A literature review discusses the effect of selected environmental factors on women reproductive system, fetal development and growth. According to recent reports, 2–3% of newborns have congenital malformations. These malformations are caused by interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Exposure of paternal or maternal organisms to environmental hazards may damage germ cells or interfere fetal development, resulting in malformation of various organ systems. Since environmental hazards exposures are complex, it is difficult to establish the primary effect of single factor. Factors, that are known to increase the risk of congenital malformations, preterm delivery or spontaneous abortion, are classified into five groups – psychological, social, biological, physical and chemical factors. The governments of most counties recognize the effect of hazardous environmental factors on public health as global problem. World Health Organization encourages researches, aimed at evaluation of various environmental factors impact on health of pregnant women and their offsprings.
A literature review discusses the effect of selected environmental factors on women reproductive system, fetal development and growth. According to recent reports, 2–3% of newborns have congenital malformations. These malformations are caused by interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Exposure of paternal or maternal organisms to environmental hazards may damage germ cells or interfere fetal development, resulting in malformation of various organ systems. Since environmental hazards exposures are complex, it is difficult to establish the primary effect of single factor. Factors, that are known to increase the risk of congenital malformations, preterm delivery or spontaneous abortion, are classified into five groups – psychological, social, biological, physical and chemical factors. The governments of most counties recognize the effect of hazardous environmental factors on public health as global problem. World Health Organization encourages researches, aimed at evaluation of various environmental factors impact on health of pregnant women and their offsprings.
Market failures require state interventions. Often interventions has negative after effect therefore before starting implementation of policy measures it is necessary carry out comprehensive integrated assessment of these measure effects. Energy subsidy reform as every policy measure should be assessed in integrated way because sometimes implementation of such measures can cause contradictionary economic, social and environmental effect. So seeking to evaluate benefit of environmental policy it is necessary to apply integrated assessment framework. General equilibrium analysis is the best tool to asses the impact of state interventions into markets. Computable general equilibrium (CGE) models essentially simulate markets for production factors and goods using systems of equations specifying supply and demand behaviour across all markets. The data and resource requirements for the construction of CGE models are very substantial. However, this drawback should be weighed against the gains in accuracy of simulation to actual market changes that such modelling allows. An alternative to CGE modelling is for the partial equilibrium analysis to be extended to several linked markets. This option may be better suited to the context of some developing countries and countries in transition because requires less data. Simulation model BALANCE developed by IAEA is partial equilibrium model and can be successfully used for the assessment of environmental policy impact on energy sector.
Market failures require state interventions. Often interventions has negative after effect therefore before starting implementation of policy measures it is necessary carry out comprehensive integrated assessment of these measure effects. Energy subsidy reform as every policy measure should be assessed in integrated way because sometimes implementation of such measures can cause contradictionary economic, social and environmental effect. So seeking to evaluate benefit of environmental policy it is necessary to apply integrated assessment framework. General equilibrium analysis is the best tool to asses the impact of state interventions into markets. Computable general equilibrium (CGE) models essentially simulate markets for production factors and goods using systems of equations specifying supply and demand behaviour across all markets. The data and resource requirements for the construction of CGE models are very substantial. However, this drawback should be weighed against the gains in accuracy of simulation to actual market changes that such modelling allows. An alternative to CGE modelling is for the partial equilibrium analysis to be extended to several linked markets. This option may be better suited to the context of some developing countries and countries in transition because requires less data. Simulation model BALANCE developed by IAEA is partial equilibrium model and can be successfully used for the assessment of environmental policy impact on energy sector.
Ideological, political, sociological, psychological, pedagogical and medical foundations of social work are presented in the article. The information is necessary for the training of social workers and especially - preparing social pedagogues and teachers.
Ideological, political, sociological, psychological, pedagogical and medical foundations of social work are presented in the article. The information is necessary for the training of social workers and especially - preparing social pedagogues and teachers.
