Suchergebnisse

Introduzione Nella chiesa romana si onora il sacrificio di due alpini, morti a Kabul per fare il loro dovere e guadagnare un pugno di euro in più. Fuori invece va in scena l'ingorgo dello status symbol: decine e decine di auto blu, tutte con autista, che cercano di depositare le autorità al riparo dalla pioggia. E poi trovare un parcheggio.1 Alla morte di ogni soldato italiano in missione all'estero la basilica di Santa Maria degli Angeli, la chiesa utilizzata dallo stato per le sue funzioni, è gremita di politici di ogni colore: ministri, sottosegretari, onorevoli, segretari di partito: tutti devono essere presenti a un dolore privato che diventa anche un rituale pubblico Ad ogni funerale di soldato italiano morto all'estero questa scena si ripete: la politica rinnova i suoi riti, e per mezzo dei suoi rappresentanti più autorevoli convince la nazione della giustezza di mantenere la pace nel mondo morendo nei deserti dell'Afghanistan o dell'Iraq perché gli interessi nazionali si troverebbero molto al di là dei nostri confini. Ne sono un esempio i funerali delle vittime di Nassiriya nel 2003: i politici erano in prima fila, mentre alcuni familiari hanno trovato posto solo in piedi, verso l'uscita della chiesa. Il lutto della nazione quando muoiono i soldati italiani all'estero è diventato un rituale canonizzato: le salme sono accolte all'aeroporto militare di Ciampino da qualche alta personalità, a volte persino il presidente della Repubblica, e portate alla basilica di Santa Maria degli Angeli per un rituale pubblico. Si potrebbe ipotizzare che durante il servizio militare di leva non ci siano stati decessi, e che l'Italia non fosse quindi abituata a veder morire i propri militari; per questo ognuno di loro oggi diventa un eroe, anche se muore di malaria o mentre fa jogging. In realtà molte persone sono morte o hanno subito menomazioni durante il servizio militare di leva, prima delle missioni di pace all'estero, iniziate stabilmente nel 1992. I molti decessi, a volte a causa dell'inefficienza della sanità militare, sono passati sotto silenzio, ma questo silenzio ha riguardato anche i pochi caduti nel mantenimento della pace internazionale. I caduti nell'eccidio di Kindu del 1961 ebbero la medaglia d'oro al valor militare alla memoria solo nel 1994, più di trent'anni dopo. Uno dei primi morti nelle missioni di peace-keeping, il capitano Carlo Olivieri, ha ricevuto una medaglia solo nel 1991, ben diciotto anni dopo il suo decesso, avvenuto all'inizio della guerra del Kippur. Non si sa se alte personalità fossero presenti ai funerali, ciò che è certo è che la sua morte venne ignorata dalla quasi totalità della stampa. La costruzione delle nostre glorie militari come soldati e portatori di pace, quindi, non si è imposta subito all'opinione pubblica italiana, e non è stata, fino agli anni '90, uno dei pilastri del concetto di nazione. Questa tesi si propone di indagare la presentazione che viene fatta dei militari in quasi quarant'anni di storia italiana, dal 1968, l'anno della contestazione, al 2003, l'anno della strage di Nassiriya; scopo è osservare quali siano le fondamenta di questo mito e quale fosse l'immagine dei soldati negli anni precedenti a questa costruzione. Dal campo di ricerca della prima parte di questo lavoro è stata esclusa la stampa quotidiana e quella di approfondimento politico; si è preferito concentrarsi su periodici di costume a grande tiratura come "Oggi" e "Gente", e sul settimanale cattolico "Famiglia Cristiana". Nella seconda parte si è trattato di mezzi più propriamente popolari come i fumetti e il cinema. Le testate utilizzate per la prima parte sono state scelte perché popolari, a grandissima tiratura, ufficialmente non politicizzate, e perché i loro lettori vi ricercavano principalmente notizie che non avevano niente a che fare con la vita militare. La persone che leggevano "Oggi" o "Gente" erano infatti interessate alle feste dei divi, agli amori della famiglia reale in esilio e alle vicende, spesso presenti, della famiglia Mussolini. Con la lettura di articoli sull'esercito, sui militari e sulla politica si esercitava un orientamento a favore della maggioranza di governo e si ribadiva, nonostante gli scandali, nonostante il nonnismo, nonostante i graduati autoritari, che il paese e le sue forze armate erano sani. Le riviste prese in esame hanno grandi tirature, ma queste, anche se importanti, non danno la dimensione della circolazione delle copie dei tre settimanali presi in esame. Questo genere di produzione editoriale infatti viene lasciato nelle sale d'aspetto dei medici e degli uffici e quindi ogni copia passa di mano molte volte prima di essere gettata. Il carattere, per "Oggi" e "Gente", di periodici di costume, adatti, appunto, ad essere lasciati in luoghi pubblici per intrattenere le persone, fa sì che coloro che le sfogliano non siano solamente lettori intenzionali. Per "Famiglia Cristiana" il fatto che sia spesso comprata da parrocchie e oratori fa sì che il pubblico potenziale sia quello dei cattolici praticanti italiani, in diminuzione negli anni 2000, ma altissimo nei primi anni di diffusione della rivista. Nel periodo preso in esame le copie vendute da "Oggi" e da "Gente" si sono mantenute stabilmente oltre le 600.000 per il settimanale della Rizzoli fino al 1990, e sopra le 500.000 per il periodico della Rusconi. Nel 1990 "Gente" vendeva 755.000 copie, contro le 613.000 di "Oggi".2 "Famiglia Cristiana", invece, si colloca ben al di sopra delle vendite dei giornali precedenti, superando durante gli anni '70 e fino ai '90 il milione di copie, anche grazie alla distribuzione tramite le parrocchie e l'associazionismo cattolico.3 "Oggi" e "Gente" hanno lo stesso pubblico di riferimento e si contendono i lettori: non sono settimanali femminili come "Anna", "Gioia" o "Cosmopolitan", ma hanno un pubblico in prevalenza femminile, benché vengano letti anche da maschi. Il pubblico dei giornali è vario, ma solitamente di cultura medio bassa e avanti con gli anni, come dimostrano i molti servizi sulle glorie delle guerre passate o, con gli anni '80 e l'esplosione del culto di Padre Pio, dei miracoli del frate di Pietralcina, soprattutto in "Gente". Come nota Ugo Volli: La lettura di un settimanale non è mai un "genere di prima necessità", né sul piano informativo né su quello dell'intrattenimento e della condivisione dei gusti e degli interessi (che sono i motivi fondamentali del consumo di comunicazione di massa). Non si apprende da un settimanale né lo scoppio di un guerra, né l'ubicazione di una farmacia aperta o il programma di un cinema, né la propria identità sociale[.] Le notizie che un settimanale può dare, se sono significative, in linea di massima sono state ricevute prima dalla televisione e poi dai quotidiani; si tratta dunque di una "terza lettura", che si giustifica solo con un taglio particolare, con un'identificazione forte di valori e interessi.[.] Le sorelle Carlucci, Clinton, il campionato di calcio, la Lega Nord, la ricerca biologica trovano posto su "Novella 2000", su "Panorama" e su "Gente"; la differenza sta negli spazi, nell'ordinamento e nell'inquadratura delle notizie, nella conoscenza presupposta dal lettore.4 "Oggi" e "Gente" presentano caratteristiche simili e si possono collocare a metà tra "Panorama" e "Novella 2000": vi sono articoli ed editoriali in cui si prende posizione sui fatti politici, ma la gran parte dei servizi è dedicata alle cronache mondane, ai consigli pratici e ai fatti di costume. "Famiglia Cristiana" presenta alcune caratteristiche particolari, che la differenziano in parte dagli altri due periodici: era distribuito nelle parrocchie e spesso letto per i suoi articoli di argomento religioso; anche qui il servizio militare e il ruolo delle forze armate erano argomenti secondari, ma venivano così a conoscenza di un pubblico molto variegato per idee e convinzioni, dai cattolici conservatori al cattolicesimo democratico nato dopo il Concilio Vaticano II. Tutte queste persone, che spesso dibattono nelle interessanti "Lettere" al settimanale, pur essendo espressione di un mondo molto diverso al suo interno, leggono gli stessi articoli sull'esercito e la leva, formandosi quindi un'opinione grazie al settimanale cattolico. La scelta dei settimanali è quindi motivata dal fatto che questi siano una lettura di "terza scelta", che rispecchia valori di appartenenza più che fornire notizie. Coloro che acquistano una copia di "Oggi" e "Gente", cercano una lettura d'evasione e desiderano far parte di un mondo di dive, teste coronate, ricchi imprenditori. A lato dei servizi principali dei settimanali, nel presentare l'attualità politica e i problemi del paese, i direttori e i giornalisti ne danno una presentazione funzionale all'universo piccolo-borghese di riferimento dei lettori. Un modo nuovo di presentare i militari in missione all'estero ha inizio con la morte di Filippo Montesi, giovane marò di leva caduto nel 1983 durante la missione di mantenimento della pace in Libano. Se la morte di Olivieri era avvenuta nel silenzio della stampa, Montesi riceve invece notevole attenzione mediatica, divenendo il prototipo del caduto nelle missioni all'estero. Il rituale pubblico era ancora da perfezionare e i funerali si svolsero a Pesaro, vicino alla sua città natale; egli ricevette solo una semplice croce di guerra, a fronte di medaglie d'oro al valore dell'esercito che saranno concesse poi a morti di malattia. Ciò nonostante, per l'opinione pubblica è lui, e non Carlo Olivieri, il primo caduto in una missione di pace. Con l'impegno internazionale dell'Italia all'estero, iniziato stabilmente con la guerra del Golfo, la retorica che si era usata in Libano per la morte di Montesi viene affinata e fatta propria dai media: stampa, televisione, radio. È infatti con la guerra del Golfo e in seguito con la missione in Somalia che la costruzione dell'italiano come portatore di pace e buon soldato si impone all'opinione pubblica; viene fatta propria anche dalla stampa periodica presa in esame, accanto ai fatti di costume. Proprio perché queste testate trattano di tutt'altro vengono lette da un pubblico meno politicizzato e più suggestionabile da una storia confezionata con buona dose di sentimento, abnegazione al dovere e commozione. Nassiriya è stata il punto di arrivo di questo processo: tutti i partiti politici, dai postfascisti ai postcomunisti, hanno aderito alla retorica nazionale di quei giorni, accettando senza riserve l'immagine del soldato come costruttore di pace. I periodici, anche "Famiglia Cristiana" che era contraria alla guerra, hanno magnificato le virtù dei soldati italiani; il settimanale cattolico è giunto ad affermare in un articolo del presidente di Pax Christi, Tommaso Valentinetti, che colui che manifesta per la pace e il soldato in missione umanitaria percorrono lo stesso sentiero. Con Nassiriya si è imposto dunque un pensiero unico e un modo di guardare alle vittime che le ha per sempre canonizzate in una retorica funzionale ai disegni dello Stato. Il secondo tipo di fonte preso in esame in questo lavoro sono i film, le fiction e i fumetti riguardanti la vita militare. Il percorso, autonomo fino a un certo punto da quello dei settimanali, inizia poi a convergere con quello della carta stampata, e il paradigma del soldato di pace si impone anche nel cinema (nonostante i molti film nei quali l'esperienza della leva è messa alla berlina). Per un certo periodo a determinati prodotti cinematografici ne corrispondono di grafici. Il fumetto, però, dopo gli anni '90 diviene sempre meno una forma di intrattenimento popolare e acquista il ruolo di mezzo di comunicazione colto, che si esprime attraverso la forma più raffinata della graphic-novel; da questo momento il cinema e la fiction restano i mezzi privilegiati con cui si forma l'immagine dei militari italiani. Con gli anni '60 abbiamo molti film di guerra a basso costo a imitazione dei modelli americani: ambientati nella seconda guerra mondiale, con trame avventurose, vi si celebrano il valore e il coraggio. Questi lungometraggi hanno come specchio i fumetti di guerra, spesso pensati per il mercato inglese, disegnati in Italia o in Sudamerica (e poi riproposti in Italia su licenza). Si tratta, per tutte e due le fonti, di prodotti popolari, adatti a un pubblico non molto colto e con storie elementari e lineari. Nei fumetti, di solito, l'universo femminile, è quasi assente, e le storie preferiscono concentrarsi sul valore e il coraggio maschili. Nei film sui militari, di cui un esempio sono i "musicarelli", le donne sono presenti, la storia d'amore è sempre casta e sottintende una morale sessuale tradizionale, derivata dalla mentalità contadina. Gli scherzi in caserma e il nonnismo sono assenti; l'aspetto deteriore della vita militare che viene presentato è invece quello della posizione di potere per ottenere piccoli vantaggi personali, spesso indirizzati ad ottenere lo status della classe sociale più elevata. Con gli anni '70 e l'avvento della commedia scollacciata, i film diventano farse volgari, nelle quali è esagerato in modo comico il mondo militare, e la censura su alcune delle peggiori situazioni in caserma viene meno; vi sono gli scherzi tipici del nonnismo, viene presentato il sesso (in varie forme: riviste pornografiche, prostitute, apprezzamenti alle ragazze) come una delle ossessioni del servizio militare. Ciò accade in parallelo anche per i fumetti erotici a basso costo, che condividono il linguaggio e le aspirazioni dei soldati con le commedie. La commedia di questo tipo inizia a decadere con l'inizio degli anni '80, ma i suoi cliché, i suoi registi, i suoi sceneggiatori, e in parte i suoi attori, entrano nelle nuove serie sui militari che riescono, utilizzando la struttura dei vecchi prodotti, a presentare i militari come seri ed efficienti. All'inizio degli anni '90 il cambiamento nella presentazione dei militari avviene con i prodotti per la televisione: "College", "Classe di ferro" e "Aquile". Qui si riprendono i temi della commedia degli anni '70, depurati delle volgarità più evidenti e dei toni più caricaturali; si presentano i militari come buontemponi dediti agli scherzi, ma efficienti quando si tratta di svolgere compiti seri. Lo slittamento nella presentazione dei militari è poi diventato definitivo negli anni 2000: vengono abbandonati i cliché della commedia e, tramite prodotti di largo consumo come le fiction, l'immagine dell'italiano portatore di pace viene canonizzata e resa accessibile a un pubblico più vasto di quello che occupa gli schermi cinematografici. I prodotti più seri e ragionati, interessanti anche da un punto di vista cinematografico, non raggiungono gli ascolti e le cifre dei film per la televisione, e quindi restano confinati a un mercato di appassionati o quasi.

