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{B}INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS - ICSU{/B}{P} {B}{P} Science International Newsletter No. 67 pril 1998{P} {/B} ISSN 1011-6257{P} April 1998{P} {B} Code Number:NL98001 {BR} Sizes of Files: {BR} Text: 55k {BR} No associated graphics files {/B}{P} {B} ABOUT ICSU{/B}{P} {B}Members of the ICSU General Committee for the period 1996-1999:{P} {/B} Officers{br} Representatives of International Scientific Union Member (with year appointed){br} Representatives of National Scientific Members (with year elected) {B}{P} EDITORIAL{/B}{P} The role of ICSU in a rapidly changing world{P} As you know from previous issues of {I}Science international, {/I}an assessment of the International Council for Scientific Unions by an international group of distinguished scientists was completed in 1996. The aim of this assessment was to see how ICSU should evolve in a rapidly changing world.{P} {B}TROPICAL CYCLONE DISASTERS{P} {/B} Sir James Lighthill, SC-IDNDR{P} In the Joint ICSU/WAAO project on Tropical Cyclone Disasters it has been well appreciated that ICSU's contribution can most appropriately be concentrated on oceanographic and air-sea-interaction aspects of Tropical Cyclone Disasters, in ways that will complement the in-depth expertise of WMO in meteorological and hydrographic aspects and on effective delivery of forecasts and warnings. Accordingly, during the 1997 preparations for the WMO/ICSU 4th International Workshop on Tropical Cyclones (Haiku, China, 21 to 30 April 1998), ICSU representatives readily consented to provide the preliminary discussion document related to air-sea interactions. {P} {B}DEVELOPING AN INTEGRATED GLOBAL OBSERVING STRATEGY{P} {/B} Sophie Boyer-King{p} Over the past few months, major steps have been made towards the development of an Integrated Observing Strategy (IGOS).{P} {B} NEWS ON DIVERSITAS ACTIVITIES{P} {/B} OECD Megascience Forum on Global Scale Issues{P} Strengthening the Interaction Between Science and Policy Making{P} Diversitas was invited to participate in a Workshop on Global-Scale issues, sponsored by the {I}OECD, {/I}which brought together scientists and policymakers to critically examine the role of the scientific community in providing analysis and advice on global scale issues to government officials and other decision-makers. {P} {B}CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY{P} Articles meeting{P} {/B}{P} The Convention on Biodiversity's (CBD) scientific and technical and technological advisory body (SBSTTA) periodically reviews selected issues following instructions from the Conference of Parties to the Convention. DIVERSITAS, through a Memorandum of Cooperation, offers its expertise to the Convention, and this meeting to assess the Articles of the CBD is a part of the collaborative process.{P} {B}Convenors meeting{P} Biodiversity Dynamics: Challenges for the Future{P} {/B} The purpose of this meeting which immediately follows the Convention on Biological Diversity Articles meeting, is to bring together the convenors and the Scientific Steering Committee members of DIVERSITAS, to discuss the overall programme and to give update statements on each of the Programme Elements.{P} {B} NEWS FROM REGIONAL SECRETARIATS OF COSTED{P} {/B} Veena Ravichandran, Senior Scientific Officer, COSTED{P} {B}Arab region{P} {/B}The COSTED Regional Secretariat in the Arab region operates under the able stewardship of Professor Wajih M Owais, Dean, Faculty of Science, Yarmouk University in Irbid, Jordan.{P} {B}Information dissemination{br} {/B}The Secretariat is considering the publication of a regional newsletter to circulate information on Science and Technology developments pertinent to the region and to provide greater visibility to COSTED in the region. {P} {B}Operation{br} {/B}The members of the regional Programme Advisory Board assist in the development of regional projects which are then selected for consideration under the COSTED regional programme and submission to other agencies for funding.{P} {B}Western and Central Africa{P} {/B}Professor Marian E. Addy, who heads the Biochemistry Department at the University of Ghana in Legon is the Secretary of this Regional COSTED Secretariat covering the Western and Central African region.{P} {B}Networking Natural Products Research{br} {/B}Although not quite finalised yet, this secretariat has initiated activities towards the formation of a network of natural products research scientists in the Western African sub-region. {P} {b}Central secretariat{P} COSTED-USIU Course on "Technology Management"{/b}{br} In response to the direction from the Executive Committee encouraging COSTED to undertake appropriate activities in Technology Management, the Central Secretariat conceived a four week intensive course on Technology Management in co-operation with the United States International University in San Diego, USA. {P} {B}COSTED Occasional Paper Series{br} {/B}COSTED is charged with the responsibility of influencing public policy in science and technology. Towards this end a new activity has been initiated by the Central Secretariat which involves the publication of a monograph series called the "COSTED Occasional Papers", aimed at influencing public policy for science and addressing emerging and enduring issues in science and technology which have a particular importance for developing countries. {P} {B}COSTED REGIONAL SECRETARIES MEET AT CHENNAI{P} {/B} Regional Secretaries of COSTED met at Chennai during Feb. 1617, 1998 at a meeting, the first of its kind. The meeting was convened by the Scientific Secretary with the primary purpose of formulating major Pan-COSTED programmes.{P} {B}CONFERENCE ON INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY REGIME: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE ARAB REGION{P} {/B}February 25-26 1998, Cairo, Egypt{P} The above conference was organised with the primary objective of enhancing the awareness and preparedness of the Arab countries in coping with the challenges posed by the new Intellectual Property Regime and taking advantage of the opportunities presented therein.