The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania was approved in the Referendum on 25 October 1992. It consolidated the doctrine of constitutional review and its practical form – the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania. The foundation of the Constitutional Court and its already developed practical activities stimulate to evaluate more thoroughly the place and role of this institution in the state's system of law. Such an aim is predetermined by an undoubtedly active work of the Constitutional Court in the process of the creation of Lithuanian law. The co-ordination of the inner relations in the organisation of the Lithuanian state is directly linked up with a dynamic development of law; however, while creating Lithuanian law one faces up with a lot of theoretical and practical problems. These processes determine some discrepancies of an objective and subjective character. One of them is the conformity of the laws and the norms of substatutory legal acts with the Constitution. The rulings of the Constitutional Court, evaluating the correspondence of legal norms with the Constitution, always cause legal social consequences. In the cases when a legal norm is recognised to be not in compliance with the Constitution, there appear real legal consequences - this legal norm becomes eliminated from a legal system, i.e., it can not be applied any more. In this and the other case, i.e. when legality of a legal norm is not negated, the arguments as well as motives of the ruling passed by the Constitutional Court may also be evaluated by the aspect of legal sources. Thus, it is obvious that the acts of the Constitutional Court – no matter how they might be estimated within the system of legal sources – are a real legal phenomenon, the more comprehensive scientific survey which will help to evaluate the problems of the creation of law in Lithuania in a broader legal panorama. According to the author's opinion, the most important and decisive role of the acts of the Constitutional Court is that they constantly underline the fundamental principle of the superiority of the Constitution. It is very important especially now when Lithuanian law is being formed. These acts are also important in the political process as they compose preconditions for avoiding more acute conflicts, and settling political disputes on the bases of the Constitution. Legal positions which are formed by the Constitutional Court in its rulings are often not new ones, they are known in comparative law. However, in one way or another, they are important especially now, when the formation of law often goes on spontaneously as well as contradictory. Here are some such legal positions: a law or a substatutory act can not be used retroactively; substatutory legal acts can not overstep the boundaries of the functioning of laws; in the system of legal norms there can not be such legal norms which would contradict or negate each other; the general aim of a law has to correspond to the content of norms of a law. These are only some legal positions which are also being examined in this article.
The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania was approved in the Referendum on 25 October 1992. It consolidated the doctrine of constitutional review and its practical form – the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania. The foundation of the Constitutional Court and its already developed practical activities stimulate to evaluate more thoroughly the place and role of this institution in the state's system of law. Such an aim is predetermined by an undoubtedly active work of the Constitutional Court in the process of the creation of Lithuanian law. The co-ordination of the inner relations in the organisation of the Lithuanian state is directly linked up with a dynamic development of law; however, while creating Lithuanian law one faces up with a lot of theoretical and practical problems. These processes determine some discrepancies of an objective and subjective character. One of them is the conformity of the laws and the norms of substatutory legal acts with the Constitution. The rulings of the Constitutional Court, evaluating the correspondence of legal norms with the Constitution, always cause legal social consequences. In the cases when a legal norm is recognised to be not in compliance with the Constitution, there appear real legal consequences - this legal norm becomes eliminated from a legal system, i.e., it can not be applied any more. In this and the other case, i.e. when legality of a legal norm is not negated, the arguments as well as motives of the ruling passed by the Constitutional Court may also be evaluated by the aspect of legal sources. Thus, it is obvious that the acts of the Constitutional Court – no matter how they might be estimated within the system of legal sources – are a real legal phenomenon, the more comprehensive scientific survey which will help to evaluate the problems of the creation of law in Lithuania in a broader legal panorama. According to the author's opinion, the most important and decisive role of the acts of the Constitutional Court is that they constantly underline the fundamental principle of the superiority of the Constitution. It is very important especially now when Lithuanian law is being formed. These acts are also important in the political process as they compose preconditions for avoiding more acute conflicts, and settling political disputes on the bases of the Constitution. Legal positions which are formed by the Constitutional Court in its rulings are often not new ones, they are known in comparative law. However, in one way or another, they are important especially now, when the formation of law often goes on spontaneously as well as contradictory. Here are some such legal positions: a law or a substatutory act can not be used retroactively; substatutory legal acts can not overstep the boundaries of the functioning of laws; in the system of legal norms there can not be such legal norms which would contradict or negate each other; the general aim of a law has to correspond to the content of norms of a law. These are only some legal positions which are also being examined in this article.