AMÉRICA LATINA Rousseff se enfrentará a Neves en la segunda vuelta de las elecciones presidenciales brasileñas. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2014/10/05/world/americas/ap-lt-brazil-elections.html?ref=worldhttp://www.economist.com/news/americas/21622767-president-dilma-rousseff-enters-election-day-handsome-lead-battle-second-place-toohttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732590-elecciones-en-brasil-dilma-rousseff-se-impuso-con-el-y-habra-segunda-vuelta-con-aecio-neveshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/elecciones-en-brasil-crisis-economica-y-agenda-social-los-desafios/14631535http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412500754_547837.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/06/world/americas/brazil-presidential-elections.html?ref=world&gwh=1222CDEA253F51A1B69194F2B9F59CB4&gwt=payhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29501500www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2014/10/141005_eleicoes_aovivo_bg.shtmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/brasil-se-inclina-por-dilma-segun-sondeos-88582.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/dilma-aecio-vao-disputar-2-turno-das-eleicoes-14152314#ixzz3FKDWXpkjhttp://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-brazilians-vote-president-20141005-story.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/10/05/les-bresiliens-ont-commence-a-voter_4500768_3222.html Muere el exdictador haitiano Jean-Claude Duvalier. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/haitis-former-president-jean-claude-baby-doc-duvalier-dies-63-n218431http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29492262http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732980-baby-doc-duvalier-el-heredero-de-una-sangrienta-dinastia-que-goberno-haiti-con-crueldad-y-despilfarrohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/muere-el-exdictador-haitiano-jean-claude-duvalier/14639836http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/04/actualidad/1412443789_056814.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/americas/jean-claude-duvalier-haitis-baby-doc-dies-at-63.html?ref=world&gwh=7743E8E852154BEED78995A043E10E46&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_nowhttp://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-jeanclaude-duvalier-20141005-story.html Cuba da grandes pasos para la futura eliminación de la doble moneda. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731981-cuba-da-grandes-pasos-para-la-futura-eliminacion-de-la-doble-moneda Violencia sacude el sur de México. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/americas/bodies-are-found-close-to-where-missing-students-clashed-with-police-in-mexico.html?ref=world&gwh=443131631DEE72A137747B8DBB507AF9&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_nowhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/04/actualidad/1412379709_680591.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29470025http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/mexico-massacre-victims-feared-be-missing-students-n218961http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2014/10/141005_mexico_estudiantes_desaparecidos_fosas_que_se_sabe_jcps.shtmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-hidden-graves-mexico-missing-students-20141005-story.html Venezuela enfrenta la escasez de medicamentos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-crisis-por-escasez-de-medicamentos/14636722 "Venezuela protege a los peores violadores de derechos humanos", afirmó el director para América de Human Rights Watch. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732383-jose-m-vivanco-venezuela-protege-a-los-peores-violadores-de-derechos-humanoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/entrevista-a-jose-miguel-vivanco/14636075 "The Economist" y "BBC" analizan la coyuntura económica argentina. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21621867-resignation-central-banks-governor-adds-gloom-thumbs-downhttp://www.bbc.com/news/business-29454152 Conmoción en Venezuela por el sangriento asesinato de un diputado chavista. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732747-el-chavismo-acuso-a-la-derecha-del-asesinato-del-diputado-serrahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/gobierno-venezolano-acusa-al-paramilitarismo-por-muerte-de-diputado/14630599http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-29486243 Más de 21 millones de peruanos votan en elecciones regionales y municipales. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2014/10/141005_ultnot_peru_elecciones_regionales_msd.shtml Cae uno de los narcos más buscados en México. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731983-mexico-cae-uno-de-los-narcos-mas-buscados Guatemala espera avances en el juicio por crímenes de guerra. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-guatemala-justice-20141004-story.html Juan Manuel Santos dijo que la paz en Colombia "está más cerca que nunca". Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730249-juan-manuel-santos-dijo-que-la-paz-en-colombia-esta-mas-cerca-que-nunca ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁ El dilema de Obama: cómo destruir al Estado Islámico sin fortalecer a Al-Assad. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730812-el-dilema-de-obama-como-destruir-a-ei-sin-fortalecer-a-al-assad Canadá se sumó a la batalla contra el Estado Islámico. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/canada-joins-battle-against-isis-n217771http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29483160 Cuestionan el sistema de salud de Estados Unidos por la detección tardía del ébola. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/02/content_18691716.htmhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732937-ebola-funcionarios-de-salud-en-estados-unidos-no-registraron-nuevas-infecciones-pese-al-alto-numero-de-posibles-casoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/casos-de-ebola-en-estados-unidos/14632739http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29493759 Avances en negociaciones de liberalización comercial entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/business-29482892 Estados Unidos envía 600 militares a luchar contra el ébola en África. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/pentagon-sending-600-more-military-personnel-fight-ebola-africa-n217671 Renuncia la jefa del Servicio Secreto estadounidense por caso de intruso armado en la Casa Blanca. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731925-eeuu-renuncia-la-jefa-del-servicio-secreto-por-un-intruso-armado-en-la-casa-blanca Estados Unidos levanta parcialmente embargo de venta de armas a Vietnam. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/eeuu-levanta-parcialmente-embargo-de-venta-de-armas-a-vietnam/14628855EUROPAEuropa vive la amenaza del Estado Islámico. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-islamic-state-henning-20141003-001-photo.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/ei-decapita-a-britanico-amenaza-a-otro-rehen-88579.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/decapitacion-estado-islamico-cameron-usara-todos-los-recursos/14638455http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730582-el-parlamento-britanico-aprueba-ataques-aereos-contra-el-estado-islamico-en-irakhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/actualidad/1412368036_415379.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/10/05/la-france-va-accentuer-le-rythme-de-ses-patrouilles-contre-l-etat-islamique_4500839_3210.htmlConsulta independentista catalana se hará el 9 de noviembre. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/10/05/referendum-sur-l-independance-les-catalans-veulent-rester-dans-la-legalite_4500783_3214.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29490846http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730958-mas-desafia-a-rajoy-y-convoca-al-referendum-para-el-9-de-noviembrehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731441-la-justicia-fuerza-a-cataluna-a-resignarse-o-rebelarsehttp://elpais.com/elpais/2014/10/03/inenglish/1412327174_332125.htmlhttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/05/content_18698691.htm Un suicida mata a cinco policías en un atentado en la capital chechena. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412521983_410916.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/mueren-4-policias-rusos-en-atentado-en-chechenia-1043597.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29498909 Turquía atacará a los yihadistas en Siria e Irak. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/04/opinion/turkey-must-save-the-kurds.html?ref=worldhttp://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-turkey-syria-military-20141002-story.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29490256http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/turquia-atacara-a-los-yihadistas-en-siria-e-irak/14628436http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21621872-emergence-another-kurdish-entity-its-borders-unsettles-government-how-dealhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/europe/turkish-leader-demands-biden-apology.html?ref=world&gwh=FAB30154F3D1CE0213EA73D034562AE4&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now "The Economist" analiza posible reforma económica en Europa. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21621785-leaders-france-and-italy-have-window-pursue-genuine-reforms-it-only-narrow Ucrania rompe la tregua y bombardea la ciudad de Donetsk. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/europe/in-ukraine-civilians-in-crossfire.html?ref=worldhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732175-ucrania-rompe-la-tregua-y-bombardea-la-ciudad-de-donetskhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29481979http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/ukraine-military-says-separatists-violated-month-old-ceasefire-n218681Masiva protesta contra la política familiar francesa. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412525139_820929.html El ministro griego rechaza la necesidad de un nuevo pacto sobre la deuda de Grecia. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/actualidad/1412350301_977804.html Crecimiento económico abre puertas a Polonia. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/europe/poland-economy-european-union-russia-trade-sanctions.html?ref=world El ex primer ministro búlgaro, Boyko Borisov, tiene previsto regresar al poder. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/10/04/l-ex-premier-ministre-bulgare-boiko-borissov-s-apprete-a-revenir-au-pouvoir_4500537_3210.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29494877 Los tories proponen que el tribunal de Estrasburgo no rija sobre Londres. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/actualidad/1412345818_921344.html ASIA-PACÍFICO / MEDIO ORIENTE El Estado Islámico avanza. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21621863-are-american-led-air-strikes-creating-sunni-backlash-unintended-consequenceshttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/04/content_18697146.htmhttp://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/10/05/syrie-attentat-suicide-d-une-kurde-contre-l-etat-islamique_4500833_3218.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/nuevo-asesinato-por-parte-del-estado-islamico-decapito-a-britanico/14635195http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29498972http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/ejecutan-yihadistas-a-seis-soldados-iraquies-en-publico-1043589.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/airstrikes-hit-more-isis-targets-syria-iraq-n218671http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/estado-islamico-avanca-na-siria-sob-bombardeios-da-coalizao-internacional-14148811#ixzz3FKKYJVKVhttp://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iraq-mosul-front-20141005-story.html Protestas estudiantiles en Hong Kong. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2014/10/05/manifestants-et-policiers-s-affrontent-a-nouveau-a-hongkong_4500718_3216.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2014/10/hong-kong-slideshowhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732978-de-la-mano-de-los-estudiantes-hong-kong-quiere-subirse-al-tren-de-la-democraciahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/el-dialogo-en-hong-kong-se-complica-por-ataques-a-estudiantes-/14632475http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/05/actualidad/1412530002_202681.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2014/10/05/manifestants-et-policiers-s-affrontent-a-nouveau-a-hongkong_4500718_3216.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29494885http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/manifestantes-retiraran-barricadas-en-hong-kong--1043561.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-hong-kong-leaders-20141006-story.html#page=1http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/hong-kong-protests/hong-kong-protesters-hold-huge-defiant-rally-n218551 Erupción del volcán Ontake en Japón. Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29472384http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1731915-los-dramaticos-esfuerzos-de-los-rescatistas-japoneses-que-luchan-contra-el-volcanhttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/01/content_18691389.htmhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29497179http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/typhoon-phanfone-churns-toward-tokyo-heavy-rain-n218616 Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur acuerdan un encuentro de alto nivel. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/asia/south-and-north-korea-agree-to-resume-high-level-talks.html?ref=world&gwh=7844F01D55ED73C9C4338C424BFBA191&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_nowhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29489134http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/corea-del-norte-y-corea-del-sur-acuerdan-un-encuentro-de- alto-nivel-/14638375http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/04/actualidad/1412431980_377337.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29460743http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-north-south-korean-leaders-meet-20141004-story.html El presidente de Irán defendió al grupo Hezbollah implicado en el ataque a la AMIA. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730674-el-presidente-de-iran-defendio-al-grupo-hezbollah-implicado-en-el-ataque-a-la-amia Irán no suplantará a Rusia como su principal proveedor de gas. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-10/04/content_18697127.htm Crece la tensión en el Golán. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-one-injured-israel-lebanon-border-20141005-story.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/in-golan-imagined-risks-become-all-too-real.html?ref=world China y su política para combatir polución. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/chi-la-fg-china-la-smog-policy-20140909-story.html#page=1 "The Economist" analiza cambio de escenario político en Indonesia. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21621874-old-guard-out-obstruct-next-presidents-ambitious-plans-reforms-empire-strikesÁFRICAÉbola: murieron más de 3000 personas en África occidental. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/world/africa/ebolas-cultural-casualty-hugs-in-hands-on-liberia.html?ref=worldhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/nadie-en-liberia-conoce-a-un-infectado-de-ebola-que-no-haya-muerto/14629675http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730905-ebola-murieron-mas-de-3000-personas-en-africa-occidentalhttp://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/outbreak-ebola-marburg-fever-kills-man-uganda-n218836http://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-ebola-us-liberia-20141004-story.html#page=1http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29489394 Nuevas inversiones para el Canal de Suez. Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/wave-patriotism-egypt-raises-9-billion-suez-canal-n214681 El líder de Boko Haram desmiente su muerte a través de un video. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1732111-el-lider-de-boko-haram-desmiente-su-muerte-a-traves-de-un-videohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/10/03/videos/1412334089_482247.html Somalia: ejército toma el último gran puerto en poder de Al-Shabaab. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2014/10/05/somalie-l-armee-prend-le-dernier-grand-port-tenu-les-chabab_4500740_3212.htmlOTRAS"The Economsit" publica su informe: "Business this week".Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21620281-business-weekA partir de ahora la ONU monitoreará para que no exista violencia contra gays y trans.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1730632-a-partir-de-ahora-la-onu-monitoreara-para-que-no-exista-violencia-contra-gays-y-trans

