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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mundrigi microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of about 411 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 89 per cent is covered by soils and 11 per cent is covered by others (Habitation and Settlements). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 3 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  An area of about 48 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 40 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 57 per cent area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in 84 per cent area and medium (0.5-0.75%) in 4 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed falls under high (>57 kg/ha) in the available phosphorus content.  An area of about 12 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed falls under low (4.5 ppm) and 23 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in the available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in the available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in the available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 172(42) 17(4) Sapota 98(24) 114(28) Maize <1(<1) 189(46) Pomegranate 98(24) 114(28) Bajra 175(42) 51(12) Guava 95(23) 117(28) Groundnut 95(23) 219(53) Jackfruit 98(24) 114(28) Sunflower 95(23) 80(19) Jamun 95(23) 116(28) Cotton 95(23) 93(23) Musambi 98(24) 114(28) Red gram 95(23) 79(19) Lime 98(24) 114(28) Bengalgram - 189(46) Cashew 95(23) 167(40) Chilli 172(42) 17(4) Custard apple 175(42) 189(46) Tomato 172(42) 17(4) Amla 175(42) 189(46) Brinjal 79(19) 234(57) Tamarind 95(23) 21(5) Onion <1(<1) 314(76) Marigold 95(23) 94(23) Bhendi <1(<1) 314(76) Chrysanthemum 95(23) 93(23) Drumstick 98(24) 166(40) Jasmine 95(23) 93(23) Mulberry 98(24) 252(61) Crossandra 95(23) 93(23) Mango 95(23) 3(1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mundrigi is located at North latitude 150 16' 58.624" and 150 14' 44.725'' and East longitude 760 12' 48.228'' and 750 11' 55.13" covering an area of about 411.61 ha coming under Mallikeri, Kunakeri and Lachananakeri Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mundrigi micro watersheds of Karkihalli subwatershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 16 were marginal, (47.06 %) were small 4 (11.76%), 5 (14.71 %) were Semi medium and 4 (11.76 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (58.19%) men and 74 (41.81 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (40.68%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 29.94 per cent illiterates, 32.20 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.86 per cent middle school education, and 9.60 per cent high school education, 5.65 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.56 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.69 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.35 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.65 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 31.64 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 70.59 per cent possess TV, 29.41 per cent possess mixer grinder, 85.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 38.24 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess plough, 20.59 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.59 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.82 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 15.45 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.82.  Further, 67.65 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 54.77 per cent (35.53 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 45.23 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 20.00 live bore wells and 20.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 58.82 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy, Pearl millet and Redgram and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.29 per cent.  Out of the sample households 52.94 percent possessed bank account and 52.94 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 52.94 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 11.11 per cent have borrowed loan from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Groundnut, Cotton and Redgram was Rs.51685.51, 24587.06, 47833.51, 33857.89 and 12779.58 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.00, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.80 and 1:4.30 respectively.  Further, 17.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 59020.59 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 40667.65 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 28 horticulture trees and 35 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 61.76 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 23.53 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 85.29 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (52.94%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 58.82 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 79.41 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 50.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (58.82%), pulses (55.88%) and oilseeds (20.59%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (52.94%) wild animal menace on farm field (70.59%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (26.47%), inadequacy of irrigation water (11.76%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (35.29%), high rate of interest on credit (20.59%), low price for the agricultural commodities (11.76%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (29.41%), inadequate extension services (11.76%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (29.41%), Less rainfall (52.94%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (20.59%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The FCV tobacco is grown in Northern Light Soil (NLS) region (East Godavari, West Godavari and Khammam districts). The tobacco grown in NLS region is of semi flavourful to flavourful types, which has got international market demand to Europe and UK. The enterprising farmers of the region are not leaving the tobacco crop due to many reasons. In this backdrop, there is a need felt to identify the constraints faced by the farmers in the production of FCV tobacco. A total of 500 farmers were selected equally from both progressive and non progressive villages from NLS area on stratified random sampling procedure. A list of constraints in farming were prepared and categorized into personal constraints, socio-economic constraints, technical constraints, soil and climate constraints and organizational constraints. Data was collected by interviewing and focused group method and by obtaining information through a pre-tested schedule. The results indicated that some of the constraints viz., high cost of inputs, untimely supply of credit, low net returns, less availability of labour, poor farm mechanization, inefficient use of resources forced the farmers to continue to cultivate the crop. Lack of assured income in other crops, non-availability and inadequate supply of critical inputs, lack of proper technical and extension guidance, high pest and disease incidence in other crops were the main constraints coming in way to adopt suitable alternative crops. The study concludes that the tobacco crop acts as a ready reckoner for the farmer in case of bank loans, inputs and other beneficial factors motivating the farmers to continue the crop. The study also suggests Government to implement agricultural policies and to provide sufficient economic support for the farmers to achieve the outcome of nation's economy. ; Not Available

