Asymmetry in warfare is not a new phenomenon. Historically, it has been observed that on various occasions there has been a marked difference in the relative military power and strategy of the warring states. However, in the post 9/11 era, it has been observed that the character and nature of war itself is changing particularly amid the wars between state and non-state actors. The usage of unconventional tools and tactics, be it guerrilla warfare or terrorism or irregular warfare or any other forms are becoming more synonymous with non-state entities. All this is leading to a composition of warfare in which a non-state actor is using asymmetric methods to target the state's vulnerabilities to achieve disproportionate effect. This paper debates the notion of Asymmetric Warfare, the characters of actors involved and the nature of the state's response in the 21st century.
Este artículo contiene la traducción al castellano de la entrada "Estado" de Hermann Heller, con una introducción a su pensamiento político y jurídico. ; This article contains the Spanish translation of the entry "Staat", of Hermann Heller, with an introduction to his political and juridical thought.
The purpose of the study is to characterize the impact of state financial control on the functioning of public authorities and to highlight the directions for the development of state financial control in Ukraine. The methodological basis of the article is a system of general and special scientific methods (dialectical, formal-logical, comparative legal, analytical, etc.). It is proved that in most countries there are formal systems of state financial control, the subjects of such control and their powers are clearly defined. It has been established that in Ukraine there is a centralized model of activity of state financial control bodies, which does not meet the current challenges. It is concluded that the presence of unified and clearly defined tasks, methods and principles, taking into account the specifics of the national legislation and the socio-economic situation that ensures the effective work of state financial control bodies and improves financial and budgetary discipline. It is based on the priority of three vectors of development of the state control system: formation of a clear structure of state control subjects; development of a legislative framework and unified methodology and, finally, introduction of modern information and innovative technologies.
Development outcomes come in `clusters' that seem difficult to exit. Using original data from Colombia, we present evidence of the interconnection between two critical political components: state weakness and clientelism. State weakness creates the right environment for clientelism to ourish. Clientelism sets in place a structure of incentives for politicians and citizens that is detrimental to building state capacity. We show that vote buying, as a measure of clientelism, and tax evasion, as a measure of state weakness, are highly correlated at the individual level. We also report evidence that both practices are widely accepted in society, a result consistent with a deeply entrenched relationship of mutually reinforcing in uences. Finally, we propose a set of mechanisms that underlie the hypothesis that a weak state and widespread clientelism are part of a political equilibrium with multiple feedback loops. Our results suggest that state weakness is a trap that is likely hard to exit.
This paper is an attempt to answer the raw philosophical question of "ti esti stateterrorism". It is a critical philosophical analysis of the concept of state-terrorism based upon an epistemological discussion, in an effort to re-formulate the question of terrorism by making the case that state-terrorism is the mother phenomenon and root of all forms of terrorism. My ambition is to contribute to our understanding of terrorism by revealing that, in the Greek language which is the language of concepts and philosophy, the term terrorism is terrorcracy and literary means state-terrorism, while it belongs to the same family of words as democracy, since the suffix –cracy, a recognition that may have the power to open new ways of viewing the term and phenomenon of terrorism, if not re-define the whole concept by describing it according to the term's original meaning. Under this logic, terrorism would refer to a form of government and a political system. A hypothesis that my essay introduces into the philosophical dialogues on terrorism, since it never before has been discussed within these terms. State-terrorism is a forbidden term according to legal experts, however should not be treated as a sterile term by critical thinkers ; Este trabajo aborda la cuestión filosófica y urgente del "ti esti state-terrorism". El ensayo analiza críticamente y filosóficamente el concepto del terrorismo del estado, basado en una discusión epistemológica, que intenta re-formular la cuestión del terrorismo, donde se argumenta que el terrorismo de estado es el fenómeno inicial y la raíz del terrorismo en todas sus formas. Mi aspiración es contribuir a una comprensión del terrorismo que trate de revelar cómo en griego –el idioma de los conceptos y la filosofía– el término "terrorismo" es "terror-cracia" y significa literalmente el terrorismo del estado; también es parte de la misma familia de la democracia, al tener el sufijo "–cracia." Este reconocimiento puede revelar nuevas maneras de ver el concepto y fenómeno del terrorismo, o incluso puede ayudar a redefinir el concepto por completo al ponerlo en sintonía con su sentido original. Según este razonamiento, el terrorismo se referiría a una forma del gobierno y a un sistema político. En mi ensayo introduzco esta hipótesis al hilo de diálogos filosóficos sobre el terrorismo, ya que el asunto no se había discutido nunca antes en estos términos. "El terrorismo del estado" es un término prohibido según los expertos jurídicos, pero los pensadores críticos no deben tratarlo como término estéril
The article describes and analyzes in detail the state evolution mechanism. The authors show that many different theories and doctrines, various schemes for typologizing the evolutionary forms of the state have been developed over the long history of the existence of legal, philosophical and political sciences. The work content includes the discussion of the difficulties of developing rigorous theories of the evolution of state forms associated with the complexity and ambiguity of particular historical processes of state formation and development.The authors distinguish and consider the evolutionary features of the modern state, justify that the modern state as a historical type possesses a number of features that are not inherent (or inherent only in part) in both the traditional and the proto-modern state, which form its evolutionary features, specificity of functioning and evolutionary transformation. In addition, the article identifies and analyzes four main innovative stages in the political and legal institutionalization of modern political domination: civil state, rule-of-law state, democratic rule-of-law state and social rule-of-law state.