Hace ya meses que los analistas vienen señalando que las elecciones generales que se llevaron a cabo en México en el día de ayer no podían, fuese cual fuese el resultado, significar un paso mínimamente significativo en el eternamente postergado proceso de consolidación de la democracia en ese país. Millones de mexicanos estaban concientes que "la oferta" de los candidatos no era ni atractiva, ni satisfactoria, ni confiable. Sin embargo, la ciudadanía estaba atascada en una trampa muy difícil de sortear: si de fortalecer la democracia se trataba, a la ciudadanía no le quedaba más remedio que votar. 1.- Conviene señalar, desde el vamos, que el problema de la inexistencia de una democracia "decente" en México no es un asunto interno que sólo compete a los mexicanos. Es un problema regional e incluso internacional. La economía mexicana es, ahora, el segundo PBI de América Latina y, cuando la economía norteamericana goza de buena salud, el PBI mexicano ha superado por años al de Brasil sin dificultades. Aunque al igual que Turquía y muchos otros países, simplemente México no goza de la simpatía de los "golden boys" del mundo financiero norteamericano, por lo que no ha sido incluido en ninguna sigla promocionada entre la alta finanza como uno de los países emergentes más poderosos. Sencillamente, que África del Sur sea incluido en los BRICS y no figuren ni México ni Turquía, por ejemplo, en ninguna liga igual o parecida, sólo habla de la frivolidad -(para no mencionar hipótesis más pesimistas)- de los "expertos" que las forjan. Y, precisamente por todo ello, las descomunales carencias de la democracia mexicana que los resultados de estas últimas elecciones parecen volver a prorrogar en el tiempo, constituyen un problema mayor, por lo menos para Latinoamérica y para los EE.UU. A este altura del conteo de votos, iniciado ayer 1o. de julio a las 18 horas, los resultados son casi definitivos y le otorgan entre 25.1 y 26.0% a la candidata del Partido de Acción Nacional, Josefina Vázquez Mota; entre 30.9 y 31.8% al candidato del Partido de la Revolución Democrática, Manuel López Obrador y entre 37.9 y 38.5% al candidato del Partido Revolucionario Institución, Enrique Peña Nieto. El triunfo de este último es, por lo tanto, inobjetable, y el presidente electo ya está recibiendo el reconocimiento de los mandatarios de los más diversos países del mundo. No es necesario ser un conocedor en profundidad de México para darse cuenta que el triunfo de Peña Nieto significa el retorno al poder del viejo partido populista construido, a partir de 1929, para dar solución al conflicto creado por la Revolución Mexicana luego del asesinato de Francisco I. Madero. En otras palabras, podemos estar ante el retorno de "la dictadura perfecta" que tan bien caracterizase Vargas Llosa en aquel memorable diálogo televisivo con Octavio Paz en el año 1990. ( http://bit.ly/LLHENn ) Corporativismo sindical, corporativismo empresarial, corrupción como "modus operandi" prácticamente generalizado, la ley y el Estado de Derecho como un mero artificio, permanentemente negociable si molesta para los objetivos políticos del momento y, eventualmente respetable, si coyunturalmente se condice con esos fines, uso selectivo de la violencia, desde el "patoteo" al asesinato, individual y, eventualmente, el recurso a la represión masiva (Tlatelolco), etc., etc. En otras palabras el resultado que están arrojando estas elecciones sería efectivamente una tragedia y la puesta entre signos de interrogación del titulo de esta editorial sería algo totalmente injustificado. En realidad, aunque el triunfo de Peña Nieto no sea un buen augurio para la democracia, es necesario señalar que con este resultado, quizás México escapó de algo mucho peor: el triunfo de Manuel López Obrador. Este priísta de la vieja guardia, reconvertido en "izquierdista" a la sombra de la voltereta cardenista que permite crear el PRD, tiene exactamente la más ortodoxa escuela del PRI sobre sus hombros pero a la que ha agregado un toque psicológico y personalista que hubiese podido tener consecuencias absolutamente impredecibles de haber salido triunfador. En buena medida él es el responsable de la derrota del PRD frente al PRI. De haber sido Marcelo Ebrad el candidato perredista, muy probablemente todos estaríamos festejando el nacimiento de una oportunidad para México. La diferencia entre López Obrador y la tradición priísta está precisamente allí: en que López Obrador ha transgredido, "de pensamiento, obra y omisión", la única regla básica que todos los priístas de todos los tiempos han sabido respetar: primero la disciplina ante el sistema, ante el Partido y ante lo que ellos llaman "la tradición revolucionaria", sólo después vienen las ambiciones personales. Es más: éstas sólo tienen chance de realizarse "en el seno" de la disciplina priísta. Hace muchos años, Fidel Velázquez, Dueño y Señor por décadas del movimiento sindical mexicano, le contestó a un periodista novato que le preguntaba sobre la próxima sucesión presidencial: "No me pregunte eso, m´hijo, no sé,.¡el que se mueve no sale en la foto.!" y nunca hubiese dado su opinión, porque el darla hubiese significado su muerte, por lo menos, política. Frente a esta respuesta de uno de los priístas más relevantes de la historia, respuesta que revela perfectamente que el autoritarismo priísta descansaba sobre una disciplina partidaria absolutamente férrea, vertical e insoslayable, a la que todos debían respetar (incluso el Presidente), cabe traer a colación la frase de López Obrador, que publicó El Universal allá por el año 2008, en ocasión de discutirse la reforma energética en México. Ante una fuerte discrepancia con su interlocutor, el ahora derrotado candidato le espetó abiertamente: "El movimiento soy yo". Es decir, echó mano a una expresión, casi estrictamente borbónica, que no tuvo, no tiene, ni tendrá cabida, nunca, en la cultura priísta. Si el lector tiene alguna duda de la importancia de esta diferencia, que parece de detalle pero que es altamente significativa, bástanos recordar que, en el año 2006, cuando López Obrador pierde por escaso margen frente a Calderón las elecciones, el personaje decidió poner en jaque a todo el sistema político y a toda la enclenque institucionalidad democráticos del país porque, desde su megalomanía, su egocentrismo y su descomunal desmesura, decidió desconocer los resultados (que todo el mundo aceptaba) y poner en jaque al país entero entre el mes de julio y hasta pocos días antes de la asunción del presidente electo, en diciembre, con plantones, movilizaciones callejeras, campamentos y todo tipo de actos ilegales. Su intento fue, estrictamente, un golpe de estado "personal". Es por ello que decimos que la tragedia electoral de México pudo haber sido mayor. Nadie con dos dedos de frente puede albergar alguna esperanza demasiado seria sobre la posibilidad de que un gobierno de Peña Nieto fortalezca la institucionalidad democrática mexicana. Tampoco nadie con dos dedos de frente puede albergar duda alguna que, de haber ganado la presidencia, López Obrador en menos de un año estaría conduciéndose como los tiranuelos populistas de moda en América del Sur. López Obrador sueña con ser un nuevo Chávez (ante el quebranto de salud que aqueja a este último), fantasea con "fundar un modelo" como Kirchner para hacerlo familiarmente hereditario y ya estaba en camino de poner en marcha los mismos mecanismos de persecución de la prensa que utiliza Correa con el argumento de que favorecían a su adversario. Conviene dejar asentado que todo indica que López Obrador comenzará en cualquier momento, quizás lo esté haciendo en este mismo momento, alguna impugnación, reclamo o "movilización" para iniciar un cuestionamiento de las elecciones de ayer. Los resultados de los que se dispone a esta altura del recuento, mediante proyección, dan un resultado totalmente favorable al PRI, ha habido miles de observadores de las elecciones, etc., etc., nada de eso impedirá que la irresponsabilidad de López Obrador no desequilibre a México desde hoy hasta la asunción de Peña Nieto en el mes de diciembre. No trate el lector de encontrar algún argumento político en esta obstinación en destruir la débil institucionalidad del país. La explicación es freudiana: lo más probable es que la mamá de López Obrador le hizo jurar que sería presidente, cuando era pequeño. En otros términos, México escapó (menos mal que casi por 8% de votos de diferencia) de caer en manos de un tirano megalómano plebiscitado. Pero tiene fuertes probabilidades que recaer en las redes de la maquinaria autoritaria más antigua y perfecta, por lo menos, de América Latina. No es posible, sin embargo, terminar este editorial sin desarrollar dos ideas más que nos resultan relevantes. 2.- Más allá de que estamos rigurosamente convencidos que el panorama que pintamos del tradicional México priísta es un retrato fiel del país en el que vivimos más de una década, es necesario señalar que, desde el sexenio del Presidente Zedillo (un priísta en pleno repliegue), pasando por los dos sexenios durante los que gobernó el PAN con Fox y Calderón, mucha historia ha corrido bajo (y sobre) la otrora omnipotencia priísta. El primer cambio altamente significativo es el correcto desarrollo mismo de estas elecciones. Que estemos escribiendo, a menos de 24 horas de cerradas las casillas, con un resultado altamente certero, era una realidad electoral impensable hace 20 años. En ello cuenta el fuerte desarrollo del Instituto Federal Electoral, la construcción de un padrón electoral ultramoderno totalmente digitalizado y la integración de ciudadanos a su funcionamiento. En el mismo sentido, genera serias limitaciones para una reedición exacta del pasado populismo priísta, la real y absoluta independencia del Banco de México. Esta institución ya no depende del Ejecutivo y no va a generar liquidez para financiar "televisores plasmas para todos", como estila Cristina K, o "bolsas escola" al barrer, como distribuye Dilma. Los dos sexenios de gobierno del PAN, cuyas enormes carencias explican la pálida votación obtenida por ese partido ayer, fortalecieron razonablemente una plausible división de poderes en la que el Poder Judicial y el Poder Legislativo adquirieron formas de existencia institucional autónoma relativamente sustantivas. El Congreso del año 2012 ya no es el "aprobador de manos enyesadas" de iniciativas presidenciales de los años 80. La sola experiencia de la alternancia política fortaleció esa tendencia. En las décadas de los años 70 y 80, no había prensa alguna que no fuese del PRI, que no recibiese financiamiento del PRI o que no tuviese algún tipo de acuerdo de coexistencia pacífica establecido con el PRI. La que no se ajustase a este tipo de estatutos, desaparecía. Hoy, como en muchas partes, hay prensa comprometida con los partidos políticos, y en México, con el PRI. López Obrador denunció a todos los vientos un supuesto apoyo de Televisa a Peña Nieto, pero fue bastante más discreto con la supuesta relación que él estableció con Carlos Slim quien, por su parte, aspiraba a usar el cableado telefónico de Telmex para, ofrecer Internet y desplazar a la televisión tradicional de aire y de cable. En otros términos, el monopolio priísta fue quebrado durante su ausencia en el poder y algo de "competencia entre élites", para retomar, algo abreviadamente, la expresión schumpeteriana se instaló. Eso no era posible en el México priísta tradicional. Cabe señalar, igualmente, que México es el país en el que, junto con Somalia, mueren asesinados más periodistas por año. Eso no habla bien del respeto a la libertad de prensa pero tampoco corresponde a la realidad del priísmo reinante en el pasado. Bajo la omnipresencia del PRI no morían tantos periodistas: sólo los recalcitrantemente independientes. Hoy el crimen organizado y el narco decapita fotógrafos y reporteros que hacen la crónica social de los cumpleaños de 15 años. Igual razonamiento merece, por ejemplo, la aprobación de la ley que establece la instauración de los Institutos de Transparencia que, a nivel federal y estatal, garantizan el acceso a la información, la protección de datos de los ciudadanos, la información sobre la gestión gubernamental, etc. En otros términos, en casi una década y media, con el PRI fuera de los controles de la nación, hay una incipiente nueva institucionalidad que, parcialmente, es contradictoria con la vieja cultura priísta y puede servir de "cortafuego" para los intentos "restauración". 3.- Este crepuscular panorama político que acabamos de pintar a propósito de las elecciones mexicanas de ayer, tiene que ser visto también desde otra perspectiva. Cuando efectivamente hay democracia, las elecciones tiene, siempre, algo de "fiesta". Nada parecido a eso hemos visto en la prensa. Reina sobretodo en México una sensación a alivio. Porque México no está para fiestas. El crecimiento incontrolado del crimen organizado está opacando -(o directamente ya ha opacado fuertemente)- las demandas democráticas que se habían organizado y desarrollado con cierto vigor en los últimos años. México entonces no está de fiesta, en primer lugar, por eso. El gobierno saliente viene perdiendo la batalla contra narcos y criminales y nada garantiza que el nuevo gobierno sea más apto para llevar adelante esa batalla. Pero hay una segunda razón por la que las elecciones realizadas dejan más un retrogusto amargo que algún sentimiento de esperanza. Y ello tiene que ver con lo que señalábamos al principio de este texto. Si una vasta fracción de la ciudadanía se encontró en la trampa que tener que votar entre 3 candidatos que no convencían es porque lo que está claramente trabado es el sistema de partidos. Si hay responsables de que los candidatos no resulten convincentes, esos responsables son los partidos. No es éste el lugar para analizar las largas e históricas razones por las que México nunca logró construir un verdadero sistema de partidos: la ausencia de democracia y la casi inexistencia de alternancia tienen mucho que ver con ello. Pero queremos señalar, para terminar, que los partidos políticos son tanto o mas responsables de la pobreza de los candidatos que compitieron, cuanto es evidente que las personalidades con capacidad para asumir esas candidaturas obviamente estaban presentes en el personal político partidario. ¿Con qué alquimia López Obrador logró impedir que Marcelo Ebrard fuese el candidato presidencial del PRD? No conocemos en absoluto los detalles de la fórmula. pero no resulta difícil imaginarla. Complejas tranzas entre mayorías internas de dinosaurios socialistas, pterodáctilos populistas auto-denominados "progresistas¨ y cardenistas trasnochados, decidieron ser los administradores de la moral y excomulgaron al mejor, más moderno y más sensato político de la izquierda mexicana de la última década. En la más cerril tradición mexicana, lo deben de haber excomulgado por su supuesta homosexualidad. No mucho mejor se manejó el PAN con su candidato. Josefina Vázquez Mota no solamente nunca recibió el apoyo del Presidente Calderón: tampoco contó con el soporte de la totalidad del Partido Acción Nacional y el ex presidente Fox se dio el lujo de hacer público que su voto personal iría a Enrique Peña Nieto, el candidato del PRI. Es muy posible, por otra parte, que el muy conservador militante medio panista entienda que una mujer no pueda ser candidato a presidente de la República. Con respecto a la elección del candidato priísta, todavía sabemos menos sobre ese milagro ya que el secretismo del PRI es siempre difícil de traspasar. Sabemos de su pertenencia "al riñón" del grupo Atlacomulco, pero no tenemos información sobre las razones que llevaron al PRI a elegirlo precisamente a él. Estadísticamente es seguro que ese partido tiene decenas de militantes de primera línea capaces de organizar algunas palabras coherentes en algo parecido a un discurso. En resumen, compitieron los candidatos que el juego interno de los partidos eligió como tales. Eso habla de la calidad de la democracia, de sus carencias, de las debilidades de los partidos políticos pero, también, de las aspiraciones y preocupaciones de la ciudadanía mexicana. En última instancia, es allí donde, y así cómo enraiza la democracia. Urge que esa planta fortalezca sus raíces.