While the department of social pedagogics was participating in the international TEMPUS project from 1995 to 1998, the experiments related to the need of social teachers and possibilities of professional functions and questions of professional preparation were held in Klaipėda region. The results of these experiments led to such the following conclusions: 1. All teachers need knowledge and experience of social work. Social teacher who is totally prepared and has obtained practical work experience is significantly needed not only for child care organizations but also for secondary education schools. Similarities and differences of class teacher's and social teacher's activities were observed during the experiments and the possibilities of social teachers successful activities at secondary schools were analysed. 2. While preparing social teachers for educational and child care institutions, specialization is essential as well as specification of their meetings with different educational and care organizations. Special formation of the skills of social activities is essential for future social workers. Work practice, non-formal students' activities and volunteers' work could help to establish this process. Course in the social work for preparation of social workers for educational institutions have to be closely related with practice. 3. It is necessary to evaluate norms of government social and educational institutions. (Extremely formal contacts between these institutions, with only occasional communications, as well as no interest or no care about further child's fortune were identified). 4. Until now, little attention has been given to family problems in Lithuania. It is necessary to develop the initiatives and enthusiasm of future teachers. They need to be able fundamentally to help the child and the family, to reduce and eliminate the reasons for problems occurring. Future teachers need to take initiative and responsibility while creating social projects and implementing them. It is essential to develop the process of selection for future professionals in social pedagogics. Future social teachers need to have clear features of honesty, social skills and work experience. Therefore when accepting students to the social worker's profession, not only the marks of their secondary school diploma should be considered but also personal characteristics and experience.
While the department of social pedagogics was participating in the international TEMPUS project from 1995 to 1998, the experiments related to the need of social teachers and possibilities of professional functions and questions of professional preparation were held in Klaipėda region. The results of these experiments led to such the following conclusions: 1. All teachers need knowledge and experience of social work. Social teacher who is totally prepared and has obtained practical work experience is significantly needed not only for child care organizations but also for secondary education schools. Similarities and differences of class teacher's and social teacher's activities were observed during the experiments and the possibilities of social teachers successful activities at secondary schools were analysed. 2. While preparing social teachers for educational and child care institutions, specialization is essential as well as specification of their meetings with different educational and care organizations. Special formation of the skills of social activities is essential for future social workers. Work practice, non-formal students' activities and volunteers' work could help to establish this process. Course in the social work for preparation of social workers for educational institutions have to be closely related with practice. 3. It is necessary to evaluate norms of government social and educational institutions. (Extremely formal contacts between these institutions, with only occasional communications, as well as no interest or no care about further child's fortune were identified). 4. Until now, little attention has been given to family problems in Lithuania. It is necessary to develop the initiatives and enthusiasm of future teachers. They need to be able fundamentally to help the child and the family, to reduce and eliminate the reasons for problems occurring. Future teachers need to take initiative and responsibility while creating social projects and implementing them. It is essential to develop the process of selection for future professionals in social pedagogics. Future social teachers need to have clear features of honesty, social skills and work experience. Therefore when accepting students to the social worker's profession, not only the marks of their secondary school diploma should be considered but also personal characteristics and experience.
The paper presents an overview of M. Weber's modelling paradigm assessing it against the opportunities of using the models in modern science of public policy and administration. Two types of research problems requiring modelling of different levels are identified. The paper defines the static and the dialectic methods of modelling, the limits and possibilities of their application are defined. The novelty and relevance of the paper lies in the substantiation of advantages and drawbacks of static modelling and in the proving of the importance of normative character of science, which contradicts the traditional Weber's methodology. In public administration one may not rely only upon formal procedures, forms and rules, because this will not reveal the functions of the State and the interests underlying them. A public administration model must be characterised by normative content. Models of social processes must not necessarily reflect the reality exactly, however, they may serve as a tool for simplifying the mechanisms of social reality and for attempting to understand its mechanisms. Modelling may be static or dialectic. Static modelling is simpler since the number of variables it takes account of is smaller. In certain cases static modelling may be presented or desirable due to value considerations raised by the idealistic world. Idealistic philosophy gives rise to relevant phenomena, which can be neither confirmed nor rejected. Such models may be desirable as the given required by a peculiar belief and as components of the given. As far as social science is a value and "humanitarian" science, to such extent metaphysics, the static given and static modelling may yield results. Philosophical idealism is often presented as a source of political and economic liberalism, or a sign of equality Is placed between them. This is not entirely correct since state