{P} {B}COSTED PUBLICATIONS{P} {/B} Concepts in Biotechnology.{br} Regional Land Cover Changes, Sustainable Agriculture and their Interactions with Global Change.{P} {B} JOURNAL PUBLISHING IN LATIN AMERICA{P} {/B} Ana Maria Cetto, ICSU Press{P} A Second International Workshop on Scientific Publications in Latin America was held in Guadalaiara in November ]997, as a follow-up to the First Workshop held three years earlier (see Science International No. 59, March 1995). {P} {b}THE PHILOSOPHICAL ROOM{P} K. Evers, Executive Secretary, SCRES{P} {/b}This is a Swedish Radio 40-minute programme in which a panel of three scientists and/or philosophers discuss a chosen topic. Kathinka Evers, Executive Secretary of ICSU Standing Committee on Responsibility and Ethics in Science (SCRES) participated in two such programmes, endeavouring to make ICSU/SCRES more publicly known.{P} {B}EU DATABASE DIRECTIVE RAISES HACKLES{P} {/B}Controversial European Legislation aimed at protecting the rights of database owners went into effect last week, and scientists around the world are worried that publishers will use it to make access to data too expensive for cash-strapped academics. {B}{P} IUPAC PLANS LONG-RANGE STRATEGY AND PROPOSES OPERATIONAL CHANGE{/B}{P} Edwin D. Backer, Secretary General, IUPAC{P} With the major changes that have occurred worldwide in chemistry and the chemical industry, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry has found it essential examine its activities and delineate its role as the organization principally responsible for promotion of the chemical sciences internationally. Following a series of meetings to obtain input from leaders in chemistry on four continents, IUPAC has redefined its mission and established goals and strategies to guide its approach to the shaping of the chemical sciences and the service of chemistry in a rapidly changing world.{P} {B}NEW ACTING GENERAL SECRETARY OF THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (IUBMB){P} {/B} IUBMB is happy to announce the appointment of the new Acting General Secretary of IUBMB. Dr. Francis Vella. A native of Malta, he was educated at St. Joseph Convent, Sliema, Malta Lyceuin, and Royal University of Malta. Graduated B.Sc. (1949)and MD (1952). He distinguished himself as a medical student.{P} {B}28TH BIENNIAL CONGRESS OF IAHR{P} {/B} In 1999, the 18th Biennial Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research (IAHR) will take place in Graz, Austria.{P} {B} INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR MATHEMATICAL GEOLOGY CONFERENCE{P} {/B} The Annual Conference of the International Association for Mathematical Geology will be held from 5-9 October 1998 in Naples, Italy.{P} {B}NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND FRONTIERS IN DRUG RESEARCH{br} Cyprus, 4-8 May 1998{P} {/B} This conference addresses emerging technologies in drug discovery with special attention to their impact on the chemical and biochemical sciences. The sessions structure have been designed to present both background and futures in each topic addressed and to provide optimal opportunity for discussion.{P} {B}CALENDAR{/B}{P} APRIL 1998{P} 23-25 ICSU Vienna (Austria) ICSU General Committee and Extraordinary General Assembly Board Meeting{P} 27 INASP Oxford (U.K.) Board Meeting{P} MAY 1998{P} 14-15 CSFS Paris (France), Committee Meeting{P} 20-21 ICSU Paris (France), Standing Finance Committee{P} 21-25 ICSTI Loch Lomond (Scotland, UK), General Assembly{P} 14-20 SCOPE Piscataway, NJ (USA), Xth General Assembly{P} 15-26 COSTED San Diego (USA), COSTED-USIU Training Course on Technology Management (Part II){P} {/body} {/html}

Submitted 2020-07-05 | Accepted 2020-08-14 | Available 2020-12-01https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2020.23.mi-fpap.205-213The African Chicken Genetic Gain (ACGG) project (https://africacgg.net/) aims at backyard poultry optimization by commercial dual-purpose breeds introduction into Africa. To measure benefits, genotype by environment interaction (GxE) analysis provides guidance while predicting environmental effects on production traits of breeds. A survey among Ethiopian poultry smallholders showed egg sale being the most important purpose of keeping village chickens in Oromia. Data was available about laying of 894 ACGG chickens in Oromia. Hence current research questions were: 1) Does GxE take place? 2) Which breed performs best regarding laying and in which environment within Oromia? Traits investigated were egg number and egg weight of five breeds (S-RIR, Sasso, Horro, Kuroiler and Koekoek) located in three zones (East Hararge, East and West Shoa) and 5 districts (Adami Tulu, Bako Tibe, Dano, Dugda and Haromaya) in Oromia. Observations were taken as group measure performing weighted analyses. GxE was only present for egg number with magnitude strongest for zone. S-RIR performed best for both traits in both environments, except Kuroiler performing better in East Shoa for egg number and Koekoek for egg weight. This indicates success of crossbreed S-RIR. Sasso and Horro performed worst supported by previous research for Horro but not Sasso. Low precipitation in East Shoa caused bigger distance in egg number predictions, being higher for S-RIR and lower for Horro and Sasso compared to West Shoa. Apart from these final conclusions, social context of breeding and data collection difficulties should not be forgotten. Just like relevance of other performance trait analyses.Keywords: Ethiopia, smallholder farming, poultry, laying, genetic gainReferencesAbegaz, S. et al. (2019, July 29-August 2). On-farm performance testing of tropically adaptable chicken strains under small holder management in three countries of sub-Saharan Africa. [Conference presentation paper]. Seventh All Africa conference on Animal Agriculture, Accra, Ghana. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/106373Ali, K. et al. (2000). Genotype×Environment Interaction in Growing Chickens: Comparison of Four Genetic Groups on Two Rearing Systems under Tropical Conditions. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, 50(2), 65-71. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064700412331312301Aman, G. et al. (2017). Management Practices and Productive Performances of Sasso Chickens Breed under Village Production System in SNNPR, Ethiopia. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 7(7). https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JBAH/article/view/36482Alexandratos, N. et al. (2006). World agriculture: towards 2030/2050. Interim report. Prospects for food, nutrition, agriculture and major commodity groups. Global Perspective Studies Unit. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/esag/docs/Interim_report_AT2050web.pdfAlexandratos, N. and Bruinsma, J. (2012). WORLD AGRICULTURE TOWARDS 2030/2050. The 2012 Revision. (ESA Working paper No. 12-03). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/ap106e/ap106e.pdfBamidele, O. et al. (2019a, July 29-August 2). On-station performance evaluation of improved tropically adapted chicken strains for smallholder poultry production systems in sub- Saharan Africa. [Conference presentation paper]. Seventh All Africa conference on Animal Agriculture, Accra, Ghana. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/106379Bamidele, O. et al. (2019b). On-station performance evaluation of improved tropically adapted chicken breeds for smallholder poultry production systems in Nigeria. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 52, 1541-1548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-02158-9Bekele, F. et al. (2009). Genotype X environment interaction in two breeds of chickens kept under two management systems in Southern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 41(7), 1101-1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-008-9290-7Besbes, B. (2009). Genotype evaluation and breeding of poultry for performance under sub-optimal village conditions. World's Poultry Science Journal, 65(2), 260-271. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043933909000221 Bettridge, J.M. et al. (2018). The role of local adaptation in sustainable production of village chickens. Nature Sustainability, 1, 574-582. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0150-9Calus, M.P.L. et al. (2004). Effects of data structure on the estimation of covariance functions to describe genotype by environment interactions in a reaction norm model. Genetics Selection Evolution, 36, 489-507. https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9686-36-5-489Dana, N. et al. (2011). Genetic and phenotypic parameter estimates for body weights and egg production in Horro chicken of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 43, 21-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-010-9649-4Dana, N. et al. (2010). Production objectives and trait preferences of village poultry producers of Ethiopia: implications for designing breeding schemes utilizing indigenous chicken genetic resources. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 42(7), 1519-1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-010-9602-6de Putter, H. et al. (2012). Scoping study of horticulture smallholder production in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. (Report No. 495). Wageningen, Foundation Stichting Dienst Landbouwkundig Onderzoek (DLO) research institute Plant Research International. https://edepot.wur.nl/249787Esatu, W. and Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research. (2016, March 22-23). Highlights of the results of the ACGG baseline survey in Ethiopia. [Conference presentation]. ACGG Ethiopia Second National Innovation Platform Meeting, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132682919.pdfEsatu, W. et al. (2011). Experiences in Hybrid Chicken Scaling up in East and Central Shewa. (Research Report No. 91). Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research.Falconer, D.S. (1952). The problem of environment and selection. The American Naturalist, 86, 293-298. https://doi.org/10.1086/281736Falconer, D.S. and Mackay, T.F.C. (1996). Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. 4. ed. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman.Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2018). Retrieved April 9, 2020 from http://www.ethiopia.gov.et/regional-states1Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2014). Decision Tools for Family Poultry Development. (FAO Publication No. 16). FAO Animal Production and Health. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3542e.pdfGetachew, F. et al. (2016). Preliminary information on chicken strains to be tested in Ethiopia. African Chicken Genetics Gains. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132683011.pdfGetachew, F. et al. (2019, August 29-31). Unleashing the Power of Data in Transforming Livestock Agriculture in Ethiopia. [Conference presentation paper]. 27th Annual Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, EIAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/105816Goromela, E.H. et al. (2019, July 29-August 2). Understanding the Entry Points for Improving the Smallholder Chicken Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. [Conference presentation paper]. Seventh All Africa conference on Animal Agriculture, Accra, Ghana. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/106378Hartman, W. (1990). Implications of genotype-environment interactions in animal breeding: genotype-location interactions in poultry. World's Poultry Science Journal, 46, 197-210. https://doi.org/10.1079/WPS19900020Hayes, B.J. et al. (2016). Models for Genome X Environment Interaction: Examples in Livestock. Crop Science, 56, 2251-2259. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.07.0451Ibrahim, D. et al. (2019). Dual-purpose production of genetically different chicken crossbreeds in Ethiopia. 1. Parent stocks' feed intake, body weight, and reproductive performance. Poultry Science, 98(8), 3119-3129. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pez136International Livestock Research Institute. (2018). ILRI Project Profile. African Chicken Genetic Gains.Kassie, G.T. et al. (2007). Cattle Trait Preferences in the Semi-subsistence Livestock Production Systems of Central Ethiopia. In Kassie, G.T. (ed.) Economic Valuation of the Preferred Traits of Indigenous Cattle in Ethiopia. [Doctoral dissertation, Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaftliche Fakultät der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel]. Multimedia archive and publication server of Kiel University. https://macau.uni-kiel.