the sociology of knowledge itself, in the sense that social scientific knowledge has accumulated over time & thus, has economic & instrumental effects that are independent of any particular cultural component of its production. 46 References. D. M. Smith

Discusses the historical & current relationship between the social sciences, the scientific method, & postmodern theory. Drawing on the methodology & conclusions of Galileo, modern science has attempted to reduce the distance between science & reality through objective methodology & heightened rationality. It is argued here that the scientific method relies more on the choice of appropriate language & vocabulary than on actual correspondence between methodology & fact. Social scientists have traditionally adopted this skewed approach to life through the scientific method, which blurs rather than reveals reality. The boundaries between explanation & understanding, or nature & humanity, have little meaning in the real world, & it is suggested that the social sciences must be seen as continuous with literature, history, anthropology, politics, etc. Both Thomas Dewey & Michel Foucault advocate rejection of traditional notions of rationality, objectivity, method, & truth. However, it is concluded that Dewey's vocabulary allows more room for hope & solidarity within the social sciences. T. Sevier