Suchergebnisse

Uses the issue of sexual slavery to argue that the only way to eliminate undemocratic practices that set limits to the process of democratization is to divulge & deconstruct these hidden clandestine sectors of society. The focus is on three opposing positions in the 1990s debate in Japan over the "comfort women" of WWII. The first position, officially stated by Japan's Foreign Ministry, denies any legal grounds for state compensation to the victims of sexual enslavement. The second position argues that the state must assume full responsibility for past violations of human rights by compensating individual victims of the so-called "Comfort Stations." The third position allows the state to avoid making compensation but supports establishment of an Asian Women's Fund supported by private citizens/organizations. It is contended that a more preferable position is to combine legal & moral approaches to the "Comfort Women" issue while also coping with other forms of sexual slavery. Difficulties involved in overcoming the double standards discourse imposed on democratizing societies by patriarchal powers are discussed. J. Lindroth

Outlines the emergence of modern racism in the English colonial world through an analysis of the justifications for upholding slavery. African slavery was rationalized as a means for sustaining the declining work force. European principles accepted slavery for non-Christians as well as captives of war, & the initial use of African slaves had little to do with skin color. As European immigrant labor subsided & the concept of lifelong servitude emerged, however, the treatment of African slaves grew increasingly harsh. Legal precedents were overturned in an effort to preserve perpetual bondage: a custom that any slave who converted to Christianity could demand his release was withdrawn & matrilineal descent was implemented. Slavery was therefore transformed into a race-based institution & was further grounded into society through racial stereotypes & epithets. 28 References. M. Greenberg

Explores the persistence of sexual trafficking in Japan & other societies in which precapitalist, community-oriented concepts of gender relations are merged with objectified, capitalist economic developments that endorse commodification of the female body. It is contended that the sexual exploitation of women in brothels & other institutions tolerated by the state helps to preserve societal structures of (re)production. These states impose restrictions on the sex sector while simultaneously furthering its acceptance under the guise of maintaining "law & order." The history of prostitution in Japan is traced from the premodern Edo period to the present. Commodification of women's & children's bodies is compared to the WWII military enslavement of "comfort women" involuntarily taken from colonized/occupied states to fill the sexual needs of soldiers. These "comfort stations" exemplified institutionalized sexual slavery & the patriarchal nature of the Japanese state. The structure of the prostitution sector in the modernized patriarchy is described to show how sexual trafficking adapted to the growing Japanese economy without improving the fate of women working as prostitutes. J. Lindroth

Explores reasons for the emergence in the 1830s of a new sense of immediacy in the movement to abolish slavery in the US. It is argued that this transformation cannot be explained by traditional social movement theories; the limitations of collective identity, frame alignment, & political opportunity structure theories are delineated. It is contended that increasingly radical calls by whites -- particularly in the North -- for the immediate abolition of slavery & a commitment to racial equality for African Americans can be traced to the emergence of a new religious temperament & emotional culture that made these issues of paramount importance to a new generation of evangelicals. The development of antislavery societies separately from the benevolent societies that emerged from mainline religious denominations is chronicled. New evangelical notions of slavery as a sin are reviewed, & linked to the emotional fervor with which these new abolitionists waged a "moral protest" against slavery. 1 Table. K. Hyatt Stewart

Examines the involvement of Russian organized crime in the trafficking of women & children for commercial sexual exploitation. The nature & global activities of the "Russian Mafia" are explored, noting that the organized crime network encompasses people from all former Soviet states. It is argued that there are far fewer sophisticated Russian criminal organizations than generally assumed, & human trafficking is primarily conducted by "Mom & Pop" operators. Although it would be simpler for law enforcement to control trafficking by organized criminal groups that are easier to infiltrate, small-time smugglers are more apt to be deterred by serious threats of being caught & prosecuted. Erroneously portraying most trafficking from Russia as Mafia-controlled is seen as counterproductive because it ignores those actually involved & diverts attention away from research focused on the consumers & providers of human commodities. The need for more effective global migration policies that hinder opportunities for exploitation is discussed. 32 References. J. Lindroth

Challenges underlying images of "prostitute" & "illegal alien" in portrayals of women who have been smuggled into countries for sexual exploitation, arguing that these descriptions encourage further use & abuse of trafficked women by the state. It is contended that the legal construction of women forced into prostitution as "immoral, illegal migrants" hampers effective policy making & law enforcement against human traffickers, & prevents the women from getting needed legal protection/assistance. Instead of the current, counterproductive aggressive enforcement of migration laws, it is maintained that forced prostitution should be addressed as a problem caused in part by immigration law, & supported by gender inequalities as well as the vulnerable legal position of its victims. The double stigmatization of forced prostitutes as illegal & immoral prevents uncovering the true nature of existing inequalities, restrictive migration policies, & sex services as a global business. It is suggested that states must shift their focus from illegal migration to preventing the exploitation of human beings & protecting its victims. 75 References. J. Lindroth