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/dissertation_derivate_00002370/Kassie,_Girma_-_PhD_Thesis_pubslished.pdf (pp. 31-48).Lozano-Jaramillo, M. (2019). Predicting breed by environment interaction using ecological modelling. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation] Wageningen University.Lozano-Jaramillo, M. et al. (2019). Using phenotypic distribution models to predict livestock performance. Nature. Scientific Reports, 9, 15371 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51910-6Lwelamira, J. (2012). Genotype-Environmental (GxE) interaction for Body Weights for Kuchi Chicken Ecotype of Tanzania Reared On-Station and On-Farm. International Journal of Poultry Science, 11(2), 96-102. https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=ijps.2012.96.102Mohammed, C. et al. (2017). Prevalence of Ovine Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Haromaya District Eastern Hararghe Zone, Oromia, Eastern Ethiopia. Archives on Veterinary Science and Technology, 2, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.29011/2637-9988/100006Mueller, J.P. et al. (2015). Community-based livestock breeding programmes: essentials and examples. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 132, 155-168. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbg.12136Oonincx, D.G.A.B. and de Boer, I.J.M. (2012). Environmental Impact of the Production of Mealworms as a Protein Source for Humans – A Life Cycle Assessment. PLoS ONE, 7(12), e51145. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051145Oranu, C.O. et al. (2018). Comparative Evaluation of Farmers' Perception and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change and Variability in Bako Tibe, Ethiopia and Abeokuta, Nigeria. American Journal of Climate Change, 7, 611-623. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2018.74038Oromia Bureau of Finance and Economic Development. (2009). Regional Statistics. The National Regional Government of Oromia. Retrieved April 28, 2020 from https://www.oromiabofed.gov.et/SAS Institute Inc. (2020). Base SAS® 9.4 Procedures Guide. 7. ed. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.Sharma, J. et al. (2015). Higher weight gain by Kuroiler chickens than indigenous chickens raised under scavenging conditions by rural households in Uganda. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 27(9). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd27/9/shar27178.htmlShiferaw, T. (2008). Socio-ecological Functioning and Economic Performance of Rain-fed farming Systems in Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha District, Ethiopia. Agroecology Master's Program Norwegian University of Life Sciences.Sölkner, J. et al. (1998, January 11-16). Analysis of determinants for success and failure of village breeding programmes. [Conference presentation paper]. 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This work focuses on a subject that has been of constant interest and continuing centrality in the political agendas of different national legal systems: the procedural simplification that can be ascribable to the species of interventions that belong to the broader genus of the change of public administration'. Since the '70s, the transformation of public administration, among other different possibilities, chose the ambiguous and winding path of simplification. It has been taken as a guiding principle for the entire legal system and as a prevailing logic for the process of redesigning and restructuring the administrative organization and action. Administrative simplification was a 'fashionable' topic in the '90s, and since then a 'central block' and 'driving force' of both EU and national public policies, thus becoming a technical and cultural process for reforming administration. Its aim is 'to give it a more suitable shape that is tailored to the needs of society' for which its services are indeed intended. The procedural simplification is a topic of overnational interest that in several jurisdictions has been gradually occupying larger and larger spaces in the definition of public policies, according to the shared view that the simplification of the regulatory and administrative system is a fundamental condition for of socio-economic growth. Thanks to the awareness of the notion of 'administrative risk', or rather, the sensitive 'mutual dependence' between political-administrative and economic system, as Borruso noted in the preface to the European Commission Communication Europe 2020. A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, the administrative simplification measures and, in particular, administrative procedures, have been dominating for a long time the political, legal, economic and social debates. Moreover, they are intended to occupy significant spaces in the near future, inasmuch as they are directed to keep within a threshold of 'tolerance' the inevitable organizational and functional complexity of an administration built on the principles of institutional pluralism, subsidiarity, competence and specialization, indispensability journalistic intervention, not to say of binding formalism. By establishing itself as a legal and social requirement to guarantee an administrative action that would be 'simpler, more effective, more efficient and more economical' for citizens, and by changing its status from mere collective aspiration to legal claim, the simplification of administrative procedures is an multi-faceted and poly-dimensional objective that the national legislature has pursued through different strategic actions, among which, the computerization process has been taking a central role. Not surprisingly, the development of digital administration has been considered by many as the most effective tool to simplify administrative action and respond to the issue of procedural complication. It has been sees as a process of 