This is the final version. Available on open access via the DOI in this record ; Data availability: The datasets analysed during this study are available online: CMIP5 model output [https://esgf-node.llnl.gov/search/cmip5/], CMIP6 model output [https://esgf-node.llnl.gov/search/cmip6/], The WFDEI Meteorological Forcing Data [https://rda.ucar.edu/datasets/ds314.2/], CARDAMOM Heterotrophic Respiration [https://datashare.is.ed.ac.uk/handle/10283/875], MODIS Net Primary Production [https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/mod17a3v055/], Raich et al. 2002 Soil Respiration [https://cdiac.ess-dive.lbl.gov/epubs/ndp/ndp081/ndp081.html], Hashimoto et al. 2015 Heterotrophic Respiration [http://cse.ffpri.affrc.go.jp/shojih/data/index.html], and the datasets for observational Soil Carbon [https://github.com/rebeccamayvarney/soiltau_ec]. ; Code availability: The Python code used to complete the analysis and produce the figures in this study is available in the following online repository [https://github.com/rebeccamayvarney/soiltau_ec]. ; Carbon cycle feedbacks represent large uncertainties on climate change projections, and the response of soil carbon to climate change contributes the greatest uncertainty to this. Future changes in soil carbon depend on changes in litter and root inputs from plants, and especially on reductions in the turnover time of soil carbon (τs) with warming. The latter represents the change in soil carbon due to the response of soil turnover time (∆Cs,τ), and can be diagnosed from projections made with Earth System Models (ESMs). It is found to span a large range even at the Paris Agreement Target of 2◦C global warming. We use the spatial variability of τs inferred from observations to obtain a constraint on ∆Cs,τ . This spatial emergent constraint allows us to greatly reduce the uncertainty in ∆Cs,τ at 2◦C global warming. We do likewise for other levels of global warming to derive a best estimate for the effective sensitivity of τs to global warming, and derive a q10 equivalent value for heterotrophic respiration. ; European Research Council (ERC) ; Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) ; European Union Horizon 2020 ; Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gopanhalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 567 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area of the microwatershed is covered by soils except 1 ha area, which is covered by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 2 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and one land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) in soil depth.  Entire area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area of the microwatershed soils are non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of the microwatershed has very gently (1-3% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 90 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 9 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded.  Entire area of the microwatershed soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) to very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in 26 per cent area is 0.75%) in soil organic carbon content.  Entire area of the microwatershed is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient (>1.0 ppm) in the entire soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient in (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 566(100) - Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 566(100) Jamun - 566(100) Sunflower 566(100) - Musambi 566(100) - Cotton 566(100) Lime 566(100) - Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 566(100) - Custard apple 566(100) - Bengal gram 566(100) - Amla 566(100) - Guava - - Tamarind - 566(100) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUC by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Gopanhalli-2 micro-watershed (Mudhol sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1704'–1706' North latitudes and 77021'–77024' East longitudes, covering an area of about 567.15 ha, bounded by Mudhol, Adki, Bidharcheda and Gopanpalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Gopanhalli-2 micro-watershed (Mudhol subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 64.6 to 35.5 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 77.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward castes (OBC) is around 10.0 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 50.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 60 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 4.2 per cent households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.4 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land is total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 31.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 60.4 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.88167 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. 2  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.5500 per household, about 20.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough  The average value of livestock is around Rs.75000 per livestock; about 50 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 831.3 grams (1831.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 50 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.20717 per household. Among the all farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.2295 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.420 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.237921 per year for the total area of 567.15 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 10316/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in bengal gram (Rs.21561) followed by redgram (Rs.10671) and greengram is negative return.