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National Perceptions and Their Stereotypization

The article at hand presents and discusses the issue of gender stereotypization strategies during the socialization process of children practicing atypical gender sports, which is perceived as inappropriate to their gender. The outcomes of two qualitative studies among girls playing football and boys practicing ballroom dancing focus on various types of social influence of their families, coaches, and peers. The importance of parents' role in reproducing or challenging stereotypical gender roles is outlined in the text. The strategies to which the children participating in atypical gender sports are subjected to include: stereotypization, destereotypization, apparent destereotyping, and hidden stereotyping. The benefits of participating in atypical gender sports are also discussed, particularly in terms of social and psychological profits.

The purpose of the research. The research is aimed at identifying specific features of the process through which stereotypes influencing the image of the authority as perceived by the society, in particular, by the legal community, are formed and manifest themselves. The Mass Media play an essential role in fixing and multiplying the stereotypes that people have about state bodies and key directions of their activity. The authors have undertaken to specify and illustrate unintentional negativization of the authority's image deriving from neutral informative publications in the Mass Media as a result of frequent use of words naming negative and undesirable aspects of the state bodies and structures' activity. The research that has been based on Mass Media publications has focused mainly on verbal representation of the already formed stereotypes and relied heavily on the results of the association experiment with the involvement of legal community members. According to the authors, identifying patterns of how negative stereotypes of the authority at large and its specific bodies and structures are formed may lay the foundation for further solutions aimed at neutralizing the Mass Media's negative effect. Conclusions. The results of the research lead to the conclusion that in some cases ordinary consciousness reflects unintentional negativization of the authority's image as a result of frequent use of words verbalizing negative and undesirable aspects of the state bodies and structures' activity. It is deemed rational to further develop strategies meant to minimize and neutralize the Mass Media's damaging effect taking into account the results of the research. It is regarded desirable to work out recommendations for higher education syllabus that would help counterbalance possible negative influence through strengthening students' trust to the authority. The methodology and method of the research. The commonly accepted dialectical method of studying societal processes and social and legal phenomena as well as their interconnection and interdependence has been used as the methodological basis for the research aimed at determining the ways through which stereotypes that influence the image of the authority come into existence. Alongside the dialectical method, the following private scientific methods have been applied: the formal logical method helping to study the notion, essence and significance of the negative stereotypes; association experiment based on a social research and carried out in the form of an interview that has helped to reveal reactions to the stimulus word; content analysis of the Mass Media materials.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND LINGUISTIC OBJECTIFICATION OF ENEMIES STEREOTYPIZATION AND DEHUMANIZATION OF ENEMIESThis article presents the most important manifestations of negative stereotyping, that is, the dehumanization of enemies. Many cognitive and linguistic characteristics of this phenomenon are usually elusive to the participants of social life, so underlying psychological mechanisms are identified too late. This makes it extremely difficult to effectively eliminate them. The aim of the article is, firstly, to present key empirically verified cognitive and linguistic strategies responsible for stereotypization of social subjects. Secondly, the explication of the fact that the subtle form of dehumanization, which is negative stereotyping, contains sufficient and very strong grounds for carrying out acts of explicit discrimination, and in some circumstances, even extermination.

The aim of this paper was to study gender differences in topic choice selection using the corpus of speeches given in the 113th United States Congress. We also looked at whether there are topic choice selection differences with respect to party affiliation and chamber, and finally, whether conversational topics chosen by male and female politicians correlate with any other category we measured in our corpus. The corpus was composed of 672 speeches by the female and 2,983 speeches by the male politicians. The speech transcripts were downloaded from the official repository Thomas and analyzed using the text analysis software Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) to identify the use of vocabulary related to seven conversational topics recorded by LIWC. The data was analyzed both quantitatively, using statistical analysis, and qualitatively, to determine if there are significant gender differences in speech topic selection. The analyses showed that there are overall gender and affiliation differences in topic selection by the male and female politicians in the 113th Congress, some confirming the trend of long-standing prevalence of home-related references in women's speeches, and death and religion references in men's speeches, others marking a social shift for some of the categories compared to previous studies on the topic, such as the increasing share of references to work, money achievement in women's speeches, as well as women's preference for security, and men's preference for competitiveness, as signaled by their lexical choices. Further correlation test results recorded subtler differences which pointed to linguistic changes in stereotypization, such as women signaling less emotion and choosing more formal ways of expression.