'review of the administrative structures and their organizational links, [.] redefinition of tasks and optimization of the capacity for work in the offices, thus achieving a reduction of the steps and the time required for the performance of administrative acting, which is what the simplification of procedures consists of. A theme which, in the first instance, concerns the balance between interests and principles. Inevitable corollary to administrative impartiality, organizational structure and the distribution of skills, the procedural complexity, which is questioned for the number of its steps and intra-procedures activities, for the time taken to achieve them and the red tape that affects citizens, it is a challenge to be answered, in general, through the use of computerization and communication tools. It is a challenge to be carried out with the accurate use of computerization and communication technologies. First of all, as its digitization is able to give an adequate response to the need to combine functional demands and requirements of simplification and rebalance the relationship between the end-protection guarantee of the interest and the duty of non-compression 'effectiveness, efficiency and economy of action that is traditionally made explicit while making the decision. From this remark, the added value that the process of computerization has shown in the policies of simplification can be understood precisely by evaluating in a negative way, how, the simplification of the administrative proceedings 'cannot be prosecuted by dequotando (non so cosa vuol dire) and debunking the rules of procedure whose positivization has represented a civilized procedural achievement. The extra value of the process of computerization among the techniques of procedural simplification – we have already said – is 'integration' between the principles of effectiveness, efficiency and economy, of certainty of timing, transparency of administrative action; the ability to overcome the limits that are connected to this principle and process of public administration reform, summarized in the principle of 'contradictory', participation, impartiality, and the necessary complete investigation; in the introduction of better modes of interaction, enabling faster and more effective relationships with participants and a greater guarantee of legal claims. In short, it consists of the ability to re-balance, at the procedural level, the relationship between the needs of the function and the requirements of guarantee of the action, often 'unbalanced ' in favor of one or the other. The 'revolutionary' aspect that we identify in the electronic administrative procedure is actually the result of a process that first passes through the definition of new information systems. The object of technological revolution is indeed information. The revolutionary aspect of computerization administration is the dynamic management of information and the possible reality of interconnected information systems that are integrated and shared, which does not mean less safe. And the verbal synthesis of a technological simplified action is the digital administrative proceedings . The digital simplification of the administrative procedure is the product of different methods of collection, use, access, transmission and communication of information, all technology-based. And administrative digital procedure is nothing but a decision-making process that takes advantage of the tools that technology puts at governments and citizens disposal. 'Neutral' tools that the legislature adopts for political purposes aiming at simplification and exercise of the rights. Tools that, precisely because they are neutral, will act in terms of reducing procedural complexity according to the quantum assumed while legislative determining, on the one hand, and enforcement by public authorities on the other. From this perspective we must look at the tools that legislators, Italian as well as Spanish, have outlined in order to give the electronically processed work the same effectiveness as the one carried out traditionally and in order to fulfill the obligation of information management procedures: from the discipline of electronic documents and the electronic signature, to the discipline of registering incoming and outgoing communications through an automated system; from the rules of the communications of documents between public administrations through the use of electronic mail to the rules for the direct acquisition of data and documents in the digital archives of public administrations; and again, to the provisions of a computer file, taken in the path as the 'centerpiece of the new mode of conducting administrative proceedings'. From this remark, the same computer file, created by national legislature as 'informative base' needed for a contextual work and shared between different subjects, 'fulfilled' with the expectations of simplification of the action and relationships, of the 'right to be known' of action both on the domestic side as on the external side, suggests, of course, a 'new' management process, but it remains only in the domain of attempt to reform if not accompanied by concrete implementation by individual administrations. It is their duty to start the processes of re-organization in order to manage the 'new' procedure based on shared information and transparent activities; on direct and immediate relationships; on a different value of time and space; on a simpler, more effective, efficient and economical, and at the same time, more able to guarantee rights and interests. The practical and proper application of these tools remains responsibility of each administration, asked to face the real challenge of procedural innovation. The following research is based on this fundamental interpretation and its methodological approach is developed, at first, starting from the acknowledgement of the legal category of the administrative procedure, the reconstruction of the lines of development and legal aspects that make of this administrative point as both action and organization, the place and the best opportunity to study the topic. Secondly, the working