AMÉRICA LATINALópez Obrador acusa al PRI de comprar cinco millones de votos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/10/content_15565230.htm http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/07/world/americas/mexico-elections/index.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341854235_769141.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/lpez-obrador-pedir-la-nulidad-de-las-elecciones-en-mxico_12013582-4 http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/05/12570126-mexicos-president-elect-shrugs-off-claims-of-vast-vote-buying-coercion-in-election?lite http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/americas/mexico-election/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Masiva marcha en México para condenar el triunfo del PRI.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488821-masiva-marcha-en-mexico-para-condenar-el-triunfo-del-pri http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/08/12622028-tens-of-thousands-protest-in-mexico-against-president-elect-alleging-vote-fraud?lite http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/06/world/americas/mexico-elections/index.html http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/07/09/mexique-les-manifestations-hostiles-au-nouveau-president-continuent_1731173_3222.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341710466_799097.html Legislativas mexicanas: PRI tendrá poco margen de maniobra. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/B0D5AED1-A987-48D9-8D05-5C606ADE78C2.htm?id={B0D5AED1-A987-48D9-8D05-5C606ADE78C2} Hallan 43 muertos en distintas partes de México, 7 de ellos policías.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/muertos-en-mxico_12016401-4 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/onze-pessoas-morrem-em-emboscada-no-norte-do-mexico-5434512#ixzz20DVo0c4yHuracán Emilia se acerca con fuerza a costas mexicanas. Para más información: http://usnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12660912-emilia-becomes-powerful-category-4-hurricane-off-mexico?lite http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/10/world/americas/pacific-hurricanes/index.html Argentina condena a 50 años de cárcel al dictador Videla por el robo de bebés. Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/06/12592712-wasnt-just-one-or-two-children-ex-argentine-dictators-jailed-for-baby-thefts?lite http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/05/actualidad/1341478049_436607.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/05/world/americas/argentina-baby-theft-trial/index.html Sin apoyo externo, el paraguayo Franco afronta ahora el aislamiento interno.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488915-sin-apoyo-externo-franco-afronta-ahora-el-aislamiento-interno http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489390-los-colorados-preparan-su-regreso#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/paraguay-es-un-pas-en-soledad_12010505-4 Descarta la OEA suspender a Paraguay y critica al Mercosur.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489389-descarta-la-oea-suspender-a-paraguay-y-critica-al-mercosur#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/insulza-rechaza-suspender-a-paraguay-de-la-oea_12017170-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/5FFD5269-B04F-4517-A7C3-746DC07E0CE4.htm?id={5FFD5269-B04F-4517-A7C3-746DC07E0CE4} Mercosur hace frente a la doctrina de Hugo Chávez.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/mercosul-testa-doutrina-de-hugo-chavez-5433450 Caracas cede cada vez más el control de su industria petrolera a China.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489118-caracas-cede-cada-vez-mas-el-control-de-su-industria- Lula a Chávez: "Tu victoria será nuestra victoria".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/07/actualidad/1341623066_440627.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488742-fuerte-respaldo-de-lula-a-chavezChávez dice que se encuentra "totalmente libre" del cáncer.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/chavez-diz-que-esta-totalmente-livre-do-cancer-voltou-correr-5431942#ixzz20DVaaC8w http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48127346/ns/world_news-americas/#.T_1cD5HMqw5 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489116-chavez-dice-que-se-encuentra-totalmente-libre-del-cancer#comentarCierran una radio opositora en Ecuador. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488743-cierran-una-radio-opositora-en-ecuador Nicaragua busca tener canal interoceánico. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/nicaragua-busca-tener-canal-interocenico_12012306-4 Dilma alienta el consumo de productos nacionales.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488945-dilma-alienta-el-consumo-de-productos-nacionales Preocupación en Cuba por un nuevo brote de cólera.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12656866-cholera-kills-at-least-3-in-cuba-bad-water-wells-blamed?lite http://america-latina.blog.lemonde.fr/2012/07/09/cuba-retour-sur-laffaire-padilla/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489344-preocupacion-en-cuba-por-un-nuevo-brote-de-colera#comentar Ejército abandona las favelas que fueron bastión de los narcos en Río de Janeiro.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489115-el-ejercito-abandona-las-favelas-que-fueron-bastion-de-los-narcos-en-rio-de-janeiro#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-singular-estrategia-de-paz-en-las-favelas-de-ro_12010831-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/AC562F1F-46DC-40DE-A2FF-7BE82BDAA16C.htm?id={AC562F1F-46DC-40DE-A2FF-7BE82BDAA16C} Bolivia estatizará concesión de plata.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/bolivia-estatizar-concesin-de-plata_12016287-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341821141_720801.html Ascenso de los evangélicos en Brasil, el país más católico del mundo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/ascenso-de-los-evanglicos-en-brasil-el-pas-ms-catlico-del-mundo_12013663-4 Argentina: se concreta fractura de central obrera. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/F9138ADB-53CD-4D1C-B393-5251B78854B1.htm?id={F9138ADB-53CD-4D1C-B393-5251B78854B1} Indígenas colombianos se enfrentan al ejército. Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18791301ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁ Obama estancado en un empate con Mitt Romney. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/_portada/noticias/CC8294A8-6DEC-4BB7-B791-EA60DE261C19.htm?id={CC8294A8-6DEC-4BB7-B791-EA60DE261C19} http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/no-mes-em-que-mais-arrecadou-obama-segue-atras-de-opositor-5432399#ixzz20DVzysuaObama va por extensión de reducción de impuestos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-pide-terminar-con-rebajas-fiscales-a-ricos_12013882-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-propone-que-los-ms-adinerados-se-metan-la-mano-al-bolsillo_12016285-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489101-obama-pide-que-la-clase-media-pague-menos-impuestos#comentar http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/obama-insiste-em-imposto-maior-para-ricos-5433578 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567815.htm Obama mantiene la ventaja en doce estados clave de cara a las elecciones.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341852907_521683.html http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/ Romney lidera en la recaudación de fondos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489102-romney-lidera-en-la-recaudacion-de-fondos#comentar Hillary Clinton visita Laos . Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18792282Peor incendio en la historia del estado de Colorado, casi bajo control.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/peor-incendio-en-la-historia-de-estado-de-colorado_12011204-4Congresista estadounidense homosexual contrae matrimonio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/congresista-estadounidense-homosexual-contrae-matrimonio_12015133-4EUROPAItalia no descarta pedir un rescate a la Unión Europea. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15568009.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489387-tambien-italia-abrio-las-puertas-a-un-rescate#comentar http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489497-italia-no-descarta-pedir-un-rescate-a-la-ue#comentarRajoy lanza nuevos recortes para combatir el déficit. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ayuda-del-eurogrupo-a-espaa-hasta-100000-millones-de-euros_12017462-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18792427 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489110-presionada-por-la-ue-espana-ajusta-mas#comentar A cambio del rescate Madrid debe renunciar al control de sus bancos. Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/858086.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489421-la-ue-avanza-sobre-espana-y-le-recorta-soberania#comentar Diversos medios hacen referencia a la crisis económica europea.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21558257 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489112-bajo-la-lupa-los-lideres-tambien-se-aprietan-el-cinturon#comentar http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/07/09/le-mes-un-fmi-a-l-europeenne-qui-doit-encore-trouver-sa-place_1731118_3234.html Grecia continúa haciendo frente a medidas de austeridad. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-greece-resignation-20120710,0,1715490.storyParís y Berlín quieren refundar Unión Europea. Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/europe/germany-and-france-celebrate-their-bond.html?ref=world&gwh=F31516EB7E884932259193FE0B5E9652 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341743167_271675.html 54 migrantes africanos mueren en intento por cruzar a Italia. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567645.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18794548 Más de 140 personas mueren por causa de fuertes lluvias en Rusia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/europe/russia-floods/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/europe/putin-tours-flood-stricken-black-sea-region.html?ref=world&gwh=6533565A0D4BC183840BD4138B5015EB http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/mais-de-140-pessoas-morrem-por-causa-de-chuvas-no-sul-da-russia-5417115#ixzz20DYdU1OE http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341741179_622677.html La UE alerta que Al Qaeda tiene misiles para derribar aviones en el Sahel.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/07/actualidad/1341696955_789895.htmlEta mantiene renuncia a las armas, pero cuestiona que no haya diálogo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/estrasburgo-se-opone-a-la-doctrina-parot-y-pide-excarcelar-a-una-etarra_12016481-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/07/09/eta-accuse-paris-et-madrid-de-bloquer-le-dialogue_1731169_3214.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/eta-mantiene-renuncia-a-las-armas-y-dice-que-madrid-y-pars-no-avanzan-hacia-el-dilogo_12012484-4 Rusia hace ejercicios con buques de guerra en el Mar Negro. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567096.htmReinician juicio contra Mladic en La Haya.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78575.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48144578/ns/world_news-europe/#.T_1b1ZHMqw5 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/19/actualidad/1340065013_444531.html http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/testemunha-descreve-massacre-em-julgamento-de-ratko-mladic-5427938#ixzz20DYvURT2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18795203Alemania reformará los servicios secretos tras el escándalo de grupo neonazi.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341739420_437202.html Gran Bretaña vota una histórica reforma de la Cámara de los Lores.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/09/12637862-london-bomber-widow-samantha-lewthwaite-recruiting-female-terror-squads-in-somalia?lite http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-britain-lords-20120711,0,2351369.story http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489216-gran-bretana-vota-una-historica-reforma-de-la-camara-de-los-lores#comentar http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-russia-floods-20120708,0,3779381.storyLondres se prepara para las Olimpíadas. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/C66745FA-E3AF-4BBB-B255-BDBE47981E4E.htm?id={C66745FA-E3AF-4BBB-B255-BDBE47981E4E} http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/05/world/europe/uk-security-incident/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 Los mineros españoles protestan contra los recortes con una "marcha negra" por Madrid.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489403-los-mineros-espanoles-protestan-contra-los-recortes-con-una-marcha-negra-por-madrid#comentar Los bosques radiactivos de Chernobyl, una bomba dormida. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489052-los-bosques-radiactivos-de-chernobyl-una-bomba-dormida#comentar Según autoridades rusas dejarían de vender armas a Siria. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/russia-vai-suspender-venda-de-armas-para-siria-diz-autoridade-5426247#ixzz20DYau3Lt Hollande lanza una cumbre social para reformar el modelo francés.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341840770_252931.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEKofi Annan asegura que acordó un nuevo plan de paz con régimen sirio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/siria-acuerdan-nuevo-plan-de-paz-con-bashar-al-asad_12012983-4 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567761.htm http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78574.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/10/world/middleeast/bashar-al-assad-meets-with-kofi-annan.html?ref=world&gwh=24DB32B019FC2DE1935A2D140E746CBF Assad afirma que no va a terminar como Gadafi o Mubarak. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/assad-diz-nao-temer-destino-de-kadafi-ou-mubarak-5430021#ixzz20DZ4cIsS Annan busca apoyo de Irán e Irak frente a crisis siria. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/FE35F23F-BA99-40AE-890B-B7178FA2CA68.htm?id={FE35F23F-BA99-40AE-890B-B7178FA2CA68} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341816579_934773.html Repudio internacional por ejecución pública de joven afgana acusada de adulterio.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/09/12639235-unspeakable-cruelty-outrage-grows-after-afghan-womans-execution-caught-on-video?lite http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/08/12627795-us-afghan-officials-condemn-public-execution-of-afghan-woman?lite http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489214-conmocion-por-el-brutal-asesinato-en-publico-de-una-mujer-en-afganistan#comentar http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/afeganistao-video-mostra-mulher-sendo-executada-por-adulterio-5422494#ixzz20DYyNkmQ http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/08/world/asia/afghanistan-public-execution/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Irán prueba misiles.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15567884.htm http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/01/world/meast/iran-missiles/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 China desafía al mundo e invierte 20.000 millones de dólares en Irán.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1489014-china-iran-inversiones#comentar China advierte freno en economía.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-slowdown-20120710,0,3626338.story http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488944-china-advierte-que-se-frena-su-economia#comentar http://www.economist.com/node/21558307Japón y China en disputa por una isla. Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18792556 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghan-roadside-bombing-20120709,0,7742430.story Ataque en Afganistán mata a 6 militares estadounidenses.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/10/world/asia/gunmen-in-pakistan-kill-6-soldiers-and-a-policeman.html?ref=world&gwh=883D5C77A6960B664276A9D77BEB75D2 http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-slowdown-20120710,0,3626338.story http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/08/12627789-6-us-soldiers-killed-in-roadside-bomb-attack-in-eastern-afghanistan?lite Los aliados darán a Afganistán 13.000 millones de ayuda en tres años.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341757800_037533.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/asia/afghanistan-is-pledged-16-billion-for-civilian-needs.html?ref=world&gwh=716276436265F935ACD6ADED912FE74D Sacerdote preso por desafiar al gobierno chino. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/A946EE57-B9C4-4F25-8083-B5F0028742AB.htm?id={A946EE57-B9C4-4F25-8083-B5F0028742AB} El 'tercer sexo' será oficializado por medio de una ley en Nepal.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/ley-oficializara-el-tercer-sexo-en-nepal-_12016981-4 Aung San Suu Kyi mantiene su asiento en parlamento de Myanmar.Para más información: http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/09/12638373-aung-san-suu-kyi-takes-her-seat-in-myanmar-parliament?lite Trabajadores de medios surcoreanos en huelga por independencia de medios de comunicación.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-korea-media-strike-20120711,0,5422254.story"CNN" analiza qué pueden aprender los líderes japoneses de la crisis nuclear en Fukushima.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/06/opinion/takeshita-fukushima-management/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7ÁFRICAEl Constitucional egipcio censura al presidente por restablecer el Parlamento.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/10/world/middleeast/egypt-tension-after-order-to-reconvene-parliament.html?_r=1&ref=world&gwh=9D2DE4022C04A357E903195CA2BC3A53 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/07/libyas-electionhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/07/egypts-politics http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12659862-future-constitution-at-heart-of-egypt-power-struggle?lite http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-parliament-20120711,0,7892069.story http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/meast/egypt-politics/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Desafío de Morsi a los militares egipcios.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488914-desafio-de-morsi-a-los-militares-egipcios http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/06/23/world/middleeast/The-Leaders-of-The-Egyptian-Military-Council.html?ref=world&gwh=4BFBFEBC95E1F52E7DA308015B315475 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15568011.htm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/08/actualidad/1341760888_873837.html Se aleja en Libia el fantasma islamista: ganan los liberales. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/11/content_15568011.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18799065 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/07/libyas-election http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488910-se-aleja-en-libia-el-fantasma-islamista-ganan-los-liberales http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48111019/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.T_1btpHMqw5 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/09/world/africa/libya-election/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/09/world/africa/libya-election-latest-results.html?ref=world&gwh=5D6E6EFEE759B5007C364EE0B568B654 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/09/actualidad/1341843623_669452.html "MSNBC" analiza: 120 doctores para 8 millones de personas en Sudán del Sur.Para más información: http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12658825-120-doctors-for-8-million-people-south-sudans-health-care-gap?liteCorte Penal Internacional condena a 14 años a líder rebelde congoleño.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/internacional/noticias/C11C434B-39A6-4F8C-979C-A797628DB0B7.htm?id={C11C434B-39A6-4F8C-979C-A797628DB0B7} http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/11/internacional/_portada/noticias/8745E475-BD7D-4163-9597-EB71364AE508.htm?id={8745E475-BD7D-4163-9597-EB71364AE508}OTRASEl FMI advirtió que la desaceleración de Brasil, China y la India frenarán aún más elcrecimiento este año, que será inferior al esperado. Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1488508-duro-pronostico-para-la-economia-global"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21558323