Challenges underlying images of "prostitute" & "illegal alien" in portrayals of women who have been smuggled into countries for sexual exploitation, arguing that these descriptions encourage further use & abuse of trafficked women by the state. It is contended that the legal construction of women forced into prostitution as "immoral, illegal migrants" hampers effective policy making & law enforcement against human traffickers, & prevents the women from getting needed legal protection/assistance. Instead of the current, counterproductive aggressive enforcement of migration laws, it is maintained that forced prostitution should be addressed as a problem caused in part by immigration law, & supported by gender inequalities as well as the vulnerable legal position of its victims. The double stigmatization of forced prostitutes as illegal & immoral prevents uncovering the true nature of existing inequalities, restrictive migration policies, & sex services as a global business. It is suggested that states must shift their focus from illegal migration to preventing the exploitation of human beings & protecting its victims. 75 References. J. Lindroth

Traces the history of the category of race in history & historiography from ancient Egypt to the present. It is observed that the extreme ethnic heterogeneity & ethnocentrism of ancient Egypt began to change around 500 BC, when darker pigmentation became associated with ugliness & slavery. At this point, blackness increasingly became associated with Muslims, who were generally reviled in the Christian world. Modern racism is described as beginning from the first 15th-century contact between Europeans & Africans in the context of the system of slavery. Modern historiography since the 17th century is shown to have been conditioned by the context of slavery & racism to exclude Africans & African history from the pantheon of great historical events. It is concluded that contemporary historians would do well to focus on the interaction & mixture of the races rather than their isolation if they are to develop responsible & accurate historical accounts of the past & present. D. M. Smith

Examines the involvement of Russian organized crime in the trafficking of women & children for commercial sexual exploitation. The nature & global activities of the "Russian Mafia" are explored, noting that the organized crime network encompasses people from all former Soviet states. It is argued that there are far fewer sophisticated Russian criminal organizations than generally assumed, & human trafficking is primarily conducted by "Mom & Pop" operators. Although it would be simpler for law enforcement to control trafficking by organized criminal groups that are easier to infiltrate, small-time smugglers are more apt to be deterred by serious threats of being caught & prosecuted. Erroneously portraying most trafficking from Russia as Mafia-controlled is seen as counterproductive because it ignores those actually involved & diverts attention away from research focused on the consumers & providers of human commodities. The need for more effective global migration policies that hinder opportunities for exploitation is discussed. 32 References. J. Lindroth

An examination of antiracism among whites in the US, 1865-1900. It is argued that the rejection of racism by whites is an important aspect of US history & provides powerful ammunition for present-day egalitarian arguments. Evidence of white antiracism is traced from the weekly newspaper Nation, to French scientist A. De Quatrefages's assertion that there is only one species of man in the influential Popular Science Monthly (1972). Also discussed is the antiracist rhetoric & practice of the American Federation of Labor, as well as the antiracist positions of Marxists. It is readily acknowledged that the antiracist movement was primarily an African-American one, but white resistance to racism deserves study. 38 References. M. Greenberg

Compares two cases of smuggling -- migration from Ecuador to the US via paid smugglers & the trafficking of girls/women from Burma (Myanmar) to be slaves at brothels in Thailand -- to challenge explanations of human trafficking as a recent illicit activity in transnational crime made possible by globalization, or as exploitation of innocent migrants by organized crime. Instead, it is argued that increased human smuggling is largely the result of historical actions by politicians/state actors in both the sending & receiving nations, & the varied smuggling operations are deeply integrated into regional social structures. Analysis of the two cases shows that, in spite of many contrasts, they both require considerable tacit & active complicity by individuals in the sending & receiving nations. Transnational organized crime was not shown to play an important role in either case; the smugglers were integrated into the social fabric; & their operations were aided by a network of recruiters, middlemen, government/law officials, & financiers. The need to explore the broader historical-sociological dimensions of human smuggling is discussed. 46 References. J. Lindroth

The treatment of freedom by historical Western philosophers is examined. An analysis of Aristotle's differentiation between slaves & masters indicates the centrality of "courage" & "rationality" to Western notions of freedom. Despite differences in G. W. F. Hegel's & Socrates's respective treatments of free individuals, it is contended that the elimination of slavery is essential to the Western definition of freedom. Parallels between Thomas Hobbes's notion of "the just man" & the contemporary idea of the rule-governed person are discussed. It is asserted that the modern definition of freedom entails living under rules & requires both rationality & courage. Three spheres of freedom are identified: the freedom agency; situational freedom; & the condition of freedom. Third World nations' engagement with freedom & potential dangers to freedom are addressed. 10 References. J. W. Parker

Compares two cases of smuggling -- migration from Ecuador to the US via paid smugglers & the trafficking of girls/women from Burma (Myanmar) to be slaves at brothels in Thailand -- to challenge explanations of human trafficking as a recent illicit activity in transnational crime made possible by globalization, or as exploitation of innocent migrants by organized crime. Instead, it is argued that increased human smuggling is largely the result of historical actions by politicians/state actors in both the sending & receiving nations, & the varied smuggling operations are deeply integrated into regional social structures. Analysis of the two cases shows that, in spite of many contrasts, they both require considerable tacit & active complicity by individuals in the sending & receiving nations. Transnational organized crime was not shown to play an important role in either case; the smugglers were integrated into the social fabric; & their operations were aided by a network of recruiters, middlemen, government/law officials, & financiers. The need to explore the broader historical-sociological dimensions of human smuggling is discussed. 46 References. J. Lindroth