hypothesis is outlined. Starting from the construction of the simplification of the administrative procedure as recognition of a 'right' balance between complexity and simplicity of the action, the work continues by electing computerization as a 'form' of simplification that is able to envisage a possible solution for the problem of quality decision-making, resulting from the balance between the quantum and guarantees of effectiveness and efficiency of the action. In a third passage, we deal with the administrative digital proceedings, with particular attention to the developments which, from different management information mechanisms can derived in terms of modes of action that can develop horizontally, network-like or shared among stakeholders of the exercise of power. Finally, on the same lines, the work is enriched by the experience of the Spanish structure, in order to strengthen the thoughts on digital simplification of the procedure from a comparative perspective, which is always essential for the development of the research. From this point of view, the analysis of different time frequency of the stages of computerization in the two systems is an important key. The comparative analysis, despite showing an initial protagonism of the Italian legislator who, with the adoption of Digital Administration Code, anticipated a correct vision of modernization and initiated the 'transformation' of digital government, displays, in a second stage, a slowdown in the process, whereas it has a reverse path in the Spanish system, which, after assimilating the Italian model, proved able to proceed to the state of implementation with a more sustained dynamism and in shorter time. In the Spanish system what played an important role was the 'codification' of the awareness of the need for a transition phase, in which the digital system coexisted side by side with the paper-based system rather than automatically superseding it. This phase based on flexibitly proved to be effective for the change in the administrative system. First as a system of relations of public and private entities. Precisely this relational paradigm, in the analysis that is proposed here, has been the core of the thesis. This paradigm is both a thread of the investigation and the space where all the different approaches and issues related to procedural matters converge. The democratic nature of the administrative action, the implementation of the principles of impartiality and the participation in the Administrative Procedure Law, the introduction and the vindication of private sector criteria of efficiency, effectiveness and economy of the public actions are the background to the conclusion that the procedural simplification is primarily 'simplification of the interaction'. All these elements also frame the structural and functional reorganization that the digitization process requires, and, at the same time, develops, in an eminently relational perspective; of a 'new' way of building and developing inner relationships within the administration, between different administrations and between them and the citizens.

1.1\xNote continued: 5.6. Climate Change Impacts on Dams Projects in Transboundary River Basins. The Case of the Mesta/Nestos River Basin, Greece / Jacques Ganoulis -- 5.6.1. Introduction -- 5.6.2. Numerical Models and Tools -- 5.6.2.1. Modsur-Neige Runoff Model -- 5.6.2.2. Dams Simulation Model -- 5.6.2.3. CLM Climate Model -- 5.6.3. Simulation Results -- 5.6.3.1. Reference Climate (RF) -- 5.6.3.2. Climate Scenario A1B -- 5.6.3.3. Climate Scenario B1 -- 5.6.4. Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading -- 5.7. Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Vjosa Basin / Eglantina Demiraj -- 5.7.1. Introduction -- 5.7.2. Surface Water Assessment -- 5.7.3. Vulnerability Assessment of Surface Water -- 5.7.3.1. Evaluation of Impact of Climate Change on the Mean Annual River Runoff -- 5.7.3.2. Evaluation of Impact of Climate Change on the Seasonal River Runoff -- 5.7.4. Conclusions -- References -- 5.8. Identification and Typology of River Water Bodies in the Hellenic Part of the Strymonas River Basin, as a Transboundary Case Study / Nikolaos Tsotsolis -- 5.8.1. Introduction -- 5.8.1.1. Study Area -- 5.8.2. Methodology -- 5.8.3. Results -- 5.8.4. Conclusions and Discussion -- References -- Further Reading -- 5.9. Calculation of Sediment Reduction at the Outlet of the Mesta/Nestos River Basin caused by the Dams / Nikolaos Kotsovinos -- 5.9.1. Introduction -- 5.9.2. Description of the Simulation Model -- 5.9.3. Application of the Simulation Model -- 5.9.4. Model Testing -- 5.9.5. Main Computations -- 5.9.6. Conclusion -- References -- 5.10. Methodologies of Estimation of Periodicities of River Flow and its Long-Range Forecast: The Case of the Transboundary Danube River / Alexey V. Babkin -- 5.10.1. Introduction -- 5.10.2. Methodology for Presenting Periodicities in Time Series of River Runoff -- 5.10.3. Long-Range Forecast of Runoff from the Danube River -- 5.10.4. Conclusion -- References -- pt. Three Legal, Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches -- 6. Legal Approaches -- 6.1. The Law of Transboundary Aquifers: Scope and Rippling Effects / Lilian Del Castillo-Laborde -- 6.1.1. Introduction -- 6.1.2. Legal Principles for Transboundary Aquifers -- 6.1.3. The Scope of the Draft Adopted by the UN General Assembly -- 6.1.4. Provisions Concerning Access -- 6.1.5. Provisions Concerning Utilization -- 6.1.6. Provisions Concerning Protection, Preservation and Management -- 6.1.6.1. Provisions on Duties -- 6.1.6.2. Provisions on Implementation Mechanisms -- 6.1.7. Provisions Concerning Technical Cooperation, Emergency Situations and Armed Conflict -- 6.1.8. Other Rules Applicable to Transboundary Shared Resources -- 6.1.9. Case study: The Guarani Aquifer System -- 6.1.10. Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading -- 6.2. Water Management Policies to Reduce over Allocation of Water Rights in the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin / Rebecca L. Teasley -- 6.2.1. Introduction -- 6.2.2. Buying Back of Water Rights -- 6.2.3. Scenarios -- 6.2.4. Simulation Model -- 6.2.5. Performance Criteria -- 6.2.6. Results -- 6.2.7. Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading -- 6.3. Interstate Collaboration in the Aral Sea Basin -- Successes and Problems / Galina Stulina -- 6.3.1. Introduction -- 6.3.2. Achievement of Collaboration -- 6.3.3. Future of the Region -- 6.4. Kidron Valley/Wadi Nar International Master Plan / Richard Laster -- 6.4.1. Introduction -- 6.4.2. Development of the Master Plan -- 6.4.3. Descriptions of the Master Plan and its Effectiveness -- 6.4.4. Conclusions -- Further Reading -- 6.5. The Development of Transboundary Cooperation in the Prespa Lakes Basin / Miltos Gletsos -- 6.5.1. Introduction -- 6.5.2. Prespa Park: The Early Years of Transboundary Cooperation -- 6.5.3. Advances on Integrated Water Management -- 6.5.4. The Prespa Park International Agreement -- 6.5.5. Supporting Trilateral Cooperation: Other Actors -- 6.5.6. Conclusion -- References -- 6.6. International Relations and Environmental Security: Conflict or Cooperation? Contrasting the Cases of the Maritza-Evros-Meric and Mekong Transboundary Rivers / Anastasios Valvis -- 6.6.1. Introduction -- Conflict or Cooperation in Transboundary River Basins? -- 6.6.2. The Maritza-Evros-Meric Case -- 6.6.2.1. The Evros River and its Importance -- 6.6.2.2. International Management of the Evros River -- 6.6.2.3. Main Issues in Managing the Evros River -- 6.6.3. The Mekong-Lancang River Case -- 6.6.3.1. The Mekong River and its Importance -- 6.6.3.2. International Management of the Mekong River -- 6.6.3.3. Main Issues on Managing the Mekong River -- 6.6.4.Comparing the two Regions -- 6.6.5. Conclusion -- References -- Further Reading -- 6.7. Delineation of Water Resources Regions to Promote Integrated Water Resources Management and Facilitate Transboundary Water Conflicts Resolution / Rodrigo Maia -- 6.7.1. Introduction -- 6.7.2. IWRM and Water Resources Regions -- 6.7.3.Comparative Analysis: Water Resources Regions in Europe and America -- 6.7.4. Recognition of More Comprehensive Aspects -- 6.7.5. Conclusion -- References -- 6.8. Transboundary Water Resources and Determination of Hydrologic Prefectures in Greece / Evangelos A. Baltas -- 6.8.1. Introduction -- 6.8.2. Difficulties in Implementing the Directive -- 6.8.3. Determination of the Hydrologic Prefectures -- 6.8.4. Conclusions -- References -- 7. Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches -- 7.1. Social-Ecological Resilience of Transboundary Watershed Management: Institutional Design and Social Learning / Barbara J. Morehouse -- 7.1.1. Introduction -- 7.1.2. Issues for Transboundary Institutional Mechanisms -- 7.1.3. Social Learning -- 7.1.4. Conclusion: Potential for Transboundary Collaboration -- References -- Further Reading -- 7.2. How Stakeholder Participation and Partnerships Could Reduce Water Insecurities in Shared River Basins / Bach Tan Sinh -- 7.2.1. Introduction -- 7.2.2. Stakeholder Engagement -- 7.2.3. Stakeholder Roles and Participation -- 7.2.4. Stakeholder Coordination and Partnerships -- 7.2.5. International-Domestic Linkages -- 7.2.6. Conclusion -- References -- Further Reading -- 7.3. Transboundary Stakeholder Analysis to Develop the Navigational Sector of the Parana River / Andre Hernandes -- 7.3.1. Introduction -- 7.3.2. Objectives -- 7.3.2.1. Home Organization -- 7.3.2.2. The Transboundary Context -- 7.3.3. Key Stakeholder Analysis -- 7.3.3.1. Methodology -- 7.3.3.2. Results -- 7.3.4. The Way Forward: Suggested Actions for Improvements -- References -- 7.4. Cooperation in the Navigable Course of the Sava River / Milana Pantelic -- 7.4.1. Introduction -- 7.4.2. Navigable Course and Cooperation -- 7.4.3. Proposal for Further Actions -- 7.4.4. Conclusion -- References -- 7.5. Transboundary Cooperation through the Management of Shared Natural Resources: The Case of the Shkoder/Skadar Lake / Brilanda Bushati -- 7.5.1. Introduction -- 7.5.1.1. Ecological Values of the Lake Shkodra/Skadar -- 7.5.2. Working Method -- 7.5.3. Conclusions -- References -- 7.6. How Far is the Current Status of the Transboundary Shkodra Lake from Requirements for Integrated River Basin Management? / Sotir Mali -- 7.6.1. Introduction -- 7.6.2. Survey Methods -- 7.6.3. Results and Discussion -- 7.6.4. Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading -- 7.7. Economic Governance and Common Pool Management of Transboundary Water Resources / Bo Appelgren -- 7.7.1. Introduction -- 7.7.2. Economic Governance of Transboundary Water Management Systems -- 7.7.3. Economic Governance Approaches to Transboundary Water Management -- 7.7.4. Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading -- 7.8. Water Resources Management in the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin Using Cooperative Game Theory / Daene C. McKinney -- 7.8.1. Introduction -- 7.8.2. The Water Demand Reduction Cooperative Game -- 7.8.3. Results -- 7.8.4. Conclusions -- References -- 7.9. Conflict Resolution in Transboundary Waters: Incorporating Water Quality in Negotiations / Yannis Mylopoulos -- 7.9.1. Introduction -- 7.9.2. Game Theory in Water Resources -- 7.9.3. Methodology -- 7.9.4. Results -- 7.9.5. Conclusions -- References -- 7.10. The Johnston Plan in a Negotiated Solution for the Jordan Basin / Julio Sanchez Choliz -- 7.10.1. Introduction -- 7.10.2. Key Elements of the Negotiation Game and Fairness Criteria -- 7.10.2.1. Utility or Payment Functions for Arabs and Israelis -- 7.10.2.2. Negotiation Set -- 7.10.2.3. Fairness Criteria -- 7.10.2.4. Johnston Plan (1953-1955) -- 7.10.3. Three Significant Game Solutions between Israel and the Arabs -- 7.10.3.1. Regular Nash Solution without Lateral Payments and Break-off at (0; 0) -- 7.10.3.2. Nash Solution with Lateral Payments and Break-off at (0; 0) -- 7.10.3.3. Raiffa-Kalai-Smorodinsky Solution with Break-off at (0; 0) -- 7.10.3.4. Other Solutions -- 7.10.4. Conclusions -- References -- Further Reading -- pt. Four Bridging the Gaps -- 8. Capacity Building and Sharing the Risks/Benefits for Conflict Resolution -- 8.1. Capacity Building and Training for Transboundary Groundwater Management: The Contribution of UNESCO / Jean Fried -- 8.1.1. Field Experience or Specific Training? -- 8.1.1.1. Training Objectives -- 8.1.2. Training Target Groups -- 8.1.3.Communication as a Basis of a Transboundary Groundwater Curriculum -- 8.1.4. Experimenting Transboundary Groundwater Curricula and Pedagogy: Two Pilot Courses -- 8.1.5. An Instrument for Training: a Manual Gathering the Contributions to the Pilot Courses -- 8.2.A Risk-Based Integrated Framework for Conflict Resolution in Transboundary Water Resources Management / Lena Salame -- 8.2.1. Managing Transboundary Water Resources: Quantity and Quality -- 8.2.2. The Risk Analysis Framework in TWRM -- 8.2.2.1. Aleatory Uncertainties or Randomnes -- 8.2.2.2. Epistemic or Man-Induced Uncertainties -- 8.2.2.3. Risk Assessment and Management -- 8.2.2.4. Institutional and Social Issues -- 8.2.3. Towards an Integrated Risk-Based Sustainable TWRM Approach -- 8.2.4. Modelling Transbound