20 años las naciones ricas pensando el Desarrollo; 20 años las naciones pobres defendiendo los recursos; 20 años, sin recursos y sin Desarrollo. 4. Movimientos sociales se resisten a la minería a gran escala en América LatinaAsí como se evidencia la relación entre conflictos mineros y violaciones a los derechos de las personas que cohabitan en zonas con recursos, podemos afirmar que existe una capacidad de organización social, que denuncia y defiende derechos con base en la universalidad (para todos), la inviolabilidad, en la no negociabilidad, en la imprescriptibilidad, en la indivisibilidad y en la irreversibilidad. Sin embargo esta protesta y resistencia por parte de los ciudadanos que están directamente involucrados en conflictos mineros en América Latina, presentan problemas de todo tipo que van desde la criminalización de la protesta hasta la expulsión de sus territorios (1) (Gráfico 6). El cuadro 3 demuestra los casos de criminalización, siendo esta la práctica más reiterada en los países con mayores recursos y también en donde sus poblaciones en buen porcentaje son comunidades étnicas (indígenas). Cuadro 3.PaísCasos de criminalizaciónMéxico1Nicaragua1Colombia1Brasil1El Salvador2Guatemala3Perú7Ecuador10Es importante resaltar que no se trata de una serie de protestas sociales de tipo reaccionario al sistema económico, como fueron los discursos anti-imperialistas de los años 70. Se trata de justas reclamaciones por la defensa de la Vida y la exigencia a las multinacionales a la extracción responsable; no solo con la naturaleza sino con las comunidades que conviven en ambientes llenos de recursos. En este sentido la organización social latinoamericana, se ha ido cuantificando y cualificado especialmente en aquellas regiones / países en donde se presentan más conflictos y a su vez mayor inversión externa al sector minero. (Cuadro 4) Cuadro 4. Matriz de organizaciones involucradas asuntos mineros según el Observatorio de conflictos Mineros de América Latina y el I Encuentro Nacional Minero, Colombia, 2012 (2) PaísOrganizacionesColombia (3)Censat Agua Viva / AICO Pueblo de los Pastos, AIDA, Asentamiento indígena wayuú de Tamaquito II, Asociaciones de Zonas de Reserva Campesina, ASOCOMUNAL (Caldono), Asociación Minga, ASAPAZ, ASOCAMPO, BIOSIGNO, FEDERACIÓN DE MINEROS DEL CHOCO (AFROS), Colectivo de Abogados José Alvear Restrepo, CAMAWARI Pueblo (Awá de Ricaurte Nariño), CEAT (UN) UNIVALLE, Cimarrón, CIMA, Cinep, CODHES, Colectivo C.A.M.P.O, Colectivo S.E.A.T., Comisión de Seguimiento a sentencia 072, CSJ, Consejos Comunitarios del Chocó, Corporación Arco iris, Corporación Compromiso – Bucaramanga, CRIHU (Huila), CRIR (Risaralda), Espacio Regional de Paz del Cauca, Fundación Natura, Gidca, Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la Paz – INDEPAZ, Informe de desarrollo humano PNUD, International Alert, Mesa joven minería, Mesa de Unidad Agraria – MUA, OIA (Antioquia), ONIC, PCN, Pensamiento y Acción Social, PAS, Planeta Paz, Pueblo PASTOS (Nariño), Pueblo Wayuú (GUAJIRA), Pueblo Piaroa de Vichada, Pueblo Nasa de Caquetá, Suippcol, Red de justicia ambiental, Resguardo indígena Wayuú de Provincial.EcuadorAcción Ecológica, Pastoral Shuar, Pueblo Shuar Arutam, FICSH, Coordinadora de mujeres Intag, CDNV, Fundación Vientos de VidaPerúGrufides, Cooperación, Vima, ConacamiBoliviaCEPA, CEDIB, Centro Vicente Cañas, SOPE, EcomujeresArgentinaAsamblea Patagónica por la vida y el territorio contra el saqueo y la contaminaciónChileOlca, Conferre, Justicia paz e integralidad de la creación de St Columbano, Defensa del Valle Chalinga, Pastoral Salvaguarda de la creación, OCAS, Consejo Ciudadano Salamanca, Grupo Atacama LimpiaFuente: Elaboración propia con base en información del Observatorio de Conflictos mineros de América Latina, disponible en http://www.conflictosmineros.net/quienessomos, mayo 2012 El trabajo que adelanta el Observatorio de Conflicto mineros es importante. Sin embargo existe otro cúmulo de organizaciones que realizan un trabajo similar y no hacen parte de él como por ejemplo la Asamblea Popular por el Agua en Argentina y en Colombia, el Consejo Nacional Indígena del Cauca, CRIC.En Argentina, La Asamblea Popular por el Agua es una iniciativa ciudadana que surgió en el año 2006 como una expresión de rechazo a los proyectos de la mega minería y por la defensa del agua. La Asamblea que reúne diferentes sectores sociales de la provincia de Mendoza, logro en junio de 2007 que se sancionara la ley 7722 la cual prohíbe la minería contaminante. Desde entonces, esta asamblea conformada por un cúmulo de organizaciones sociales y comunitarias de la provincia, trabaja por defender el ambiente libre de minería contaminante por medio de la movilización social, la pedagogía ciudadana entre otras (4). En Colombia existen muchos más colectivos y asambleas populares y sociales que de a poco se han ido organizando para debatir y hacer propuestas sobre el impacto y los costos de la mega minería. El ejemplo más reciente, fue el Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, productividad, ambiente y minería, La María- Piendamó, Cauca- Colombia, 27 de abril de 2012, convocado principalmente por el Consejo Regional Indígena del Cauca- CRIC. Este primer encuentro denotó la necesidad apremiante de las comunidades que se resisten a salir de sus territorios o permitir el uso indiscriminado de los recursos, dando paso a la contaminación del ambiente, la desigualdad económica, la ausencia de transparencia institucional entre otras.Conclusiones del Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, productividad, ambiente y mineríaa) que la política se orienta en beneficio de favorecer la privatización de empresas públicas mineras y el manejo exclusivo de las transnacionales; siendo declarada como actividad de utilidad pública e interés social lo que habilita un proceso de reforma y transformación del Estado por medio de una locomotora legislativa que facilita la expropiación de tierra e irrespeta el derecho fundamental a la consulta previa. Informando que se han protocolizado 156 procesos de consulta previa en el 2012 referidos a proyectos de inversión donde ha sido característico que su realización se hace desconociendo la participación de las organizaciones regionales.b) que hay especulación por parte de las compañías en las fases previas a la explotación, y que los recursos que pagan las compañías por concepto de regalías e impuestos sobre la renta, les son devueltos luego en exenciones fiscales y subsidios; facilitados por la corrupción de las instituciones locales, departamentales y nacionales.c) que se han ejecutado desalojos de comunidades, desplazamientos masivos y pérdida de territorios ancestralesd) que hay contaminación del aire por las explosiones para extraer el carbón, derrame de sustancias tóxicas, muerte de peces, contaminación de fuentes hídricas, deforestación y erosión de suelos, destrucción de las redes de acueductos comunitarios Se presentan fenómenos de transformación de las culturas, ruptura del tejido social, pérdida de usos y costumbres, afectación a las economías locales (trueques), invasión de tecnología que afecta a la población joven de los resguardos, llegada de programas asistenciales gubernamentales que afectan la cohesión de los pueblos indígenas, pérdida de medicina tradicional y de sabios indígenas cuidadores del territorio.f) que la amenaza minera se extiende en la mayoría de los territorios, utilizando nueva tecnología para adelantar las actividades de prospección y exploración en especial sobre territorios ocupados ancestralmente por comunidades indígenas, campesinas y afro descendientes; lo cual produce alteración de usos del suelo y de la productividad de la tierra, y que las empresas transnacionales, por medio de actos de corrupción estatal diseñan planes de ordenamiento territorial de los municipios. También que las zonas entregadas en concesión en territorios indígenas coinciden con sitios sagrados o con sus áreas circundantes. Se denuncia que muchos proyectos de infraestructura vial están al servicio de megaproyectos mineros.g) Que los conflictos mineros acrecientan la presencia de actores armados, fuerza pública, guerrilla, paramilitares, en particular la creación de unidades militares minero-energéticas especializadas en la custodia y protección de los proyectos y batallones de alta montaña en territorios indígenas; se intensifican los enfrentamientos entre grupos armados que afectan a la población civil con situaciones generadas por explosivos abandonados o minas anti persona.Fuente: apartes de las conclusiones Generales del Encuentro Nacional de Territorio, Productividad, Ambiente y Minería La María, Piendamó, Cauca, abril 27 de 20125. Desarrollo y sustentabilidadLa creciente complejidad de los distintos sistemas sociales y políticos contemporáneos, nos hacen reflexionar nuevamente sobre aquello que parecía claro y resuelto hace 20 años. Estuvimos en Rio 1992, debatimos ideas rectoras e imaginamos las recetas para conseguir el desarrollo sostenible. En el papel todo parecía quedar claro y de fácil consecución (4). 20 años después nos encontramos de nuevo en Rio (junio, 2012), con algunos deberes inconclusos y en muchos casos con problemas de desarrollo y sostenibilidad agravados. Entonces, la primera pregunta que se formula, es ¿qué paso en estos 20 años para no haber logrado los objetivos planteados en 1992? En estos 20 años, se ratifica que la especie humana no es una especie que actúa exclusivamente por intereses económicos; comprobamos lo anterior, porque algunas sociedades humanas conservan su componente espiritual y luchan por ello, lo cual las hace trascender para valorar otra realidad, que se desconoce al momento de trazar políticas de alcance social y político para el desarrollo sostenible. Todos los pueblos quieren alcanzar este desarrollo sostenible: el problema que sugiere esta premisa, es qué significa estos dos conceptos para ellos y como se realiza una construcción colectiva para lograrlo. Un ejemplo claro de lo anterior, es la explotación minera en América Latina. Sin entender esta relación, jamás podrá existir un proyecto minero sin conflictos sociales o políticos. O se realizará dicho proyecto sin que impliquen violaciones a derechos, si esa comunidad tiene antecedentes mineros, es decir, si históricamente tiene vínculos de ese tipo con su tierra. Al respecto, es importante trabajar y demostrar que los recursos son necesarios para el crecimiento económico de las naciones, pero que deben existir consensos sociales para el uso de estos y su relación con quienes auténticamente han cuidado de ellos. Presentamos algunas ideas que sirven para abrir un debate, que seguramente se dará y seguirá después de Rio +20. Primer asunto relevante: Confianza en el Estado. Una de las mayores razones por las cuales las comunidades locales se resisten a convivir con proyectos de mega minería, es por ausencia de confianza que existe hacia las instituciones del Estado; este es el caso de países como Bolivia o Argentina. Los indicadores de Percepción de Corrupción (Transparency International, 2011) señalan que la mayoría de países de América Latina registran una percepción media-alta de corrupción en sus instituciones (5). El país en donde los ciudadanos confían y tienen la mejor percepción es Nueva Zelanda que ocupa el primer lugar; el último lugar a nivel mundial lo tiene Somalia. Gráfico 8. Fuente: Corruption Perceptions, Index 2011. Disponible en:http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/ Existen vacios jurídicos y políticos para confiar en que las instituciones pueden controlar acciones de la mega minería y obrar con transparencia. Los Estados están en la obligación, dado sus mandatos constitucionales, de generar confianza a las comunidades y bienestar a las naciones. Esta situación se complejiza aún más, cuando en países como Colombia o Perú, sus gobiernos son llamados de manera informal por las empresas trasnacionales y el sector privado como 'gobiernos pro-mineros'. El discurso del presidente Santos en el primer congreso de Minería a Gran escala, que se realizó en Cartagena en febrero de 2012, así lo refleja: " Aquí hay todavía espacio –de sobra– para recibir a las grandes casas mineras –y a las junior, por supuesto– que estén dispuestas a trabajar en armonía con el desarrollo de Colombia". Segundo asunto relevante: la Generación y distribución de la riqueza, no de la pobreza. Los informes de la Consejo Económico para América Latina- CEPAL- 2011, señalan que los índices de pobreza en América Latina han disminuido, como lo presenta el gráfico 9. Sin embargo estos porcentajes no logran estar por debajo del diez por mil (10%), cifra que no es comparable con las obtenidas por economías de los países del báltico, la cual está por debajo del 5%. Con lo anterior, se mantiene premisa, que América Latina es el segundo subcontinente más pobre del planeta, con mayor diversidad y más conflictos sociales. Gráfico 9. Fuente: CEPAL, 2010. Recurso Disponible en:http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/37/60/48157176.pdf La actividad minera requiere de grandes inversiones; a pesar de la generación de empleo informal (mano de obra no calificada en su mayoría) y la actividad económica que esta deja, es cortoplacista: se produce riqueza en forma rápida y fugaz; sin embargo, se plantea como problema, de un lado el retiro o la falta de garantías para la reinversión en países en dónde se han generado los beneficios para las empresas mineras; y de otro, la percepción social que el boom de la minería no va más allá del mediano plazo, acentúa la inestabilidad económica de las comunidades en dónde se desarrolla la industria extractiva a gran escala. Los complejos contenidos sobre la maximización de las rentas y la consolidación de las inversiones, es un asunto de la política macroeconómica de las naciones, que excede a la minería y en algunos casos no se plantea. Sería un error tener la visión que la minería es tan solo un negocio ilimitado en el tiempo, pues se estaría desconociendo la matriz productiva de muchos pueblos tradicionalmente agrícolas, ganaderos o industriales. Si el asunto de la mega minería no se percibe como una política de estado, la confianza y la estabilidad nunca hará parte de las bondades de las naciones. Tercer asunto: Viabilidad Social y Ambiental. En la división de Desarrollo Sustentable, del Departamento de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales de Naciones Unidas, 6 países -Colombia, Argentina, Chile, Guatemala, México y Costa Rica- presentan informe 'especifico' sobre las regulaciones jurídicas y socio ambientales de la minería. Mientras que países con altos índices de inversión minera como Perú, El Salvador, Bolivia y Brasil la actividad minera 'hace parte de los informes anuales' por país que archiva la organización (6). Podría inducir lo anterior, que la necesidad de socializar a nivel regional la legislación y regulación para esta industria es apenas incipiente y que se hace necesario compartir estudios y experiencias para trabajar de manera conjunta sobre este asunto específico. Es posible afirmar que los proyectos mineros en América Latina carecen de viabilidad social y ambiental; viabilidad que no se consigue por diversos intereses de tipo económico, sociales, políticos, pero principalmente porque la minería, altera las relaciones del hombre con la tierra. Recordemos que las poblaciones rurales la valoran mucho más allá de lo meramente económico. Al respeto surge uno de los debates cruciales y controvertidos como el uso de la energía o el uso del Agua. El agua es tal vez es la cuestión más conflictiva cuando se proponen o imponen proyectos mineros de gran envergadura. Creemos que es imposible que cuando se demanda un recurso vital como este y se pone el peligro el derecho adquirido, no surjan (7) conflictos. Entonces se replantean cuestiones como, el valor en el mercado del agua, sus usos, su propiedad, etc. Pero volvemos al punto de partida, la relación del hombre con su tierra, en gran parte depende del agua, de su calidad, cantidad y de su disponibilidad en el tiempo. En este sentido, nadie está dispuesto a poner en juego esta relación sin tener claro y garantizado que sus derechos, no serán vulnerados. Los estados que pretendan tener proyectos mineros en sus territorios, deben sin lugar a duda tener claridad social, política y jurídica sobre este balance: abastecimiento hídrico pertinente y garantía al derecho fundamental a este. ¿Qué esperamos de Rio +20? Una reconocida periodista Colombiana Marta Ruiz- afirmó en una columna de opinión lo siguiente: "Como si fuera poco, la "buena" noticia que trajo Santos de Asia es que los chinos están interesados en nuestro oro. Y uno no sabe si reír, llorar o salir a incendiar las dragas (…) Anuncio y premonición de los conflictos que va a desatar la minería" (8). Y no es insolencia. Como sugerimos en este escrito, es indudable que las sociedades contemporáneas necesitan los recursos naturales para mantener la forma de vida que desde la modernidad se ha encausado; sin embargo se hace urgente, necesario y justificable, en el marco de la exigibilidad de los derechos universales de las comunidades que han sostenido relaciones naturales, espirituales y económicas con la tierra llena de recursos, que el uso sea racional y sostenible. Son muchas las organizaciones sociales que trabajan por la defensa a la vida y el medio ambiente según lo reporta el Observatorio de Conflictos Mineros de América Latina; en ese sentido es posible hacer algunas sugerencias, de cara a la reunión de Rio+20 durante el mes de junio de 2012 y con el ánimo de visibilizar el debate, eliminar las tasas de violaciones a derechos fundamentales por causas relacionadas a la mega minería y de cara a disminuir las tasas de pobreza e inequidad que manifiestan las comunidades afectadas. Una cumbre que reafirme y reconozca los derechos individuales y los derechos de las naciones a hacer uso de sus recursos, buscando un desarrollo sostenible en el marco de las realidades culturales, sociales, políticas y económicas propias. Un espacio en donde se reflexione y se tomen decisiones sobre la promoción de políticas que prioricen la solución de problemas locales o micro regionales, en donde cada comunidad local pueda decidir qué tipo de desarrollo sostenible quiere y le conviene, en el marco del respeto a la soberanía y los derechos fundamentales. Un lugar de apoyo y financiamiento a los acuerdos transversales entre países en vía de desarrollo. Especialmente en lo concerniente a políticas públicas que atiendan problemáticas comunes como debería ser, el impacto de proyectos de mega minería en territorios étnicos y campesinos. Un espacio que abogue por la consulta previa, libre y transparente a los pueblos que tradicionalmente han cultivado y cosechado en estas tierras. Otra cumbre para la tierra y para quienes habitan en ella.Referencias: Conclusiones al Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, Producción, Ambiente y Minería, La María, Cauca, Colombia, 27 de abril de 2012. Disponible En: http://www.indepaz.org.co/?p=2028Corruption Perceptions, Index 2011. Disponible En: http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/Cumbre para la tierra, programa 21, 14 de junio de 1992, Rio de Janeiro. Disponible En: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=52&ArticleID=49&l=en Dayton-Johnson, Jeff (2011). Perspectivas económicas para América Latina, 2011. Banco Central de la Reserva del Perú, Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos –OCDE-, México D.C. Declaración de Rió sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo, del 14 de junio de 1992. Disponible En:http://www.pnuma.org/docamb/dr1992.php Escobar, Arturo (1996). La invención de tercer mundo. Construcción y deconstrucción del desarrollo, Ed. Norma, Bogotá González Posso, Camilo (2011). Renta minera, petróleo y comunidades. Ed. Indepaz, Bogotá Memorias al I Congreso de Minería a Gran escala, Cartagena de Indias, febrero de 2012. Disponible En: http://www.mineriaagranescala.org/smge/ Mingin Intelligence Series (2012). Business News Americas, En: http://www.bnamericas.com/news/mining Observatorio Latinoamericana de Conflictos Ambientales (2012). Observatorio de conflictos mineros de América Latina, En http://www.olca.cl/oca/index.htm Division for Sustainable Development, UN department of economic and social affair, En:http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_natiinfo_costarica.shtml (1) Todos los casos que registra el Observatorio sobre desplazamiento forzado están en Colombia.(2) Las organizaciones políticas, sociales, ambientales y comunitarias que hacen parte de este Observatorio, no representan la totalidad de acciones colectivas que existen y que realizan un seguimiento y denuncia a las actividades mineras en América Latina.(3) Censat Agua Viva es la única organización colombiana que hace parte del Observatorio; sin embargo existen otras muchas organizaciones que participan en este proceso, las cuales se hicieron presentes en el Primer Encuentro Nacional Territorio, productividad, ambiente y minería, La María- Piendamó, Cauca- Colombia, 27 de abril de 2012(4) Más información disponible en: http://quienessomosasamblea.blogspot.com/ (5) La Declaración de Rio/92 fue una declaración de principios a los cuales los estados firmantes se comprometían a mejorar las condiciones de vida de todos los habitantes del planeta. Por ejemplo el principio 11 "Los Estados deberán promulgar leyes eficaces sobre el medio ambiente. Las normas, los objetivos de ordenación y las prioridades ambientales deberían reflejar el contexto ambiental y de desarrollo al que se aplican. Las normas aplicadas por algunos países pueden resultar inadecuadas y representar un costo social y económico injustificado para otros países, en particular los países en desarrollo". Según varios estudios, se ha demostrado que los países latinoamericanos con gran cantidad de recuros naturales como Colombia o Perú, la legislación es inoportuna.(6) Percepciones de Corrupción de 182 países de todos los continentes, Index 2011 de Transparencia Internacional(7) Los reportes nacionales que cada país entrega a división de Desarrollo Sustentable, del departamento de asuntos económicos y sociales de Naciones Unidas (búsqueda en Internet, junio 2012) solo los 6 países mencionados presentan un informe. No son informes estandarizados pero tienen características comunes como información sobre las políticas y regulaciones internas, situación actual de la minería en cada país, mecanismos de seguimiento y monitoreo, buenas prácticas en el sector. Fuente: http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_natiinfo_costarica.shtml(8) Romeo el Agresivo, En: Revista Arcadia, 25 de mayo de 2012. *Tathiana Montaña es Colombiana, asesora académica del Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la paz (Colombia); profesora universitaria licenciada en Relaciones Internacionales, con estudios de perfeccionamiento en Desarrollo; Magister en Ciencia Política. Actualmente es candidata a Doctor en Política y Gobierno, mención en Relaciones Internacionales. Ha publicado libros y artículos en medios nacionales y latinoamericanos sobre asuntos de paz y postconflicto. José Carlos Pozzoli es Argentino, politólogo, especialista en Políticas Públicas; ha sido consultor para el BID y trabajó como asesor de la Comisión de Ambiente de la Honorable Cámara de Diputados de Mendoza; Coordinador General Tercera Conferencia ICID +19 Clima, Sostenibilidad y Desarrollo en Regiones Semi Aridas; Asesor de Gabinete, Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Provincia de Mendoza.

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Ned
Lebow on Drivers of War, Cultural Theory, and IR of Foxes and Hedgehogs









Drawing
on classical political theories, International Relations is dominated by
theories that presuppose interests or fear as dominant drivers for foreign
policy. Richard Ned Lebow looks further back into the history of ideas to conjure up a
more varied set of drives that underpin political action. In this Talk, Lebow, among others, elaborates on
the underpinnings of political action, discusses how war drives innovations in
IR theorizing in the 20th century, and likens himself to a fox,
rather than a hedgehog.





Print version of this Talk (pdf)








What
is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current IR?
What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?







Well, the big challenge in international politics is always
how do we keep from destroying one another and that's the negative question.
But it is mirrored by a positive question which is, how do we build community
and tolerance and peace? And that's not exactly the flip side, but that's
always been the big question in IR. And part of that, I think, is how we learn
to manage threatening change. Because in my perspective, that's the driving
force of conflict: ultimately, both World Wars can be attributed to
modernization and its destabilizing consequences. That is also the reason why
it is a falsehood to base theory on that little select slice of history during
the World Wars, extrapolate it, and try to think its universal. Yet that is
what IR theory does: so many theorists, and so many of the people you recently
interviewed, are guilty of doing that. So that's the big question and
certainly, that's what drove me to study IR in the hope that I could make some
small contribution to figuring out some of the answers or partial answers to
these questions.







If we turn to what the central debate should be in
International Theory, well, I would frame this in two parts: the first should
be 'what are the different ways in which we can conceive of international
theory and how, by all of us pursuing it the way we feel comfortable with, we
can enrich the field without throwing bric-a-brac at each other and find ways
of learning from each other?'







