Occasionally there appears a social phenomenon so broadly expressed, so repeatedly presented as to require no specific documentation - agreement is found among many and diverse persons, on the basis of easily observable phenomena. Such seems to be the case with the changing sex role in North American society. Where, not so long ago, there was general beUef that "men were men and women were women," and "vive la différence," now, with some unease, and occasional outright friction, there is recognition that "la différence" is slim and becoming slimmer. A perusal of contemporary society indicates that women are dressing more and more in a style resembling that of men, e.g. shirts, shorts, longpants and, in an overall sense, are tending toward undress (nudity), a style once distastefully assigned to males only. Too, an increasing percentage of women enroll at colleges and universities. More and more traditionally-male work positions are filled by females (armed services and government). There is a rapid increase in legal rights of women (e.g. voting, handling of finances). And if all these changes were not enough, there is now a Royal Commission examining ways of assuring an even closer approach to equality.
BIbliography: pages 142-155. ; The steadily increasing numbers in employed married women and the rise of feminist sex-role ideology are factors indicating change in the role and status of women in Western society. There is movement away from the traditional gender-based role allocation towards increased role-sharing. This trend is embodied in the dual-career family, which necessitates adaptive changes in individual men and women and in government and institutional policies. To better understand the current nature of the dual-career family, this study compared fourteen dual-career husbands and wives with fourteen traditional husbands and wives on four selected variables, namely: (1) family-functioning, primarily to assess whether dual-career and traditional families function equally well; (2) sex-role ideology, which provides a context in which role changes are occurring; (3) psychological androgyny, a concept which finds expression in an age seeking alternatives to masculine and feminine stereotypes; and (4) self-actualisation, as theoretically the dual-career family offers opportunities for increased personal fulfilment. The scales used were: Smilkstein's Family APGAR (1978), Smith et. al.'s FEM-scale (1975), Bern's Sex-Role Inventory (1974) and Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory (1963). Previous research, particularly regarding the role of dual-career husbands, has not consistently confirmed predictions based on theory. Consequently, this study is observational, not predictive. The results indicated no significant differences on family-functioning; dual-career and traditional husbands and wives all rated their families as well-functioning. Self-actualisation scores, though not statistically significant, suggested trends inconsistent with theory and previous research, in indicating that traditional husbands, dual-career husbands and dual-career wives are similarly inner-directed and that traditional husbands are more inner-directed than traditional wives. This may have been due to difficulties with the POI. Statistically significant differences were found in sex-role ideology scores, with dual-career wives scoring more pro-feminist (p < 0,05) than traditional wives and dual-career husbands. Although the scores for psychological androgyny could not be statistically assessed, the results suggested a trend for more dual-career wives to be androgynous than traditional wives and dual-career husbands. The median test indicated a significant statistical relationship between sex-role ideology and androgyny and "cross-sex-typedness" (p = 0,0007). No other statistically significant relationships were found between the variables, except for a significant positive correlation (p < 0,05) between the two sub-scales of the POI. Discrepancies between dual-career husbands and wives on sex-role ideology and androgyny did not appear to affect family-functioning adversely. Possible explanations for this include their hiring of domestic servants, thus reducing the need for husbands to make adaptive role changes; and several indications that the wives continue to identify with the traditional female role. These features imply that these dual-career families are not fully egalitarian; husbands and wives still tend to allocate responsibility and commitment to roles in accordance with the traditional model.
The purpose of this study was to compare the underlying rationales found in selected Supreme Court cases and briefs of counsel justifying or condemning legal classification by sex and legal classification by race. Political strategies have been developed based on the assumption that racism and sexism are analogous. Yet, in recent years, anti-discrimination law, when used in sex discrimination cases, often has been interpreted and implemented quite differently from cases involving race discrimination. This study, using a content analysis based on "grounded theory," compared per- ceptions of racism and sexism as found in the opinions and briefs of counsel of the United States Supreme Court. The data showed that until the 1970's women were seen as wives and mothers whose place was in the home. Women were perceived as having certain inherent characteristics which made them more vulnerable than men. Special laws for women, therefore, were perceived as justified. On the other hand, there were those who argued equity for women based on fundamental ideals and the notion that women should be seen as individuals, not as a stereotypical composite of womanhood. The efficacy of segregation was argued on the grounds of a perceived belief in a natural antipathy of the races and a fear of violence if there were to be integration. Those advocating integration argued the deprivations caused by segregation. There was a gravity surrounding the race cases that was missing from the sex cases. The race decisions! also, were firmly grounded in the Constitution, which was not true for the sex cases. Fundamentally, blacks and whites were seen as having the same rights even during segregation when they were "separate but equal." Women were never perceived as being the equal of men. They were different and they functioned under a different law. Also, the role of women in the home was primary, not her status in the world outside the home. For blacks, role was never an issue. Rather, for blacks status was the central concern. Finally, the blacks' struggle was perceived as a fight to secure their place in the wider society. The women's place was perceived as in the domestic domain, outside the purview of public concerns. ; Ed. D.