In this essay, we present a general outline, a conceptual and analytical overview to historicize the genetic processes of State terrorism in the American continent. The objective is to recover the centrality of the premise of the war against Marxism, to analyze the action of neoconservative discursive communities from the second half of the twentieth century. We will pay attention to their counterrevolutionary basis, which were developed from the nucleus of these groups until gradually colonize the political organization of the nation-states. Through this process, which occurred in the context of a deep crisis of hegemony, we will point out the most important elements in the emergence of a new state rationality based on internal security, sustained in the principle of internal war, with selective and massive crime as a fundamental method. ; En este ensayo presentamos unas líneas generales, una panorámica conceptual y analítica para historizar los procesos genéticos del terrorismo de Estado en el continente americano. El objetivo es, recuperando la centralidad que tuvo la premisa de la guerra contra el marxismo, analizar la acción de las comunidades discursivas neoconservadoras a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Prestaremos particular atención a sus presupuestos contrarrevolucionarios, que se fueron desarrollando desde el núcleo de esos grupos hasta colonizar paulatinamente la organización política de los Estados-nación. A través de ese proceso, que se produjo en el contexto de una profunda crisis de hegemonía, señalaremos los elementos más importantes en el surgimiento de una nueva racionalidad estatal basada en la seguridad interior, sostenida en el principio de guerra interna, con el crimen selectivo y masivo como método fundamental.
In this essay, we present a general outline, a conceptual and analytical overview to historicize the genetic processes of State terrorism in the American continent. The objective is to recover the centrality of the premise of the war against Marxism, to analyze the action of neoconservative discursive communities from the second half of the twentieth century. We will pay attention to their counterrevolutionary basis, which were developed from the nucleus of these groups until gradually colonize the political organization of the nation-states. Through this process, which occurred in the context of a deep crisis of hegemony, we will point out the most important elements in the emergence of a new state rationality based on internal security, sustained in the principle of internal war, with selective and massive crime as a fundamental method. ; En este ensayo presentamos unas líneas generales, una panorámica conceptual y analítica para historizar los procesos genéticos del terrorismo de Estado en el continente americano. El objetivo es, recuperando la centralidad que tuvo la premisa de la guerra contra el marxismo, analizar la acción de las comunidades discursivas neoconservadoras a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Prestaremos particular atención a sus presupuestos contrarrevolucionarios, que se fueron desarrollando desde el núcleo de esos grupos hasta colonizar paulatinamente la organización política de los Estados-nación. A través de ese proceso, que se produjo en el contexto de una profunda crisis de hegemonía, señalaremos los elementos más importantes en el surgimiento de una nueva racionalidad estatal basada en la seguridad interior, sostenida en el principio de guerra interna, con el crimen selectivo y masivo como método fundamental.
In this research I will deal with the problems posed by state secrets in democratic systems, paying special attention to the way in which they are regulated in Spanish law. After a brief approach to this concept, I will carry out a critical examination of the control mechanisms, and especially of the jurisdictional control. The issue of state secrets is a highly topical subject in Spain, because the Basque Parliamentary Group (EAJ-PNV) in the Chamber of Deputies has launched a process to reform the Official Secrets Act of 1968, which to this day it is currently valid. ; En este trabajo me ocuparé de los problemas que plantea el recurso a los secretos de Estado en los sistemas democráticos, prestando especial atención a la forma como se regulan en el derecho español. Tras una breve aproximación al concepto, realizaré un examen crítico de los mecanismos de control y, en especial, del control jurisdiccional. El tema de los secretos de Estado es de máxima actualidad en España, debido a que el Grupo Parlamentario Vasco (EAJ-PNV) en el Congreso de los Diputados ha puesto en marcha un proceso de reforma de la Ley de secretos oficiales de 1968, que a día de hoy aún sigue vigente.