A few years ago, I edited a book with Mark Lichbach (Theory and Evidence in Comparative Politics
and International Relations) as a rejoinder to King, Keohane and Verba's
book, which we found deeply offensive. It has the narrowest framework and then
they base their understanding on the Vienna school yet they seem to have forgotten
that Hempel and Popper would disavow the positions that King, Keohane and Verba
(KKV) are anchoring themselves in as epistemologically primitive. And the very
examples they give to illustrate 'good science'—Alvarez and his groupaddressing the problem of dinosaur extinction—they fail to see that what
these people did was in fact code on the dependent variable, which is the big
no-no for KKV! And the reason why Alvarez et al were taken seriously, was not because they went through the order
of research that KKV promoted, but rather because they came up with an
explanation for a phenomenon that people have long known about—yet explanations
don't figure at all in KKV's take; they had no interest in mechanisms, it was
all narrow correlations. It's absurd! So we edited the book, and we invited
people who represented different perspectives, but all of whom had evidence and
struggled to make sense of the evidence, to talk to one another and to look at
the problems they themselves find in their positions and how one could learn
broadly from considering this. That's the kind of debate that seems to me is a
useful one. Not who is right or wrong, but how can we learn collectively. And
secondly, I think maybe we need fewer debates, and more good research.











How did you arrive
at where you currently are in your thinking about IR?







I suppose it's a combination of people, books, and events, and
being a dog that constantly gnaws on bones and works it through. Very clearly the
Second World War and the Cold War were what brought me to the study of IR. I'm sure
in their absence, considering the counterfactual, I would have gone into Astrophysics,
which was the other field that really interested me.







I think the first concrete influence was as an undergraduate
and then as a graduate, being struck by certain individuals whose minds seemed
to sparkle; and I admired them for that and they became role models. And I
would make myself, intellectually, a little Hans Morgenthau, a little Karl
Deutsch; see the world through their eyes, and play with it. I never really wanted
to make myself into them, but rather to benefit by seeing what the world was
like when seen through their eyes. So in this sense, let me go back and draw on
Boswell, Hughes, and Mill for my answer. They all conceived of identity as
something that's a process of self-fashioning in which we mix and match the
characteristics that we observe in other people. And the purpose of society is
to throw up these role models and provide interaction with them so that we can
constantly be engaging in self-fashioning. And ultimately, we create something
that's novel that other people want to emulate or reject, as the case may be.
And I think that mixing and matching, and ultimately creating a synthesis of my
own, I developed my own approach to things.







The second element of this is to pick problems that engage
me, and stick with them. My first book in IR was about international crises and
I worked on this, it must have been 8, possibly even 9 years. I started out initially
convinced that deterrence theory made sense but wouldn't fit the historical evidence. Then one day, while
playing around, I realized the theory was wrong and by reversing it, I could
understand why it didn't work and see there were very different dynamics at
play. So working on a problem constantly and going back and forth between
theory and empirical findings, you gradually develop your own sense of the
field.







It also helps, over the course of an intellectual lifetime, to
work on different kinds of problems: I've just finished a book on the politics
and ethics of identity; I finished a manuscript up for review on the nature of
causation and different takes on cause; and the previous two books were on
counterfactuals and the origins of war. And I learned something theoretically
and methodologically by throwing myself into these problems and also, in some
cases, by going beyond what one would normally consider the domain of IR to look
for answers. I've often done philosophy and literature in the identity book. I
also go to musical texts: I have a reading of the Mozart Da Ponte Operas as a deliberate
thought experiment to test out ancient regime
and enlightenment identities under varying circumstances to expose what's wrong
with them and to work toward a better approach of Così fantutte. And I
read the music, not only the libretti,
to get at an answer. Of course, when you've been doing it a long time, it keeps
you alive and alert when you look at something new. I'm just finishing my 46th
year of University teaching. It's a long time!







Thirdly, there were a few pivotal books. I read George
Orwell's 1984 and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World in the early 50s. Both
of those were very powerful books. I also read in about 1950 - Life Magazine
produced a large volume on WWII and it had fabulous photographs and of course
Life was famous, Robert Capa's photographs, and
the text by John Dos Passos. A big big book that I read and re-read and that
was a powerful influence on me. I'd say the Diary of Anne Frank, when it came
out, which was not all that dissimilar but had a different ending from my own
war experience, and then in high school I read, or struggled to read—I don't
think I understood it—Ideology and Utopia
(full text here) by Karl
Mannheim, and then I read Politics among
Nations and the Twenty Year's Crisis.
And both those books made enormous sense to me at the time. But I think the
book that over the course of my lifetime has had the most influence on me of
anything is Thucydides' The History of
the Peloponnesian War (read full text here).











What would a
student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global
way?







I am tempted to give you a flippant answer that an expert is
somebody from out of town; what used to be with slides would now be with a PowerPoint
presentation. I think frankly you need to do two things: you need to be
analytically sophisticated and original on the one hand, but to do it well, you
have to have an empirical base. There has to be some problem or set of problems
that you've rolled up your sleeves, looked at the data, talk to the people who
are on the ground doing these things, and you need to go back and forth between
that empirical knowledge and conceptual one. That's success as a social scientist. 







And traditionally, there's
always been another key. You must have one foot in society in which you belong
and another foot outside so you can do it as an outsider as well as an insider.
That's terribly important. I think, in this sense, that Americans are more
parochial than other people. They are good insiders but they are not very good
outsiders and they just don't understand the rest of the world and when you
read what they write about the rest of the world, you wonder what planet they
are living on. If you don't see the rest of the world, you can't look at the
America from another perspective. It's like people who take hegemony seriously;
it's like believing in Santa Claus, except Santa Claus is benign. To gain a
deep experience of the world in itself is a pre-requisite. Do a year abroad in
some other culture. Learn a language. Have a relationship with someone from a
different culture—you begin to learn the languages and all the rest will come.
That's the way to start.











You are
most famous to most people for your Cultural
Theory of International Relations (2008). What does it comprise and can you
say something about its classical roots?







I return to classical theory of conflict and cooperation
because I find that in modern theory, all drives of human action have been
reduced to appetite, and reason to mere instrumentality. The Greeks, by
contrast, believed there were several fundamental drives—drives that affected
politics—and while these included appetite, they weren't just appetite. Reason was more than instrumentality; it also had
the goal of understanding what led to a happy life; then, next to reason and
appetite, the third drive was spirit or self-esteem (the Greek thumos), which is very different and
often opposed to appetite. It is about winning the approbation of others to
feel good about ourselves. The difference between honor and standing—two
variants of self-esteem—is that honor is status achieved within a fixed set of
rules, while standing is whenever you achieve status by whatever means.







Now most existing IR theories are either only built on
appetites—as liberalism and Marxism—or fear. And for the Greeks fear is not a
human drive but a powerful emotion which can become a motive. And when reason
loses control over either appetite or spirit, people begin to worry about their
own ability to satisfy their appetites, their spirit, or even protect
themselves physically. That's when fear becomes a powerful motive. Realism is
of course the paradigm developed around fear. I differ in that my theory
recognizes multiple motives, that are active to varying degrees at different
times. They don't blend the way a solution does in chemistry, but they retain
their own characteristics, even if jumbled together. So my theory expects to
see quite diverse and often conflicting behavior, whereas other theories only
pay attention to state behavior that seems to support their theory, and feel
the need to explain away other behavior inconsistent with their theory. I revel
in these variations. Second, I vary in describing what derives from these
motives as (Weberian) ideal types—which means, something you don't encounter in
the real world, but rather, an abstraction, a fictional or analytical
description, that helps to make sense of the real world but never maps onto it
exactly. So, a fear-based world gives you a very nice description of a
foundation of anarchy. But of course this is an ideal-type world. Fear is only
one motive. You have go to a place where civil order has broken down, like
Somalia or the trenches in WWII, to see fear-based models compete.







Starting from these three motives and the emotion of fear, I
argue that each of these generates a very different logic of cooperation,
conflict and risk-taking; and each is associated with a different kind of
hierarchy. And all of them except fear rely on a different principle of
justice. Just to give an example: for actors—whether individuals or
states—driven by self-esteem, they tend to be risk prone (because honor has to
be won by successfully overcoming ordeals and challenges); it leads to a
conflictual logic because you are competing with others for honor; and it can
be rule-based (although the rules can brake down and move into fear); and the
principle is one of fairness, in contrast to interest or appetite which has a
principle of equality. The hierarchy is one of clientelism, where people honor
those at the top, which, in return, provides practical benefits for those on
the bottom. The Greeks called this hegemonia;
the Chinese had a similar system.







But because any actual system is not an ideal type, we have
to figure out what that mixture is and we can begin to understand foreign
policies. And I try to give numerous examples in the book. And the big turning
point, I argue, is modernity, where it becomes more difficult to untangle the
motives and their discourses. Because in modernity both Rousseau and Adam Smith
try to understand why we want material things, so the two become connected. You
could argue that even in Egyptian times they were connected, in the pyramids,
which are nothing if not erections of self-esteem. But it becomes more
difficult and so, rather than saying, using literary texts, artistic works and
political speeches as a way of determining the relationship, I approached the
problem differently with the examples of the World Wars, the Cold War, and the
Anglo-American Invasion of Iraq. I said let's run a test of seeing how
carefully we can explain the origins and the dynamics of these conflicts on the
basis of interest, on the basis of fear, on the basis of self-esteem. And I
think that's methodologically defensible.



Now the interesting point is that the honor or self-esteem
explanation is gone completely from modern IR explanations but does at least
just a good a job—if not better—at explaining these conflicts I mention above. There is an important sense—and this is my latest book—in which going to war was the dominant way to get recognized as a great power, and I feel that the example of the war in Iraq illustrates that that principle is on the retreat.







I obviously use Greek thinking as a source here of—again, I
wouldn't use the word knowledge—but as a source of insight into human nature
and the recurring problems regardless of society. Some of the great writers and
thinkers cannot be surpassed as sources of knowledge that we as social
scientists are shadows on the cave by comparison. And I find the Greeks
particularly interesting for several reasons. One, they had a richer
understanding of the psyche that moderns who have adduced everything to appetite
and reason to a mere instrumentality, this is, to me, an incredibly narrow,
crude way of thinking of the human mind. And, for whatever reason, they were
gifted with tragedians who pierced to the core of things. So I find them as a
source of inspiration but it's by no way limited to the Greeks. You can pick
great authors from any culture, in any century, and read them and learn a lot.











How
should we understand your cultural theory of international relations in
relation to the 'big' paradigms?







My theory is constructivist, at every level. I can go even further and claim that my theory is
the only constructivist theory.
Alexander Wendt is not a constructivist. If anything, he's a structural
liberal. It did have preexisting identities and has a teleology as he believes
a Kantian world is inevitable— that's quite a statement to make! And I hope
he's right. On the other hand, I define constructivists in a broader way. Most
constructivists start with identities and identities are certainly an important
feature of my work, but my theory rests on a different premise, and that is the
notion of there being certain core values which are germane to politics, and
they vary in relative importance from society to society, and they find
expression in different ways. So it is constructivist, I think, in the Weberian
sense: we have to understand from within the culture what makes things
meaningful. And, in that sense, you could bring in the notion of
inter-subjective reality, but I go beyond it, because other values are always
present in this mix and therefore there's behavior that appears contradictory
that is often misunderstood if you apply the wrong lens to it. So there's a
lack of interdisciplinary understanding as well: you have to look at both to
see how the world works. So cultural theory is constructivist and it allows us
to reframe and expand what constructivism means.







If I apply this constructivist thinking to one of the core
principles in our approach to world politics: what is a cause? I start by
asking, what does 'cause' mean, in physics? Why physics? Because physics is
always the field that political scientists look at, we have 'physics envy', so
to speak. And interestingly, in physics, there is no consensus about what cause
means. Some physicists think that very notion of cause is unhelpful to what
they do. Others are happy with regularities and subscribe to causal thinking. Still
others thing that you need to have mechanisms to explain anything. Still others,
and here statistical mechanics can be taken as a case in point, invoke Kantian
understandings of cause. Within physics there's no argument between people
adhering to these different understandings of 'cause', because you should do
what works! They don't criticize one another. So if they have this diversity,
why shouldn't we? Why shouldn't we develop understandings of cause that are
most appropriate to what we do? So I develop an understanding I call 'inefficient
causation' (download full paper here),
sort of playing off of Aristotle. And it is a constructivist understanding, but
it also incorporates elements that are distinctively non-constructivist. And
identities are only a small piece of the puzzle.











Is
there any sense to make of the way IR has evolved over the 20th
century?







I think if you look at some of the central figures, it's
quite easy. There are 2 great cohorts of International Relations theorists.
Those born in the early years of the 20th century comprise Hans
Morgenthau, John Hertz, E.H. Carr, Harold Lasswell, Nicholas Spykman, Frederick Schuman, and Karl Deutsch—who was
on my dissertation committee together with Isaiah Berlin and John Hertz. The
second cohort is born between about 1939 and 1945, and it comprises Robert
Jervis (Theory Talk #12), Joseph Nye
(Theory Talk #7), Robert Keohane (Theory Talk #9), Oren Young, Peter
Katzenstein (Theory Talk #15), Stephen Krasner (Theory Talk#21), Janice Steinberg… And I'll tell you what I think the reasons are for
these groups to emerge at these particular moments: the first cohort lived
through World War I. And did so, fortunately, in at an age where they were too
young to be combatants for the most part, but they certainly had to deal
intellectually and personally with its consequences and then watch the horrors
unfold of the 1930s.







And the second, my own, cohort was born at the outset of the
Second World War. I think, in that group, I may be the only one of them born in
Europe (France). The rest of them were born in the US. And we came of age
during the most acute crisis of the cohort. So I was either in university or
graduate school during the Berlin crisis, during the Cuba crisis, and certainly
had an interest first in the consequences of WWII and how something like this
could happen, and then living through the horrors of the Cold War, not knowing
if indeed one would live through
them. And that created a very strong incentive and focus for our group of
people. Now a surprising number of this second group did their graduate studies
at Yale: Janice Stein, I, Oren Young, Bruce Russet, Krasner, later all at Yale
with Karl Deutsch. The rest, Jervis, Keohane and Krasner at Harvard with Samuel
Huntington. I think you have the odd person who's born somewhere in between –
so, Ken Waltz (Theory Talk #40), for
instance, is younger. He must be a 1920 person, almost exactly in between these
two, just as Ernst Haas.







And I wouldn't be surprised now if there is another cohort
emerging, the people of around the age of Stefano Guzinni, Jens Bartelson,
Patrick Jackson (Theory Talk #44).
What ties this third cohort together is that they all watched the end of the
Cold War and are coping with its aftermath. So I believe that it's probably two
things: the external environment and the extent to which you're in an
intellectually nurturing institution. And of course for our cohort, it
certainly helped that there were jobs. That was not true of the earlier cohort.
Almost all of them, except E.H. Carr, ended up in the US as refugees. Did you
know Morgenthau started as an elevator boy in New York? Then he got a job
teaching part-time at Brooklyn College because someone fell ill. His wife
cleaned other people's apartments to supplement their income. Then he got a job
at the University of Kansas City, which was a hellhole, and finally Harold
Lasswell got called to Washington for some war work and got Chicago to hire
Morgenthau to replace him.











What is
the issue with the discipline today if, as you noted before, we fail to ask the
most interesting questions and instead focus on method?







Well, it of course depends on which side of the pond you
sit. On the American side of the pond, positivist or game-theoretical
behaviorist or rationalist modeling approaches dominate the literature; it's
just silly, from my perspective. It's based on assumptions which bear no
relationship to the real world. People like it because it's intellectually
elegant: they don't have to learn any languages, they don't have to read any
history, and they can pretend they're scientists discussing universals.
Intellectually, it's ridiculous. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita (Theory Talk #31) is a classic case in point. He's made a huge
reputation for himself with The War Trap (1981).
That book and the corresponding theory are based on a simple assumption,
namely, that there's a war trap compelling states into war, because initiators
win wars. But just look at the empirical record from 1945 to the present—initiators
lose between 80-90% of the wars they start. And that really depends on the
definition of victory. If you use the real definition, the Clausewitzian one,
you have to ask: do they achieve their political goals through violence? Then
the answer is, even fewer "victories". Well, let's cut them some slack, use a
more relaxed definition: did they beat the other side militarily? Initiators
still lose 78 or 82%—I forget exactly which percentage of their wars. And the
profession right now is so ignorant of history that nobody said 'Wait a
minute!' the day the book came out. Instead IR scholars all focus on this model
and fine-tuning it—it's ridiculous! And well, I don't want to go on with a
critique, but this is a serious problem, for it concerns a huge
misunderstanding regarding one of the most important problems out there.