Статья раскрывает стереотипный образ России, формирующийся на страницах британской печатной медиасферы. Эмпирическую базу исследования составляют статьи из британских газет, вышедшие в свет в течение 2012-2015 гг. Выбор данного периода связан с происходящими в России политико-экономическими событиями, которые повлекли за собой немедленный отклик мирового сообщества и соответственно заметные сдвиги в представлениях о России в медиапространстве. Создаваемый британскими журналистами образ России предполагает апелляцию к уже имеющимся стереотипным представлениям Запада о России, с одной стороны, и создание новых стереотипов, с другой. Стереотипический образ России представляет собой такое ментальное образование, в котором задействовано несколько референциальных зон, а именно: ГОСУДАРСТВО, ПРЕЗИДЕНТ, НАРОД, СТРАНА. Подвергаясь стереотипизации при конструировании образа России на ментальном уровне, референциальные зоны отражаются в текстах британской прессы в виде устойчивых концептуальных областей. Их содержательное наполнение осуществляется за счет знаков, репрезентантов различных уровней кодирования информации текстов массмедиа. Кроме этого, устанавливаются смыслы, участвующие в конструировании стереотипического образа России. При этом в процессе стереотипизации неизменно включаются механизмы, отвечающие за передачу отрицательной оценочности, что в итоге складывается в эффект демонизации образа России. Из анализа дискурса британской печати очевидно, что демонизация образа России проходит на всех уровнях кодирования информации массмедийного текста: дискурсивном, языковом и культурном. Дискурсивный уровень предполагает передачу сообщения сообразно жанру дискурса массмедиа. Языковой уровень базируется на использовании единиц с эскплицитной и имплицитной отрицательной оценочностью. Культурный код обращается к знакам культурного пространства данной лингвокультурной общности. Анализ эмпирического материала свидетельствует, что укоренившийся в британском обществе стереотипный образ России подвергается дальнейшей негативной модернизации. При этом демонизация образа России осуществляется за счет стереотипизации негативных характеристик в основных концептуальных областях инварианта восприятия образа России. ; The article reveals Russia's stereotypical image formed in and by the British printed media sphere. British newspaper articles, which came out within 2012-2015, make up the empirical basis of the research. The choice of the given period is accounted for by political and economic events in Russia that caused immediate global resonance and, respectively, obvious changes in representing Russia in media space. Russia's image produced by British journalists involves applying to the stereotypical image of the country held by the West, on the one hand, and building new stereotypes, on the other. Russia's stereotypical image is a mental picture comprising several referential areas, such as: STATE, PRESIDENT, NATION, COUNTRY. The referential areas, being subject to steretypization, are represented in British mass media texts as consistent conceptual areas. Their informational content is realized by signs representing different levels of mass media textual information encoding. Besides, meanings involved in creating Russia's stereotypical image are revealed. Mechanisms responsible for transmitting negative evaluation start operating bringing about the effect of demonization of Russia's image. The discourse analysis of the British press reveals that demonization of Russia's image covers all levels of mass media textual information encoding, such as discourse, language and cultural levels. Discourse level means transmitting information in compliance with the genre of mass media discourse. Language level manifests itself in units with explicit and implicit negative evaluation. Cultural code appeals to the signs of cultural space of the given linguocultural community. The empirical analysis testifies to the fact that Russia's stereotypical image established in British society is undergoing further negative modernization. Demonization of Russia's image is achieved through stereotypization of negative characteristics in dominant conceptual areas of Russia's image invariant.

Abstract. Pedagogical communication is commonly defined as sharing relevant information, necessary knowledge, and mutual coordination of teacher's actions with their students. This interaction mediates the assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, the formation of personality and their competencies. It is argued that among the main psycholinguistic barriers of pedagogical communication are semantic, phonetic, rhetorical, and logical. Psycholinguistic features of the pedagogical communication encompass communicative, perceptive, and interactive components along with the main styles of this kind of communication: authoritarian, democratic, and liberal. Among the main findings of the study is the definition of the set of strategies such as avoiding verbal constructions that trigger and maintain communicative barriers, non-constructive effects of stereotypization, chronic conflicts, and other means aimed at strengthening authoritarian-oriented styles of communication.

В статье с помощью индуктивного метода исследования на материале современных шуток и анекдотов о политических семьях и династиях рассматриваются вопросы общего междисциплинарного характера: политическая лингвистика, теория номинации, стереотипизация языкового сознания, лексико-стилистические и синтаксические средства создания механизма юмора и актуализации иронической модальности. Нарушение закрепленного в сознании стереотипа или попытка его переформатирования влечет за собой комический эффект и ироническую модальность. Политические стереотипы являются наиболее устойчивыми, поскольку агрессивно формируются СМИ и не основываются на личном опыте. ; The paper considers issues of general interdisciplinary nature, namely, political linguistics, nomination theory, linguistic consciousness stereotypization, lexico-stylistic and syntactic means of humor creation mechanism as well as ironic modality actualization. With the use of the inductive research method the above-mentioned issues are analyzed as exemplified in contemporary jokes humorous stories focused on political families and dynasties. The deformation of a fixed stereotype or its reformatting entails a comical effect and ironic modality. Political stereotypes are more stable as they are formed by aggressive mass media and not based on personal experience.