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs 64858) followed by green gram (Rs 42379) and redgram (Rs 60481). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (74.6 %) followed by bengal gram (15.8 %) and green gram (9.6%).  In Gopanhalli-2 micro-watershed, major soil are Dargah (DRG) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 4.22 % of areas, crops grown are bengalgram (53.8 %) and redgram (46.2 %) and Dandothi (DDT) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 95.52 % of area, crops grown are green gram (13.0 %) and redgram (87.0 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs.52021/ha in DRG soil (with BCR of 1.00) and Rs.28339/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.59).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in DRG soil is Rs.20701/ha (with BCR of 2.04) and green gram the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs. 19699/ha (with BCR of 0.93). 3  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (8.3 to 9.9 %), bengal gram (35.9 %) and green gram (28.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hanumantharayanagudda-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 131 ha out of total area of 668 ha in Gundlupet Taluk, Chamarajanagar District Karnataka. The remaining area of about 509 ha is under Forest. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during the south – west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 20 per cent is covered by soils, 76 per cent by forests and 4 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of Land growing period is 150 days and starts from 3rdweek of June to 3rdweek of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 27 major agricultural and horticultural Lands were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 3 per cent area of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 2 per cent moderately deep (75-100 cm), 1 per cent deep (100-150 cm) and 14 per cent very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 2 per cent area has loamy soils, 2 per cent sandy and 16 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 16 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%), 14 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 0.75%).  About 1 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about one per cent has medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in about 19 per cent and deficient in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 14 per cent and sufficient in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 27 major Lands grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various Lands but what specific Land to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various Lands in the microwatershed Land Suitability Area in ha (%) Land Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 66(10) 45(7) Guava 65(10) 14(2) Maize 65(10) 13(2) Banana 59(9) 40(6) Red gram 65(10) 63(9) Jackfruit 65(10) - Horsegram 65(10) 67(10) Jamun 59(9) 40(6) Fieldbean 59(9) 53(8) Musambi 65(10) 34(5) Groundnut 6(1) 86(13) Lime 65(10) 34(5) Sunflower 26(4) 72(11) Cashew 65(10) 14(2) Cotton 60(9) 19(3) Custard apple 65(10) 67(10) Onion 59(9) 53(8) Amla 65(10) 67(10) Potato 59(9) 19(3) Tamarind 59(9) 40(6) Beans 59(9) 53(8) Marigold 65(10) 61(9) Beetroot 59(9) 19(3) Chrysanthemum 59(9) 53(8) Mango 59(9) 6(1) Turmeric 59(9) 19(3) Sapota 65(10) 14(2) Apart from the individual Land suitability, a proposed Land plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different Lands and Landping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture Lands.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to Land production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change.Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Hanumantharayanagudda-2 micro-watershed (Hangala sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11041' – 11043' North latitudes and 76036' – 76039' East longitudes, covering an area of about 668 ha, bounded by Devarahalli, Puttanapura, Kaligaudanahalli and Siddapura villages with length of growing period (LGP)120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results:The socio-economic outputs for the Hanumantharayanagudda-2 Microwatershed (Hangala sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 46 to 54 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 55.7 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 82.2 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 70 per cent.  Light petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  About 70 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Only 20.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80.0 per cent.  Institutional participation is only 13.3 per cent.  Women participation in decisions making are around 50.0 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 1.04 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 60.8 % and irrigated land is 39.2 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 71.2 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 24.4 per cent of the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 87513 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 5784 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 20067 per household; about 42.8 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 690.7 grams (1501.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 48539 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs 1155. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 452 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 58781 per year for the total area of 668.2 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 37885/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in turmeric (Rs. 142496) followed by sunflower (Rs. 10234), onion (Rs. 93300), tomato (Rs. 9445), horse gram (Rs. 7050), groundnut (Rs. 3187) and sorghum is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1917/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 3590) followed by horse gram (Rs. 1281) and groundnut (Rs. 880).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in tomato (Rs. 83902) followed by turmeric (Rs. 40928), sorghum (Rs. 34270), sunflower (Rs. 30218), groundnut (Rs. 20390), horse gram (Rs. 19342) and onion (Rs. 18662). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (38.7 %) followed by horsegram (27.4 %), sorghum (15.2 %), groundnut (8.0 %), turmeric (4.7 %), tomato (3.0 %) and onion (3.0 %). 