Series In Education book chapter. ; In newly independent countries in Africa, the role of education is seen as being so vital for an early participation in the hoped-for riches of modern, scientific societies that some of these countries nearly bankrupt themselves in spending disproportionately large sums of money on education. "Education it is which is all that is lacking, arid if we give more people more education, our major problems in this direction will be solved" seems to be a key to the thinking of many political leaders.
The purpose of this study was to determine which, if any, of seven variables, as well as the linear combination of same, help to explain a significant amount of variance between ideal and real role function of counselors in the implementation of PL 94-142. The study investigated whether the explained role incongruence was increased, independently or collectively, by the following independent variables: (1) discrepancy of counselors and special education administrators' perceptions of appropriate counselor responsibilities in assisting with the implementation of PL 94-142 (discrepancy index), (2) amount of staff development regarding special education topics, (3) experience, (4) counselor-student ratio, (5) sex of counselor, (6) degree classification, and (7) proportion of time clerical assistance is available to counselors. The study was conducted in West Virginia by surveying a random sample of public school counselors and all fifty-five (55) special education administrators in the state. Questionnaires were returned by 204 of the 216 counselors in the sample and by 54 of the 55 special education administrators, for an overall return rate of 95.2 percent. Data was collected from January to March, 1983. Results of the multiple regression analysis, stepwise method, indicated that the linear combination of staff development, discrepancy index, and experience explained a significant amount of role incongruence variance. No relationship was found between role incongruence and any of the independent variables when each was considered independently. The item analysis of counselors' responses on the questionnaire indicated that a majority have assumed primary responsibility for eleven of the forty tasks on the questionnaires, even though a majority perceived twenty-seven of the tasks to be appropriate. The tasks which a majority of counselors perceived to be appropriate but had not assumed as a primary role pertained to the delivery of related services, the Individualized Education Program (IEP) development and evaluation process, communicating with parents to acquire or disseminate information, and administering instruments to assess areas such as self-concept, interests, and career maturity. Eight (73 percent) of the eleven tasks which a majority of counselors reportedly have assumed as a primary role are quasi-administrative. The remaining three primary role tasks assumed by counselors include participation in school-based assistance team meetings and placement advisory committee meetings, as well as providing career education programming for handicapped students. ; Ed. D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS – VOL. 4(3), 1983 LETTERS EDITORIALS The Question of Atheism and Communism in the Animal Welfare/Rights Movement – M.W. Fox Sex Roles, Companion Animals—and Something More – D.H. Murphy The State of the Economy and Animal Welfare – M.W. Fox NEWS AND ANALYSIS Pet Foods and Animal Health and Welfare More Money in Support of Taub Should Immunocastration Replace Surgical Castration? Predicting Carcinogenic Potential with Mathematics Vancouver Spay/Neuter Clinic Finds Unexpected Benefits New Treatment for Cat Allergies For Dogs, Chocolate Can Be Deadly Rabies Diagnostic Technique for Live Animals Socialization by Humans Reduces Health Risks Among Chickens Jealousy an Innate Tendency in Dogs, Cats, as Well as People Complex Tactics Required for Combat in Galapagos The North American Black Duck (Anas rubripes): A Case of 28 Years of Failure in American Wildlife Management COMMENTS Psychology and Its Animal Subjects – K.J. Shapiro Genetic Adaptation and Welfare – J. Van Rooijen ORIGINAL AND REVIEW ARTICLES The Behavior of Confined Calves Raised for Veal: Are These Animals Distressed? – M. Kiley-Worthington Selecting a Spay/Neuter Program for Animal Control in the City of Charlotte – D. Quisenberry and M.E. Clapp Protection of Animals and Animal Experimentation: A Survey of Scientific Experts – N. Lagoni et al. Does Wildlife Have Legal Standing? – The Penguin Case in Patagonia – P. Tarak Alternatives to Animal Experimentation – S.M. Niemi LEGISLATION AND REGULATION CURRENT EVENTS Meeting Reports Forthcoming Meetings Announcements BOOK NEWS INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