But what happens now is this kind of thinking metastasizes
throughout the discipline because what students in International Relations or
Political Science more generally are taught are calculus, statistics—and I'm
not against this, one should learn them; I use them myself when I wear my
psychologist hat and do quantitative research and statistical analysis—but they
don't learn languages, they don't learn history, they don't learn philosophy.
They are so narrow! Much of this of course has to do with the reward structure
in the United States. It's clear that the statistical scientists are at the top
of the hill. So, economists transform themselves into scientists; but the
social scientists copy them because there are clear institutional rewards. If
you look at our salaries in comparison to the salaries of anthropologists,
historians—then if you sit at the edge of your chair and look over the abyss
you might see the humanists down there in terms of what they get. So very
clearly, there are strong institutional rewards. Once the positivist crowd got
a lock on various foundations and journals, if you want a job, if you want to
rise up through the profession, students tell me you have to do this stuff. IR
graduate students are bricklayers that get turned out of these universities.
That's the tragedy! It's no longer a serious intellectual enterprise. It's not
connected to anything terribly meaningful.







And mind you, I must say, while on the other, European, side
of the pond there is more diversity (one of the reasons I feel more comfortable
here), at the same time there is a strong tendency to go for a certain
heavy-handed brand of post-modernism. If you don't start an article with a
genuflection to Foucault or De Saussure or Derrida, you don't get published.
And by not looking beyond these 20th century thinkers, people in
Europe are often given credit for inventing things which were common knowledge
for hundreds and hundreds of years. Utterly ridiculous. But in between, there
are of course people who are trying to make sense of the world, including many
people in the positivist tradition who are doing good quantitative research and
trying to address serious problems in the world. The difficulty is that these
two extremes are often people who approach IR as a religion and they think that
their way of doing research is the only way
and they have no respect for others. And that's a kind of arrogance to which,
to me, is a violation of what the university is all about.







Ultimately, what is good theory? One approach would be to
say that a good theory is one that appears to order a domain in a way that is
conceptually rigorous - to the extent that that's even possible - that is
original and that raises a series of interesting questions which haven't been
asked before, but which are amenable to empirical research and finally it
should have normative implications. This is what Hans Morgenthau meant when he
said that the purpose of IR theory is not to justify what policymakers did, but
to educate them to act in ways that would lead to a better and more peaceful
world. And that, I think, is the ultimate goal of IR theory that we should not
lose sight of.











You
indicated that Isaiah Berlin was on your dissertation committee. He famously
tries to explain Tolstoy's philosophy of history (in War and Peace) through the parable of the hedgehog and the fox. If
theorists constraining themselves to one drive underpinning policy choices
would be hedgehogs, how would you see yourself? A fox or a hedgehog?







I am clearly a fox! I do different things. Whether I do them
well is debatable. But I certainly think that I'm a man of many tricks. Of
course the distinction also implies not believing in an overarching truth, and
indeed, I try hard not to think about truth because I don't think you can get
very far when you do. Epistemologically and eclectically, I'm a great believer
that we can never really establish a cause, truth, and knowledge. One of the
great problems here goes back to Plato who was shocked that craftsmen equated
technical ability to produce things with knowledge—Sofia, which is wisdom. And
today you have the problem one step up, so another category of knowledge for
the Greeks was episteme. Aristotle
would describe it as 'conceptual knowledge' or that which might even be
represented mathematically. And the people who would be 'expert' in episteme
think they have sofia and their claim
to being a hedgehog is the same kind of conceit, a form of hubris. Berlin's
distinction between hedgehogs and foxes is a very useful and nice concept to
play around with.







Yet it's a bit much to reduce Tolstoy to that tension. You
could do it as a game but it doesn't do much justice because there is so much
else in Tolstoy. He's tilting against the French historians of the 19th
century who have erected Napoleon into this strategic genius. And he does a
very convincing job of showing that what goes on on the battlefield has nothing
whatsoever to do with what Napoleon or anyone else who is wearing a general's
ebullience or theorists hat says. And also, and in this sense, one could see
him as the beginning of subaltern history of social science, he's telling the
story—admittedly about aristocrats, not commoners—but he's telling the story of
ordinary people on the battlefield, not the people making the decisions. So the
war is in a way a background to the lives of the people, focusing our attention
a very humanist way, on people. This, too, is revolutionary for his time.















Professor
Richard Ned Lebow Professor of International Political Theory at the Department
of War Studies, King's College London and James O. Freedman Presidential
Professor Emeritus at Dartmouth College. He is also a Bye-Fellow of
Pembroke College, University of Cambridge. He has taught strategy and the
National and Naval War Colleges and served as a scholar-in-residence in the
Central Intelligence Agency during the Carter administration. He has
authored and edited 28 books and nearly 200 peer reviewed articles.















Related
links








Read the
first chapter of Lebow's The Tragic
Vision of Politics (2003) here (pdf) 
Read
Lebow & Kelly's Thucydides and
Hegemony: Athens and the United States (Review of International Studies
2001), here (pdf) 
Read
Lebow's Deterrence and Reassurance:
Lessons from the Cold War (Global Dialogue 2001) here (pdf) 
Read
Lebow's The Long Peace, the End of the
Cold War, and the Failure of Realism (International Organization, 1994)
here (pdf) 
Read
Lebow's The Cuban Missile Crisis: Reading
the Lessons Correctly (Political Science Quarterly 1983) here (pdf) 



Print version of this Talk (pdf)