3  In Hanumantharayanagudda-2 Microwatershed, major soils are Devarahalli (DRH) series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 2.0 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing onion (50.0 %) and tomato (50%). Kannigala (KNG) series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 2.08 % of area; the crops are groundnut (37.8 %), horse gram (13.1 %) and sunflower (49.0 %). Kallipura (KLP) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 0.95 % of areas, crops are sorghum. Annurkeri (ARK) soil series are having veer deep soil depth cover around 3.9 % of area; the major crops grown are horse gram (23 %), sorghum (22.6 %) and sunflower (54.4 %). Beemanabeedu (BMB) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 5.0 % of area, the major crop grown is turmeric (100 %). Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 4.8 % of areas respectively; crops are horse gram, sorghum and sunflower.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sorghum the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs.38586/ha (with BCR of 1.11) and Rs 20801/ha in ARK soil is (with BCR of 1.36).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.15993/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.52) and Rs 10367 in ARK soil (with BCR of 2.38).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 36804/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.83) and Rs. 24433/ha in ARK soil (with BCR of 2.17).  In tomato the cost of cultivation in DRH soil Rs 48348/ha (with of 1.18).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in KNG soil is Rs. 24664/ha (with BCR of 1.18).  In onion the cost of cultivation in DRH soil Rs.115679/ha (with BCR of 1.78) and in turmeric the cost of cultivation in BMB soil Rs 57087/ha (with BCR of 3.46).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in sorghum (56 to 67.4 %), sunflower (35.1 to 54.7 %), horse gram (31.0 to 36.9 %), groundnut (57.1 %), onion (71.9 %) and tomato (23.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir RF1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 643 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 339 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 293 ha by forest and 11 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 53 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 29 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm).  About 10 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 4 per cent loamy soils and 38 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 10 per cent area in the microwatershed is gravelly (15-35%) and 42 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m).  About 44 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 9 per cent has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 3 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 17 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 33 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 0.75%).  An area of about 34 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 6 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) and 13 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 31 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the cultivated soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 24 per cent of cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-7 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 473 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 179 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 294 ha by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 1 soil series and 1 soil phase (management units) and 1 land management unit.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (4.5 ppm) in 2 per cent and deficient in 36 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - - Guava - - Maize - - Sapota - - Bajra - - Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - - Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kethahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 626 ha in Kethahalli microwatershed in Chamarajanagara taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 769 mm, of which about 316 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 252 mm during north-east and the remaining 201 mm during the rest of the year. 96 per cent area is covered by soils and remaining 4 per cent is by habitation and waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 43 soil phases (mapping units) and 9 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the last week of July to 4th week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  Major area of about 24 per cent has deep to very deep (100- >150 cm) soils, an area of 21 per cent has moderately deep (75-100 cm) soils. Maximum area of about 33 per cent is under moderately shallow (50-75 cm) soils and shallow (25- 50 cm) soils occupy 19 per cent area in the microwatershed.  Maximum area of about 64 per cent has loamy soils at the surface loamy sand soils of about 23 per cent and clayey soils 9 per cent at the surface.  Maximum area of about 55 per cent gravelly (15-35%) soils and followed by very gravelly (35-60%) soils of 42 per cent in the microwatershed.  About 84 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 12 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) lands.  An area of about 87 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 9 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  Small area of about 3 per cent soils are slightly to moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.5), 30 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) soils and 63 per cent has slightly to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) soils in the microwatershed.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 43 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in 9 per cent area in available phosphorus.  An area of about 48 per cent has soils that are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 49 per cent area has high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 33 per cent area.  Available boron is low (0.5%) in 13 per cent area.  About 79 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5ppm) in iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  An area of about 79 per cent has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) and 17 per cent soils are sufficient in available zinc.  The land suitability for nine major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crops Suitability area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 4 (<1) 442 (71) Maize 4 (<1) 404 (65) Finger millet 4 (<1) 442 (71) Red gram 4 (<1) 442 (71) Groundnut 4 (<1) 442 (71) Cotton 4 (<1) 442 (71) Chilli 4 (<1) 442 (71) Mango - 16 (3) Sapota - 12(40) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 9 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project