Reviewed by: C. R. Jones, Chairman, Department of Administrative Sciences; Released by: W. M. Tolles, Dean of Research ; In an attempt to identify manpower, personnel, and training policy issues and research and development requirements associated with changes in the numbers and roles of women in the Navy, experts in various disciplines were asked to address the issues they saw as pertinent to an increased participation by women in the Navy. These experts delivered their views in oral briefing sessions with officers representing each of the branches of the United States armed forces, including the Coast Guard, at the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey. The tape-recorded transcripts of these sessions, including questions from the audience, were edited for publication. The final version of this report was revised and updated (via footnotes) to reflect mid-1981 realities by Captain Yvonne M. Dupes, USN, Coordinator, Women in the Military, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense. ; Prepared for: Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. ; Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
In his paper, 'Sex Differences in Science Achievement at G.C.E. 0 Level', Mr Ventura refers to an analysis by Falzon and Sammut of the results of rational examinations held in Government Secondary Schools in June-July 1975. Much against expectation, they found that girls scored significantly higher than boys even in a subject like General Science. In trying to account for this result, Falzon and Sammut hazarded that one of the reasons for the girls' superiority was their better grasp of English. Such a conclusion would give English a determining role in a candidate's success, or failure for that matter, in subjects where the language is the medium of instruction - of reading and writing and, often, of teacher's explanation. ; peer-reviewed
Bibliography: pages 91-95. ; A theoretical introduction to Public Finance is presented with a summary of the role which the South African government plays in the economic sphere. In addition, part of survey research data collected by the Department of Sociology, University of Cape Town, has been statistically analyzed in order to discover what demographic factors influence trends in citizen preferences and attitudes towards the allocation of public funds. The hypothesis on which the research was based, i.e. that demographic variables such as sex, marital status, age, income, education and race produce significant differences in public opinion towards the allocation of public funds, has been partly rejected by the findings.
Weibliche Berufsanfänger haben mehr als männliche von der Bildungsexpansion der letzten Jahrzehnte profitiert. Durch den Ausbau des Bildungssystems und die generelle Ausdehnung des Dienstleistungsbereichs eröffnete sich in diesem Zeitraum für die Frauen zugleich verstärkt die Möglichkeit zu qualifizierter Berufstätigkeit. Aufgrund dieser Entwicklung wird häufig die These vertreten, daß der Prozeß der "Individualisierung" rasch voranschreite und Frauen statt des traditionellen "Daseins für andere" zunehmend ein "Stück eigenes Leben" realisieren könnten. Die Analyse zeigt aber, daß die Angleichung der formalen Bildungsabschlüsse die Ungleichheit zwischen Frauen und Männern am Arbeitsmarkt nicht beseitigt hat; diese ist eher größer geworden. Mit Hilfe des Segmentationsansatzes läßt sich zeigen, wie bestimmte Arbeitskräfte - und gerade Frauen - ohne Rücksicht auf Ausbildung und formale Qualifikation von bestimmten Arbeitsplätzen ausgeschlossen werden. (DIPF/Orig.)