Transcript of an oral history interview with General Gordon R. Sullivan, conducted by Sarah Yahm at the Sullivan Museum and History Center on 23 April 2015, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project. Gordon Sullivan was a member of the Norwich University Class of 1959. After graduating from Norwich University, he served in a variety of Army command and staff assignments in the United States, Germany, Korea and Vietnam. He became Chief of Staff of the U. S. Army on 21 June 1991. The Sullivan Museum and History Center at Norwich University was named in his honor. Topics of interest within the oral history include General Sullivan's Army career as well as his legacy, philosophy, and activities after his retirement from the U.S. Army. ; 1 Gordon Sullivan, NU 1959, Oral History Interview April 23, 2015 Interviewed by Sarah Yahm GORDON SULLIVAN: I have often talked -- I talk a lot to troops and groups and so forth and so on and I'm very quick to tell them that I have been in and around the United States Army since 1955 in one form or another, either as a cadet at Norwich when I took my oath in the summer -- late summer of 1955 -- and obviously as a commissioned officer in the United States Army since 1959, 1995. Then, in my retired life, other than a two-year period when I was doing something in the commercial sector which I frankly didn't -- it wasn't for me. I knew it wasn't for me. I did okay at it but I didn't want to continue doing it. The job was open as the president of the Association of the United States Army, which is the Army's professional association, designed to tell the story of land power and the story of the Army and to do whatever we could to help soldiers and their families. So, in reality, I've spent my adult life in or around the United States Army. Since I retired, in addition to the association and the United States Army, I've done a couple of things which, to me, fit with the way I wanted to live my life. One was to create with three other retired officers an organization known as the Marshall Legacy Institute, Marshall being General George C. Marshall, former Secretary of State who, in 1948, created the Marshall Plan; he and others who worked for him. The essential nature of the Marshall Plan was to help war-torn nations recover in a collaborative way, not in a Big Brother way where we went in and did all the work and they stood by and watched us. It was where we collaborated with them and enabled them to help themselves. So, by happenstance, I was asked, since I had been the chief of staff of the Army to help commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the Marshall Plan. I found out that what they wanted was celebratory activities; a cocktail party and so forth and so on, which didn't interest me. So, I found some kindred spirits and we created the Marshall Legacy Institute, which has been around since 1997, and we have over 200 mine detection dogs out around the world. We have raised the money. The State Department has supported us, and these dogs are in some of the worst places in the world, enabling others to take landmines, a silent killer, out of the ground, and to provide safe living and a way of being; food, commerce, and so forth in war-torn countries such as in the Balkans, in Afghanistan, Iraq, African countries like Angola, one of the most mine-infested countries in the world, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, so forth and so on. We have -- those dogs have cleared, along with their indigenous handlers, millions and millions of square you-name-it -- square kilometers or yards or whatever, whatever metric you want, ground for people to live safely. I view that as sort of right up along with everything else I did when I was in uniform. It's the same kind of a business, making the world safe for others to live, save lives, not take lives, save lives. As a part of -- for some reason, let's put it this way. Sometimes in life, things happen that you really don't -- you didn't expect and so forth. I was asked to be a part of a study group in 2006. The study group was on -- conducted by CNA. That's otherwise known in a previous life as the Center for Naval Analysis. Well, I'm an Army general and it was kind of odd to be asked to do something 2 with the CNA but I was asked to do it and I did. It seemed like a good idea at the time. It was to look at the national security implications of global climate change. Well, the implications of global climate change, no matter how you feel about it, the trends of anything related to climate are going in the wrong direction; not the specifics. If you argue point data, there is always someone who has better data or different data. So, that becomes very contentious. All right, I think it was twelve retired admirals and generals were on this study group and by some fluke, I guess, I became the chairman of this group. We published a study in '07 which said that climate change is a national security threat or presents a national security threat to the United States of America. Failed and failing states, whether they failed because of drought or political reasons or why they failed, become like a Petri dish within which extremist groups grow, and that goes from Somalia to the Sudan and you name it; Syria and so forth. Syria was later but the ones we were dealing with at the time were mainly in the Middle East and Africa and we could see it. So, we published that study and it got some attention. Actually, we, within reason, steered away from the maelstrom of political stuff because we were the least likely people to say it. All of us were mostly operators. Now, we had one astronaut, a naval officer, and one of them was a nuclear -- you know, you would expect the Navy because of the nuclear-powered submarines and ships and so forth. So, they were scientists, really, and they had access to data and they knew about the phenomenon. But, the rest of us were either fighter pilots or I'm a ground combat guy or Marine -- Marines; you know, just people with a lot of experience in international stuff and defense and security. So, anyway, that study was replicated in '14 and said, "Well, this is what we said in '07. It's worse." Things got worse, and that's what we said; that not only was it bad then, but it's worse today. Obviously, we had Syria and various other garden spots on the table; Syria, Libya, on and on and on. Arab Spring was caused, in many places, since -- Arab Spring, what became known as Arab Spring, was caused by drought or one of the causes was drought in Russia, which -- and the Russians stopped exporting wheat because they had to -- they had a shortage of wheat so they stopped exporting it. That caused ripples throughout North Africa and Mesopotamia, specifically, Syria. SARAH YAHM: So, I have a couple questions for you, and I do want to -- you know, I feel like we're talking now for a little bit and I do want to sit down when I have more time to prepare and really give a couple hours. GS: I want you to do that. What I'm telling you is I put it all together and my time here at Norwich here as the chairman and it's all a piece. SY: Well, that's what I sense is that you felt this urgency to come in today. GS: I want you to know that in case -- I'm now 77, almost 78. I want to take advantage of you being here, me meeting you, so that you know how I really feel about it. SY: So, yeah, so you feel this urgency about your legacy. So, what -- so, you're telling me something now that it seems like you're afraid isn't in the historical record or won't be in the historical record. GS: It's not. SY: So, is it the idea that this global warming work, this landmine work, that is all part and parcel -- GS: That's all a part and parcel of how I view my life.3 SY: OK, and so you see this linear thread that goes through your life. GS: Yes. SY: So, if you were to articulate the values of that linear thread, how would you articulate it? GS: I think -- I don't know it. I think that when I sit here today, this morning I was talking about -- I was introducing these 200 things that you don't know about Norwich, and I said to myself, well, there's a lot I don't know about Norwich but I know about myself. I don't think I'm unique, by the way, in the history of Norwich. I think I'm just one of the people who went here. So, you have this museum which, you know, is -- I find this hard to say, but, okay, there's this museum here, and you've got some of my stuff. It doesn't -- it's hard -- yeah, how do -- what do I think? How do -- there's some stuff out there. There's nobody but me who could tell you why I think some of those artifacts tell the story. SY: No, you need to interpret the story of your life. GS: Yeah, I need to interpret it. SY: You need to interpret it. GS: It's me. I don't think -- SY: Absolutely. GS: I don't think -- I can go to things out there. I can show you one panel that shows me as a young man struggling to figure out who I am and Norwich, my buddies, this institution enabled me to mature and they didn't throw me out, because I was, struggling. I don't mean that in a -- I was struggling to figure out how I would fit in the world, and I don't think I'm unique and Norwich helped me do that. Okay? SY: Absolutely. GS: So, on the same panel, it goes from me being, you know, this guy I was who was whatever. I'm not apologizing for any of it because I don't have anything to apologize for. But, I can tell you it went from somebody who was immature to the chief of staff of the Army with the woman I was married to for 49 years standing beside me when I became the chief of staff in the Army. I will tell you, I'd do it all the same way and marry the same woman. SY: I think your vulnerability matters, and I think that's something that needs to go in the record, too -- the confusion of being a 20-year old, right? GS: Yeah, the confusion of being a 20-year old and now 70 -- in my late seventies. I'm reasonably healthy but I know my own -- I mean, I'm human. I've figured it out obviously since my wife essentially died, you know. I mean, well, she did die. I'm also struggling. I'm not struggling with it. I think I've accommodated. I understand it all but I know, okay, that's the way it is, and I want you to know it. SY: Yeah, and you're evaluating. You're in a moment in your life of evaluation, right? GS: Yeah, right. What did I do? What did I do with my life? SY: Yeah, and that has to be richer than a list of accomplishments, right? GS: It's not the accomplishments. It's what do you -- how does it fit? I think I am occupying a very large part of the space there, and there are many people like me and I know that, and they should be here, too. SY: Yeah, and we're actually -- I mean, we are collecting their voices, but maybe the key is to figure out how you're representative of a moment.4 GS: Yeah, whatever. You're the expert. I'm just here, and I don't think for one minute -- I have a hard time telling people. I talk about this as 'the museum.' SY: Not the 'Sullivan Museum.' GS: No, no, I don't say that. I have never said it. SY: So, we'll sit down and we'll talk and we'll have you curate the story of your life, you know, and that will help enrich our museum. I also think -- I mean, you oversaw a messy century, you know. The second half of the 20th century was a messy century, right? GS: Well, yeah, here's the cycle, though. I just came back from Germany. I was in the headquarters of the United States Army Europe. I went to Europe for the first time in 1965, 50 years ago, when the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact, was right up against the border. I went up into a part of Germany. I was about 40 miles from the inner German border in a tank battalion. I later commanded a tank brigade -- an armored brigade -- in the same division, the largest brigade in the US Army at the time; five maneuver battalions, three tank battalions, two mechanized infantry battalions, about 5000 men and women. There were some women. The Cold War -- so the Cold War is over. I go 50 years later. Twenty years ago, Russia was sort of off the screen militarily. So, I'm sitting in the room and I look out at this expanse of Europe and in Eastern Ukraine, there's this major penetration, this major red thrust. What goes around comes around. In my life, I have gone from an officer who spent twelve and a half years in Germany during the Cold War, became the chief of staff in the Army. I saw the Wall come down and now this, where the Russians are back moving again. I mean, it's -- what goes around comes around, and I'm seeing the nation-state, the concept of nation-states being questioned. Will the Middle East unravel so that it's just tribes? This is -- I mean, this has been in my lifetime, and I've been a part of it, in a sense. SY: No, in a very concrete sense. Does it lead you to despair? Does it lead you to -- GS: No, it doesn't lead me to despair. It leads me to understand that the cycles of history have a way of repeating themselves and it's the human interaction. That's missteps. Did we handle it right? Did we appreciate how -- well, how Russia would perceive what happened when the Cold War ended. How would the Russian people perceive it? Clearly, as an amateur looking at it, people say, "Well, Russia needs --." Russia has needs like any country, and they have always wanted to have the near abroad as a buffer. So, let's say that's real. Let's say that's true for the sake of argument. Then, now we have a nationalist. That's what he is. Putin is a nationalist and he has turned the switch. They sign up politically. They sign up. SY: Yeah, they always do. GS: They always do. They always have, and they are again, and here it is. So, look, that doesn't -- I don't think I'm the first Norwich grad to figure that out. I don't -- I wouldn't -- but it's been a part of my life, and I am what I am. What I am, for better or worse, is a soldier. I'm just a soldier that's retired. SY: Yeah. Could you talk a little about the connection -- so, you know, most of your life was concrete soldiering, right? GS: Yes, real soldiering. SY: Real soldiering. Now, you're talking about specifically this landmine work. How do you see the two as connected, because in one part of your life, you were in charge of --5 GS: Putting landmines in the ground. SY: Yes. GS: Right, and I wasn't -- I am a defender of that because it protects soldiers and so forth and so on because they do protect soldiers. It's one of these strange weapons. They protect soldiers and they kill soldiers. OK, so, in 1997, when I and three combat arms colonels -- retired colonels -- created this thing, this entity, we wanted to do something to help others and it was the mines. Get the mines out of the ground. Everybody was talking mines are bad but they were talking about it. Mines are bad, right? Got it. What are you going to do about it? We wanted to do something about it. It wasn't to philosophize. It was to take them out of the ground, help other people take them out of the ground; like to make things -- make something happen, action-oriented. That's more important to me than all the great ideas of the world. Yeah, global hunger -- I've got it. You know, make the world mine-free. Well, okay, if you want to take mines out of the ground, you can. We've actually, along with others -- there are other ways to take mines out of the ground mechanically and that's a lot of what Princess Diana was involved with -- Princess Diana was involved with and now Harry -- Prince -- SY: Yeah, the royal British family, yeah. GS: So, anyway, we -- so that's -- to me, that fits, okay? SY: Yeah, it's not something -- GS: Now, whether anybody else thinks it fits or not, I don't know, but to me it does. SY: But, to you, it doesn't seem like a contradiction to you? GS: It's not a contradiction to me. SY: Could you talk more about that? GS: Why? What? SY: Well, because I'm curious about getting at your sort of philosophy and understanding so that it does seem part and parcel of the same work. GS: It seems part and parcel of the same work because the country says -- I don't know where we are on the treaty, whether -- the chiefs have said, of which I was one; you know, in my former life, I was one of the Joint Chiefs, a member of the Joint Chiefs. We're protecting South Korea. We're partners with the South Koreans -- Republic of Korea -- and the UN protecting South Korea. Part of that defense involves the demilitarized zone, which is heavily mined. At certain points in Afghanistan and Iraq, I would suspect that there are mines which are -- you can turn them on and off. That type of protection is used, not much but it is periodically. It's there. It's available if they want to use them. I don't view that as much of a contradiction. These things are, as I say, you turn them on and you turn them off. You put them back in your rucksack and unless somebody hits one with a round or something, they're not going to detonate. SY: Yeah, they're safer. GS: Safer. SY: They're not going to get women and children 20 years later. GS: No. That's not -- no, that's not going to happen. SY: You know -- GS: So, anyway, I guess I'm a theory to practice guy. Okay, I've got the theory. I've got the concept and, okay, let's do something about it then.6 SY: That's the thread that goes through your life. GS: That's the thread for me. Let's do something about it. So, global climate change -- national security issue. I came up here and talked about that. You have the speech that I gave down here, and I gave another one at the Society of American Military Engineers, which -- a national security issue for the United States of America is -- and an economic issue and a health issue is we're running out of water -- fresh water -- fresh, potable water. Now, the Corps of Engineers, which US Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for a lot of that in some sense. So, I represent -- I'm trying to tell the Army story, right? It's my job -- Association of the United States Army. The Corps of Engineers is a part of it. The Army Medical Department -- just the researchers and medical researchers just discovered a vaccine which prevents Ebola. Walter Reed was an Army officer. So, we -- Lewis and Clark were Army people. SY: Do you remember, you know, the kid you were at Norwich -- the 20-year old kid -- and the world you lived in then? GS: Yes. SY: What do you think he would have thought of this particular world we're in now, of this US, of this globe? GS: Well, there's some that wouldn't have surprised him, given that I was a history major. I was quoted in the Boston Globe in 1989. I was giving a talk in Cambridge, Massachusetts in the Sonesta. I was at a conference. I was a three-star at the time. I was the chief of operations in the United States Army and before I got up to speak -- I was to speak on doctrine, Army doctrine -- I was handed a note that said, "Heads up. The Wall just came down and people are streaming and streaming into Berlin -- West Berlin." The heads-up was that the press was in the room. So, anyway, I gave my -- whatever I was going to say. The first question I was asked was, "The Berlin Wall just opened. What do you think?" I gave an honest answer. SY: What did you think? GS: I said, "I don't know what I don't know." I didn't. I mean, I was -- you know, I was obviously pleased. That was apparent, but in the back of my mind, I didn't -- you couldn't -- I couldn't predict it. SY: You couldn't -- GS: I couldn't then -- I couldn't predict it and I wasn't going to. SY: Your whole life had been a Cold War world. GS: Yes, I understand that, and I couldn't -- I didn't know what it would mean. Well, what it meant was genocide in the Balkans. What it has meant is a lot of things that aren't good. The whole world that we knew is over time coming apart, like the nation-state. Remember what I said earlier here? Will the nation-state, which was created by -- at the end of World War I -- will those boundaries hold in the Middle East? What about the Balkans? What about the Baltic nations? It's all a part. My uncertainty then -- it's all -- it's still playing out. What's the role of the United States of America? I have no idea. SY: What do you think it should be? GS: Well, I think everybody expects the United States of America to be what it has been since the end of World War II, like the United States of America, the leader; in some sense, the leader. I think we're struggling with that. Are we? Do we really want to be the leader? 7 What about a world where the United States is a reluctant leader? What kind of a world is that? I don't know. That's beyond me. All I know is what I know. That, by the way, if you can figure that out, all I know is what I know or what I feel -- SY: Yeah. Did you have any moments when you had -- when you were talking about you feel gut reactions that really helped you out, that steered you in the right direction? GS: A lot of time, a lot of time. I suppose there is some type that you could say this guy is this type of person. I'm pretty good at reading people. I can read -- I think I am, anyway. That may be a conceit of mine, but I think I am, and I can -- I don't -- yeah, sometimes I go by feel. Sometimes, when I'm doing things, which is why I like the give and take in a meeting, why I need to hear, I want to hear from people. I like ideas. I like the dialog because I learn from it. SY: Yeah, we're thinking a lot about this citizen soldier idea, right, which means a lot of different things to different people but to some people it means having the courage to stand up for what you believe in in moments where it's scary. Can you think of moments like that in your life where you pushed back out of your gut and it was scary? GS: Yeah, well, when you go up to Capitol Hill and you tell people things that politically they don't agree with or if the senator comes from a coal-producing state and you're there telling him that, hey, this climate change is serious, and certainly, one of the causes is carbon, hydrocarbons, whatever, in the air, okay, now don't ask me how many parts per million but for some reason, it's warmer in the last 10 years, like 4 or 5 of the years have been the warmest in recorded history. Something is going on which is warming the planet up. Is that a part of it? Perhaps, probably. You know, he's going to come back -- he or she is going to come back at you and say, "Well, you're smoking dope but it's not. It happens all the time, right?" Well, yeah, but you've got a lot of trends that are going in the wrong direction. Okay, but at any rate, yeah, sure, you know. People said, "Well, we need -- the country needs a peace dividend," which is all well and good. Right after the Cold War, the country did need a peace dividend but at some point, you get so small -- the Army gets so small that you wind up fighting wars. You fight two wars and the strength of the Army -- active Army -- was such that you asked too much from too few and you wind up with soldiers who are psychologically damaged because the same men and women went back and forth and back and forth. You think that's popular to say that? I don't care. It's true. SY: Yeah, I mean, right. You spent a lot of time in Capitol Hill, obviously the most partisan place in the country and you served under -- you were chief of staff under a Republican and then a Democrat, right? GS: That's correct. SY: How did you navigate that partisan world? GS: You just -- well, you know, first of all, you don't -- you're not partisan. I'm not partisan. Nobody knows what I am and that's the way I like it. I'm my own person. I'm essentially an independent and I decide. Frankly, many people like me -- I didn't vote when I was a chief of staff and before. I just didn't vote. SY: Talk about that. GS: Well, I think that that's fine. I mean, I didn't vote. I could have voted but I elected not to because I'm nonpartisan. I'm serving the country. Now, I know people would say, 8 "Well, you know, it's your duty to vote." Yeah, but when I -- the more senior I became -- first of all, I was overseas 17 years out of 36. In spite of what everybody says, getting absentee ballots to some of the places I was -- give me a break. It's not going to happen. You know, all the paperwork; who are you? What do you mean? Who? It wasn't worth it. Then, the more senior I became, it just became -- to me, it didn't make any difference. I was not going to be known as a Democrat or a Republican or anything. I didn't want to be known as anything other than as a soldier. But, I understand very clearly. There is a distinction between citizen soldier and soldier citizen. I always felt I was a citizen first. SY: What's that distinction? GS: Well, the distinction to me was that when I was retired that it was not -- I knew -- I always knew that I would leave the Army some day and that I would do something. Well, it just so happens so when it came, it came. I mean, I knew I was so I got a job. It just so happens that the job I ultimately have is related to the Army. SY: When you were here at Norwich and you were struggling just like any kid struggles, what were you struggling with? What were your ambitions? What were your visions? GS: I didn't know. I didn't know. I told somebody last night that, you know, one of my friends -- he's still a close friend of mine; like I talk to him once a week, anyway. He said to me -- I don't know whether I was a junior or a senior, but he said, "Well, what do you want to do?" I said, "Well, maybe," I think I answered him, "Well, maybe, I'll go in the Army," or maybe at that time I was writing a column for the newspaper for -- SY: The Guidon. GS: -- the Guidon. Sully's -- it was called Sully's Scratchings. I said, "Maybe, I'll get into the newspaper business or something, become a columnist or whatever." I mean, that seemed like a good idea at the time, you know. Whether I could have done it or not, I don't know but I thought it. Well, as it turned out, you know, as it turned out, it turned out. I found what I really liked. SY: When was the moment that you realized you had this passion? GS: In summer camp -- ROTC summer camp. SY: What -- GS: Went to Fort Knox. Well, I was very -- I found it very attractive what -- the kind of people I met there, the noncommissioned officers who were teaching the courses. Officers were sort of distant to cadets. It was the NCOs and I found that relationship in keeping with what I had done during the summer, working. I worked construction jobs and so forth and so on. I liked that kind of stuff, being outside and most of them were men who were doing labor and building things and making things. So, I think I found that attractive. SY: It seemed honest to you? GS: Well, it was honest. Yeah, it was an honest way of making a living, you know, but I knew I didn't want to do it for the rest of my life but -- and I liked that relationship. So, anyway, one thing led to another and I became a commissioned officer and I didn't want to stay a reservist because I thought that being a reservist was -- I mean, I didn't have anything against being a reserve officer but it was just I wanted to be a part of the -- in it, committed to being a soldier. Immediately upon becoming a regular Army officer, I was sent to Korea, and that's where I really, really knew that I was -- had chosen correctly.9 SY: Was there a moment when you knew it? GS: Well, I knew it as soon as I got there because it was -- first of all, the country, at that time -- it was in June of 1961. I had been at Fort Hood for a while but that was sort of kind of getting my feet on the ground. It was very, very under-resourced units and there was not -- it was not fulfilling at all. When I arrived in Korea, we were full up. We were up close to the DMZ. It was real soldiering, and that's where I learned how much I liked it. SY: Did you also learn that you were good at it? Was there a moment when you were like, oh, hey, I'm good at this? GS: No. I felt I was -- probably felt at that time I was a good platoon leader and company commander and I had a staff job for a while. Then, I volunteered to go to Vietnam and you can see a picture of me in that passport I gave yesterday. So, I went from Korea to Vietnam. Some people say, "Well, you know, why?" I said, "Because that's what I thought soldiers did." The chief of staff of the Army asked for volunteers and I thought that's what you do. You volunteer to go to war. That's what I was -- a professional soldier. So, I did that for 18 months and then I came back home. I didn't meet my wife. I knew my wife. I had gone to grammar --I'd gone -- I knew her. We grew up in the same town so I knew who she was as a kid. Then, we were in the same junior high school class. You know, like I'd known her forever. I knew her forever. Then, I went to public school, public high school. I blew that. My mother said, "This is not going to work out," so I wound up at what we called then a country day school -- a private school but not a live-in school. Gay was my classmate in summer school because she couldn't do math either and neither could I so I had to take a summer course. SY: Did you need more structure? Is that what happened with you and public school? GS: Yeah, it's probably the same thing. I mean, it was the same thing that you saw here. I had -- I'm the kind of guy that they would say, "Well, he has lots of talent but he doesn't apply himself because he's with his buddies and doing other things while he should be studying or something else." SY: You were like that at Norwich, too? GS: The same thing. It was the same thing. SY: What were you doing? GS: Well, I was working in the mess hall, selling sandwiches at night to make a couple of bucks for my buddy, actually, my buddy who I memorialized a building for him last week. I was a eulogist at his funeral. One of the things that's sort of fallen to me, you know, whatever, it's the sad kind of stuff is being the eulogist at two -- Jack (Dirgins?) who I came up here as a senior in high school when we both decided to come here. I went to high school with him and Norwich with him, and I'm the godfather of one of his children and I buried him. That's -- you know, that's hard duty -- SY: Yeah, it is. GS: -- because they're my buddies. I also -- my wife told me the day she died -- she said -- she gave me instructions. She said, "I want you to speak at my funeral service, not as an army general, as my husband." SY: Those are good instructions. GS: That's different. I said, "Are you sure?" She said, "I'm very sure." SY: What did she mean?10 GS: She meant she didn't want me to give some Army kind of speech. She wanted me to tell them what kind of a person she was. SY: She wanted you to be vulnerable. GS: Yeah, well, sure, sure. SY: It sounds like she was a good counterbalance. GS: She was a great counterbalance and a huge part of my life. SY: Yeah, 49 years? GS: Forty-nine years. One night she told me -- I was -- oh, I had something going on professionally and so forth and she was -- she said, "Look," we were in the kitchen, just the two of us. I think all the kids had gone by then. She said, "Look, I'm going to bed. I'm tired of listening to you, you know, sort of fuming around and stumbling around." She said, "Just remember this -- suck it up. It's a test." That was it. "Suck it up. It's a test," and it was and she was right, and how I handled it was a test and it all worked out. When I woke up the morning of her funeral and I had been through about eight drafts of what I was going to say, I had papers and notes all over the place. I laid in bed and I said to myself, "What would Gay have said?" She would have said, "Suck it up. It's a test." SY: That's beautiful. GS: Life's a test. I don't know whether I passed or not. It's a test. SY: Do you have doubts? GS: I have no doubts. That's false modesty. That's really not me. SY: So, you do think you passed. GS: I passed. (laughter) I passed. SY: All right! GS: OK? SY: OK. GS: I don't want Norwich -- anybody at Norwich University to think I think I failed. SY: Yeah. What are you proudest of? GS: I'm proud to say I'm a Norwich University graduate. I'm proud to say I was an American soldier and I don't care who knows it. SY: Proud of being a good husband? GS: I'm proud of being a good husband, and a good father, and a good grandfather. I'm proud of all of it. Was I as good a father as I could have been? Probably not. SY: Is anyone? GS: I don't know. I'm sure everybody has their doubts about that. Being a parent never ends -- never ends -- and being a grandfather is a joy. SY: Did you have to be away from them a lot? GS: Well, my children, I did, yes. My wife and I actually raised one of our grandchildren and that was the joy, extra joy, in our life. He's now a junior in college and doing pretty good. He's a good boy, thanks to his grandmother and me to some extent. Anyway, so that's what I wanted you to know, okay? SY: OK.11 GS: Now, I could show you some things in there which are more meaningful than others to tell that story but personally, frankly, I don't think that story holds. I don't think that what's in there -- I'm not arguing for any more space. You could probably do less and do the same thing. You've got some stuff. I mean, I can tell stories about almost everything you've got and how it all fits. SY: But, it sounds like, yeah, you have a slightly different narrative, so what -- GS: I have a different narrative than what a historian would pick out. SY: So, what would your narrative be? GS: Well, I think my narrative would be I can take you right in there right now and start -- and show you stuff that supports what I just told you. SY: All right. Do you want me to take the microphone and we can go in there? END OF AUDIO FILE