and social policy studies in the liberal social sciences are based on formal concepts without any normative content. Liberal sociological definitions designed for a parliamentary-democratic constitutional state usually cover only procedures, forms, rules and state activity instruments, avoiding a definition of the State's functions completely or partially. Not only the functions of the State remain unsubstantiated; possible consequences of manifestation of these functions or the interests of those who defend them or any backstairs interests behind the declared interests arc not explained. The Weberian methodological concept of democracy turns liberal democracy and pluralist theory into a sheer arsenal of technical means, which is unpredictable and incapable of explaining the deep phenomena of public administration and the more so - of social policy. It is not only in the West, but also in Eastern Europe including Lithuania, individual politicians and public administration experts wish to reduce the principle of social welfare to the constitutional and legal level, absolutising the legal aspect. Dialectic modelling is a kind of opposite to static modelling, or modelling that may supplement the latter substantially. And this is not just because it is able to "see the context". Using the dialectic relationship one may examine such historical dichotomies as belief and science, nationality and globalism, central and local government, private and public interest etc. In the most general sense, dialectic modelling is focussed on the determination of the content, form, contradiction between content and form, and finding of the place of this relationship in the world's development process. The methodology of dialectic modelling asserts that the dialectic relationship is a universal means of modelling of qualitative processes and may be used for the modelling of the processes for which sufficient qualitative exceptionality may be determined as compared with the previous qualitative stage. Eastern Europe encounters difficulties in social modelling due to a distinct transformational nature of social systems of these countries as well as due to frequent changes in the laws governing social security and tax policy. The latter factor also poses problems for Eastern European social scientists in processing the material and in modelling socio-economic development on its basis.
The paper presents an overview of M. Weber's modelling paradigm assessing it against the opportunities of using the models in modern science of public policy and administration. Two types of research problems requiring modelling of different levels are identified. The paper defines the static and the dialectic methods of modelling, the limits and possibilities of their application are defined. The novelty and relevance of the paper lies in the substantiation of advantages and drawbacks of static modelling and in the proving of the importance of normative character of science, which contradicts the traditional Weber's methodology. In public administration one may not rely only upon formal procedures, forms and rules, because this will not reveal the functions of the State and the interests underlying them. A public administration model must be characterised by normative content. Models of social processes must not necessarily reflect the reality exactly, however, they may serve as a tool for simplifying the mechanisms of social reality and for attempting to understand its mechanisms. Modelling may be static or dialectic. Static modelling is simpler since the number of variables it takes account of is smaller. In certain cases static modelling may be presented or desirable due to value considerations raised by the idealistic world. Idealistic philosophy gives rise to relevant phenomena, which can be neither confirmed nor rejected. Such models may be desirable as the given required by a peculiar belief and as components of the given. As far as social science is a value and "humanitarian" science, to such extent metaphysics, the static given and static modelling may yield results. Philosophical idealism is often presented as a source of political and economic liberalism, or a sign of equality Is placed between them. This is not entirely correct since state and social policy studies in the liberal social sciences are based on formal concepts without any normative content. Liberal sociological definitions designed for a parliamentary-democratic constitutional state usually cover only procedures, forms, rules and state activity instruments, avoiding a definition of the State's functions completely or partially. Not only the functions of the State remain unsubstantiated; possible consequences of manifestation of these functions or the interests of those who defend them or any backstairs interests behind the declared interests arc not explained. The Weberian methodological concept of democracy turns liberal democracy and pluralist theory into a sheer arsenal of technical means, which is unpredictable and incapable of explaining the deep phenomena of public administration and the more so - of social policy. It is not only in the West, but also in Eastern Europe including Lithuania, individual politicians and public administration experts wish to reduce the principle of social welfare to the constitutional and legal level, absolutising the legal aspect. Dialectic modelling is a kind of opposite to static modelling, or modelling that may supplement the latter substantially. And this is not just because it is able to "see the context". Using the dialectic relationship one may examine such historical dichotomies as belief and science, nationality and globalism, central and local government, private and public interest etc. In the most general sense, dialectic modelling is focussed on the determination of the content, form, contradiction between content and form, and finding of the place of this relationship in the world's development process. The methodology of dialectic modelling asserts that the dialectic relationship is a universal means of modelling of qualitative processes and may be used for the modelling of the processes for which sufficient qualitative exceptionality may be determined as compared with the previous qualitative stage. Eastern Europe encounters difficulties in social modelling due to a distinct transformational nature of social systems of these countries as well as due to frequent changes in the laws governing social security and tax policy. The latter factor also poses problems for Eastern European social scientists in processing the material and in modelling socio-economic development on its basis.