This study described the state policy-making process as it was affected by the impact of the 1976 Federal Vocational Amendments. The roles of the state level actors were investigated in order to explain the process by which policy was developed. The impact on the local division was analyzed in terms of importance, action taken, and impact as these related to the issues of Sex Stereotyping, Local Advisory Council, Vocational Guidance, and the Assurances on Administrative and Fiscal Matters. The data were first viewed in aggregation and then as perceived by type of respondent, as well as by size, type, and geographical region of the school division. The major findings of the study were: 1. That the policy-making process at the state level was a complex array of assignments, committees, state officers, and staff. 2. The State Plan and Accountability Report Committee was the most influential actor in the policy process with the State Advisory Council placing second in importance. 3. In terms of prior action before the 1976 Vocational Amendments, little had taken place at the local level. 4. In terms of impact, the 1976 Vocational Amendments had only a moderately low to moderate effect on school organizations as reported by Superintendents and Vocational Directors. 5. As reported by respondents, school division size, type, and geographic region, only the issue of Sex Stereotyping produced an adjudged difference in impact. 6. Partial correlations across the relationships of importance to impact, importance to action taken, and action taken to impact revealed moderate to low relationships. 7. The conclusions of this investigation were, at the state level, that the development of the Five-Year Plan for Vocational Education was carried out with very few changes from the draft that was formulated by the State Plan and Accountability Report Committee and that the State Plan and Accountability Report Committee played a unique and important role in the policy process. At the lowest level, the 1976 Vocational Amendments required the local divisions to focus attention and resources on the selected issues. Although the Amendments required the school divisions to take action, only a moderate effect had been reported by the localities on their school division organization. At the local level, the 1976 Vocational Amendments required the local divisions to focus attention and resources on the selected issues. Although the Amendments required the school divisions to take action, only a moderate effect had been reported by the localities on their school division organization. ; Ed. D.
Introduction In this study graduates who entered the master's program in adult education at Federal City College without the undergraduate degree were compared with graduates who entered the program with the undergraduate degree to determine why the students entered the program, what the students brought to the program, how the students performed in the program, and how they were affected by the program. The population was 130 students who graduated between June 1970 and June 1974. Fifty-three were non-degree students and seventy-seven were degree students. The Master of Arts in Adult Education Program was initially a staff development activity for the Adult Education Demonstration Center faculty and staff. The project was sub-contracted to Federal City College and became the first graduate program in adult education in the United States to admit participants who did not have the undergraduate degree. Procedures Selected strategies of grounded theory and field research were used to inductively generate theories about the program and its graduates. Interviews, conversations, personal correspondence, a questionnaire, and the Adult Education Department's application forms and reference letters were used as primary sources. Secondary sources were the college catalog and brochures, the program proposal, departmental evaluation reports and grade rosters. Student documents were perused to collect data on the sex, degree status, ethnic background, age and marital status. After significant similarities emerged concerning the locale of post-secondary education experiences, the nature of undergraduate preparation, the nature of adult education experiences, and student motivation, a questionnaire was structured to further validate data collected. The information that was solicited on the questionnaire included the date and place of high school graduation, past and present employment, reasons for enrollment, prior adult experiences, reactions to program involvements, student and non-student roles, socio-economic/ educational advancements, and organizational affiliations. Fifty-eight students responded to the questionnaire. Thirty were degree students; twenty-eight were non-degree students. Twenty-five were female and thirty-three were male. The graduates' responses were compared initially within the program of study under which they entered during the Spring 1969, Spring 1970 or Winter 1971 quarter. The three groups of non-degree students were furthered compared with the three groups of degree students. Findings The findings were as follows: 1. The non-degree student was older than the degree student; the median ages were thirty-eight for the non-degree student and thirty-two for the degree student. 2. There were no apparent differences between the degree and non-degree students based on sex. 3. A larger percentage of the non-degree students were married. 4. Teaching was the experience most degree students had had working with adults; the majority of the non-degree students had worked with adults as community workers. 5. Both groups of students had equal involvement with adults as program developers and program directors. 6. Military and on-the-job training provided the specialized training and experiences that allowed many non-degree students to qualify for admission to the program. 7. Family responsibilities were obstacles for two-thirds of the graduates. 8. The degree had improved the income and provided professional flexibility for ninety percent of the graduates. 9. Twenty of the fifty-eight respondents had applied and/or had been admitted to doctoral programs. Seven were non-degree graduates and thirteen were degree graduates. Four graduates completed second master's. 10. The non-degree students received slightly better grades in two of the courses. 11. The master's degree fostered upward mobility. 12. The master's degree provided the opportunity for second careers. Theories The study generated the following theories which may be tested in future studies: 1. The master's degree student who has no undergraduate degree but has had experiences teaching, counseling, developing or administering programs or providing support services for adults can successfully complete a degree program. 2. The differences in the non-degree and degree students cannot be related to sex, locale of post-secondary educational experiences, nature of undergraduate training and academic achievement. 3. The agencies of the federal and local governments as well as business and private industry provide non-collegiate learning experiences in specialized fields comparable to the baccalaureate degree. 4. Vocational motivation is a greater incentive for the completion of the degree than social motivation. ; ED. D.