Cognitive disciplines have developed an alternative view of the categorization process. The theory of E. Rosch, who became one of the key figures in cognitive science, is known under the name "The prototype theory of categorization and the notion of basic-level categories". It suggests the dichotomy "center-periphery" which allows to hierarchize the best and the worst representatives of a given cate-gory, since the members of one category occupy different hierarchical positions in the consciousness of the subject. An element bearing a set of the most typical features characteristic of a given category is called a prototype. The basic level of categorization is of particular importance. At this level, the process of recognizing the members of categories is easier for the subject, since they are associated with gen-erally accepted understanding of a topic or issue, and have evolved naturally. In the context of the theory of prototypes, the present research reveals the features of the process of stereotypization as well as proposes the algorithm for analyzing stereo-types, with the help of which the subject stigmatizes 'the Other' and creates a simplified image of soci-ocultural reality.

In the article two cases in Latvian and Lithuanian press are analyzed. First publication appeared in year 2000 Latvian magazine Kapitals, second in year 2004 in Lithuanian daily Respublika. Both articles claim that Jews rule the world. In Kapitals case publication is straightly entitled – "Jews rule the world", Respublika case leaves some space for interpretation "Who rules the world?" from the texts it is clear that two groups are involved in the process, not only Jews, as in Latvian case, but also homosexuals. Because of negative stereotypes image of Jewish community in Latvia and in Lithuania has a lot of negative aspects and usage of negative stereotypes could provoke anti-Semitic attitudes. Homosexuals in Lithuania are one of the most stigmatized groups also usually referred only in negative connotations. Both publications are based on conspiracy theories that relatively small and in society unpopular groups in fact are very powerful and can strongly affect life of society. To publication in Latvia reacted not only civil society, foreign diplomats but Latvia's Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign affairs condemning such a position, editor of the magazine resigned from his position. In Lithuania only civil society and foreign diplomats reacted, local politicians did not pay attention to the issues. Author of the articles (and owner of the newspaper as well) received some financial punishment without any adequate sanctions further.

In the article two cases in Latvian and Lithuanian press are analyzed. First publication appeared in year 2000 Latvian magazine Kapitals, second in year 2004 in Lithuanian daily Respublika. Both articles claim that Jews rule the world. In Kapitals case publication is straightly entitled – "Jews rule the world", Respublika case leaves some space for interpretation "Who rules the world?" from the texts it is clear that two groups are involved in the process, not only Jews, as in Latvian case, but also homosexuals. Because of negative stereotypes image of Jewish community in Latvia and in Lithuania has a lot of negative aspects and usage of negative stereotypes could provoke anti-Semitic attitudes. Homosexuals in Lithuania are one of the most stigmatized groups also usually referred only in negative connotations. Both publications are based on conspiracy theories that relatively small and in society unpopular groups in fact are very powerful and can strongly affect life of society. To publication in Latvia reacted not only civil society, foreign diplomats but Latvia's Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign affairs condemning such a position, editor of the magazine resigned from his position. In Lithuania only civil society and foreign diplomats reacted, local politicians did not pay attention to the issues. Author of the articles (and owner of the newspaper as well) received some financial punishment without any adequate sanctions further.

In the article two cases in Latvian and Lithuanian press are analyzed. First publication appeared in year 2000 Latvian magazine Kapitals, second in year 2004 in Lithuanian daily Respublika. Both articles claim that Jews rule the world. In Kapitals case publication is straightly entitled – "Jews rule the world", Respublika case leaves some space for interpretation "Who rules the world?" from the texts it is clear that two groups are involved in the process, not only Jews, as in Latvian case, but also homosexuals. Because of negative stereotypes image of Jewish community in Latvia and in Lithuania has a lot of negative aspects and usage of negative stereotypes could provoke anti-Semitic attitudes. Homosexuals in Lithuania are one of the most stigmatized groups also usually referred only in negative connotations. Both publications are based on conspiracy theories that relatively small and in society unpopular groups in fact are very powerful and can strongly affect life of society. To publication in Latvia reacted not only civil society, foreign diplomats but Latvia's Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign affairs condemning such a position, editor of the magazine resigned from his position. In Lithuania only civil society and foreign diplomats reacted, local politicians did not pay attention to the issues. Author of the articles (and owner of the newspaper as well) received some financial punishment without any adequate sanctions further.

целью настоящего исследования ставится выявление корреляционной зависимости между феноменами «культура» ; «язык» ; «социум» и «социально-профессиональная группа». В фокусе взимания научного исследования выступает армейское клише как продуктивное языковое средство экспликации этнических стереотипов армейской субкультуры США. ; the current study's purpose is to unveil the correlation between the phenomena of «culture» ; «language» ; «society» and «socio-professional group». This research focuses on the military cliché interpreted as a productive linguistic mechanism for explicating ethnic stereotypes of the US army subculture.

целью настоящего исследования ставится выявление корреляционной зависимости между феноменами «культура», «язык», «социум» и «социально-профессиональная группа». В фокусе взимания научного исследования выступает армейское клише как продуктивное языковое средство экспликации этнических стереотипов армейской субкультуры США.the current study's purpose is to unveil the correlation between the phenomena of «culture», «language», «society» and «socio-professional group». This research focuses on the military cliché interpreted as a productive linguistic mechanism for explicating ethnic stereotypes of the US army subculture.