The problems of socialization and social integration of the contemporary young generation are analysed in the article. Insufficient learning motivation, dissatisfaction in current school life and refusing to go to school, inability to make rational plans for future (learning, career, family, etc.), finding ways how to realize them, and finding ways of socially acceptable living are the topics which are of high importance in many modern countries and in Lithuania too. The aim of the research was to enclose the main methodological premises enabling to optimize current development of human resources in many societies of today. The role of the educational system in the process of socialization is under discussion: could it be in action in future as before, and if the answer is "yes", how it should be developed for more efficient performance? It is decided that we do not have enough personal and social courage and methods for creation of absolutely new system of education up to now. In such case we discuss only about some innovative ways of thinking and restructuring of the existing educational system. The main conclusions of the presented research are the following: permanent changes in societies call for making new goals and content of the socialization process. The countries under political, economical, cultural and educational transition (as Lithuania is) must find new ways creating closer social cooperation between local, national and global levels and different institutions of education. The system of education should be integrated with the social partners and society's institutions in much more extent. Closer ties should be developed among basic education and vocational education, and school, family, local community and the world of work are expected to form new and more efficient connections. Making new strategies for young generation socialization knowledge of various social and humanitarian sciences should be united in much more extent than it used to be, and contribution of economists and politicians is necessary. There is clear need for youth's socialization research and creating of new social structures based on systematic approach in Lithuania. Forms of international cooperation in establishing new models of youth social mobility and employment are mentioned as potentially productive also.
The problems of socialization and social integration of the contemporary young generation are analysed in the article. Insufficient learning motivation, dissatisfaction in current school life and refusing to go to school, inability to make rational plans for future (learning, career, family, etc.), finding ways how to realize them, and finding ways of socially acceptable living are the topics which are of high importance in many modern countries and in Lithuania too. The aim of the research was to enclose the main methodological premises enabling to optimize current development of human resources in many societies of today. The role of the educational system in the process of socialization is under discussion: could it be in action in future as before, and if the answer is "yes", how it should be developed for more efficient performance? It is decided that we do not have enough personal and social courage and methods for creation of absolutely new system of education up to now. In such case we discuss only about some innovative ways of thinking and restructuring of the existing educational system. The main conclusions of the presented research are the following: permanent changes in societies call for making new goals and content of the socialization process. The countries under political, economical, cultural and educational transition (as Lithuania is) must find new ways creating closer social cooperation between local, national and global levels and different institutions of education. The system of education should be integrated with the social partners and society's institutions in much more extent. Closer ties should be developed among basic education and vocational education, and school, family, local community and the world of work are expected to form new and more efficient connections. Making new strategies for young generation socialization knowledge of various social and humanitarian sciences should be united in much more extent than it used to be, and contribution of economists and politicians is necessary. There is clear need for youth's socialization research and creating of new social structures based on systematic approach in Lithuania. Forms of international cooperation in establishing new models of youth social mobility and employment are mentioned as potentially productive also.
During integration into the European Union the enterprises of Lithuania will have to follow internationally accepted standards and the environmental ones as well. Environmental management systems are onc of moslly used voluntary environmental means. Only 48 Lithuanian enterprises (0,1 percent of all enterprises) have already implemented these systems. In order to facilitate this process an investigation of motivation, utility and difficulties of environmental management system implementation was performed. Lithuanian enterprises that have environmental management systems certificated according to ISO 14001 standards requirements were analyzed. The analysis shows that the reduction of environmental hazards and costs, increase of competitive ability, the requirements of business partners and efforts to improve their image are the main motives of implementing environmental management systems. Lack of knowledge, the absence of an unanimous record methodology of the system implementation and maintenance costs, lack of governmental support and the shortage of financial and technical resources hinder a faster implementation of environmental management systems. It is recommended to Lithuanian organizations to create integrated environmental and quality management system (ISO 14001 and ISO 9001). Lithuanian government supports financially the implementation of this type of systems. It is proposed to government to support the eco-Iabelling of Lithuanian products too, because more than 20 % of examined enterprises are planning to implement environmental certification of their products. It is recommended to create National programme of consumer education. It is advisable to incorporate a provision into Public purchases law, which lets to keep enterprise's environmental and quality management systems and eco-Iabel as a competitive advantage.