The research of the importance of the Catholic religion in the formation of the Mexican nation during the colonial period, focusing on the proclamation of the Catholic confessional state excluding the first constitutions; then analyzes the clashes between the Catholic hierarchy and liberal governments during most of the nineteenth century to the final proclamation of the separation of church and state from the Constitution of 1857 and the Secular State interventionist nature of the Constitution 1917. ; El trabajo de investigación parte de la importancia de la religión católica en la formación de la nación mexicana durante el periodo virreinal, incidiendo en la proclamación del Estado confesional católico excluyente en los primeros textos constitucionales; analiza posteriormente los enfrentamientos entre la jerarquía católica y los Gobiernos liberales durante la mayor parte del siglo XIX hasta la definitiva proclamación de la separación de la Iglesia y el Estado a partir del texto constitucional de 1857 y el Estado Laico de carácter intervencionista en la Constitución de 1917.The research of the importance of the Catholic religion in the formation of the Mexican nation during the colonial period, focusing on the proclamation of the Catholic confessional state excluding the first constitutions; then analyzes the clashes between the Catholic hierarchy and liberal governments during most of the nineteenth century to the final proclamation of the separation of church and state from the Constitution of 1857 and the Secular State interventionist nature of the Constitution 1917.
The Welfare State´s construction in capitalist of democratic countries the post-World War II European must be understood as part of a modernizing process of societies. The Welfare State created by European democracies is therefore distinguished from authoritarian, fascist, or communist state models. The corporatist Estado Novo, which was in force in Portugal between 1933 and 1974, assumed a kind of third way capable of overcoming the liberal and socialist models of social protection. Compared with those achieved by Welfare State countries, the Portuguese Corporatist Social Security model failed in all its dimensions (education, health, social security). Portugal in the post-World War II, was unable to disconnect itself from a conservative, authoritarian and retro-grade ideology and, despite having an economic growth never seen before, it remained deprived of two of the main engines of social modernization of the 'golden age of capitalism' : political democracy and the Welfare State model. This was only to take place on 25 April 1974. Very late, three decades late, and at a time when the Welfare State was beginning to fall victim to its own success.
El estado de alarma constituye uno de los tres estados excepcionales, junto con el de excepción y el de sitio, que recoge la Constitución de 1978, de infrecuente mención en el constitucionalismo comparado. Se declara por el Gobierno ante graves crisis naturales, sanitarias o tecnológicas, o, si concurren conjuntamente con estas, ante el desabastecimiento de bienes de primera necesidad o la paralización de servicios públicos esenciales. Consiste en una concentración del poder bajo una autoridad competente que puede ser el Gobierno o el Presidente de una Comunidad Autónoma–, y en la limitación –nunca la suspensión– de ciertos derechos mediante medidas administrativas necesarias y proporcionadas para el mantenimiento de la normalidad: restricción de la circulación y el desplazamiento, requisa de bienes, ocupación de locales –con exclusión de domicilios particulares–, racionamiento en el uso de servicios o el consumo de artículos de primera necesidad y garantía del abastecimiento de los mercados de productos de primera necesidad y de los servicios esenciales. En este estudio se ofrece una aproximación al estado de alarma, con una breve fundamentación histórica, política, iusfilosófica y de derecho comparado y un análisis de su regulación constitucional y legal. Se completa con un recorrido crítico por la praxis relativa a su activación en España, en el año 2010, para hacer frente a la crisis de los controladores aéreos, y en 2020, para hacer frente a la crisis desencadenada por la pandemia global del coronavirus COVID-19, desde el punto de vista del estricto cumplimiento del derecho constitucional de excepción, en relación con la necesidad y proporcionalidad de las medidas de concentración del poder y limitación o suspensión de los derechos fundamentales. ; State of alarm is one of the three states of emergency, together with the state of emergency and the state of siege, provided by the Spanish Constitution, scarcely mentioned in comparative constitutional law. It is declared by the Government in cases of natural ...
Los problemas de identidad nacional han sido constantes en la historia de Estados Unidos, incluso hasta hoy, siendo la Guerra Civil el ejemplo más notable de desacuerdo grave sobre la identidad y la unidad nacionales. Hay muchas interpretaciones sobre cómo se conformó como país, cuáles son sus características definitorias y cuán fácticas o meramente autocomplacientes fueron realmente o son ahora las afirmaciones de "excepcionalidad". Este trabajo pretende ser una descripción general introductoria de la afirmación de la "excepcionalidad" desde el punto de vista empírico de la política y la sociedad comparadas, con respecto a los resultados reales del desempeño. Las perspectivas y características que se exponen a continuación no son definitivas ni exclusivas, pero son útiles para tomar en consideración a la hora de intentar comprender la formación del país y los efectos de ese proceso en la actualidad. Se ofrecen enlaces a fuentes en línea gratuitas y de alta calidad en inglés para fomentar un mayor estudio de la situación contemporánea de Estados Unidos en un contexto comparativo.