After seven years of severed diplomatic relations, the China-brokered renormalization deal between Iran and Saudi Arabia, signed on March 10, marked a major breakthrough in the Middle East's shift toward de-escalation between regional rivals. Nearly six months later, the Iranian-Saudi détente remains on track. Last month, Iran's chief diplomat, Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, met with Saudi Crown Prince and Prime Minister Mohammed bin Salman, or MbS, in Jeddah and invited him to Tehran. Then on September 5, Saudi Arabia's ambassador to Iran, Abdullah Alanazi, who was previously the Kingdom's ambassador to Oman, arrived in Tehran. That same day, Iran's ambassador to Saudi Arabia, Alireza Enayati, who previously served as the Islamic Republic's Kuwait envoy, arrived in Riyadh. Such developments speak to both sides' interest in further improving bilateral ties. As Ambassador Alanazi put it, Saudi officials recognize the "importance of strengthening ties, increasing engagement…and taking the [relationship] to broader horizons."Tehran and Riyadh did not sign the diplomatic agreement in Beijing after almost two years of Iraqi- and Omani-facilitated mediation out of mutual love. Instead, the deal resulted from their respective interests in détente at a particular time. Ultimately, hostilities between the two regional powers over the past decade were not serving either side. Rather than continuing down the path of steadily mounting tension, Tehran and Riyadh both saw a "cold peace" as their best option, albeit for different reasons.Motivations for détenteCentral to the Ebrahim Raisi administration's foreign policy is the "Neighbors First" doctrine. As relations between Iran and the West continue deteriorating, Tehran wants not only to cultivate closer ties with China and Russia, but also have better relationships with Islamic countries in its own neighborhood, including with the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council, Central Asian states and Pakistan. Iran hopes this will reap economic benefits while better positioning the Islamic Republic to circumvent U.S. sanctions and pressure.Riyadh understood that attracting sufficient foreign investment to make MbS's Vision 2030 succeed requires greater stability at home and throughout the region. This made de-escalating tensions with Iran necessary, especially given Tehran's influence over Yemen's Houthi insurgents, whose drone and missile attacks against Saudi infrastructure had caused considerable damage until the April 2022 truce's implementation."The decision to restore relations was made by both sides with cold calculation," Barbara Slavin, a distinguished fellow at the Washington-based Stimson Center, told RS. "Iran wants to prove it is not isolated regionally while Saudi Arabia wants an insurance policy against external attacks while it tries to realize its ambitious economic goals."Yet Tehran and Riyadh continue harboring suspicions of each other. From Iran's vantagepoint, Riyadh's partnership with Washington remains a major threat to Gulf security, while Saudi Arabia still sees Iran's regional conduct as destabilizing.Indeed, nearly six months in, the Iranian-Saudi diplomatic agreement has only gone so far. "It hasn't evolved into a real rapprochement, but that was always far-fetched as long as Iran is at daggers-drawn with Riyadh's key strategic ally: the United States," said the International Crisis Group's Ali Vaez in an interview with RS. "The long shadow of the nuclear standoff between Iran and the U.S. will prevent the reestablishment of economic ties between Tehran and Riyadh and could eventually flare up regional tensions that could once again spill over into the bilateral relationship."The recent deployment of 3,000 American sailors and Marines to waters near Iran has only resulted in more threats from Tehran to the U.S. This development could have major implications for Iranian-Saudi relations."Like all diplomatic deals, the Beijing-brokered Saudi-Iranian diplomatic effort, is—at best—a work in progress," Joseph A. Kechichian, a senior fellow at the King Faisal Centre in Riyadh, told RS. "While many hastened to conclude that the two countries, under close Chinese supervision, would rapidly embark on fresh initiatives, reality stepped in because Riyadh was and still is wary of Tehran's pledges to end its interferences in internal Arab affairs. (Almost) six months in, neither side seems ready to be blinded by lofty declarations, which often belie serious differences."Enter IsraelSaudi Arabia has thus far refused to follow in Abu Dhabi's footsteps and join the Abraham Accords. Riyadh stresses that normalization with Tel Aviv would require significant Israeli concessions to the Palestinians, and with Israel's far-right government that is currently in power, such concessions are unlikely to be offered. Nonetheless, trying to bring Saudi Arabia into the Abraham Accords is a top foreign policy priority for Team Biden. It is worth asking how this stands to impact the Iranian-Saudi détente.Depending on the degree to which there is convergence between Riyadh and Tel Aviv, there could be negative consequences for Iranian-Saudi relations. Ultimately, Tehran does not see diplomatic relations between GCC states and Israel as a threat per se. It is far more concerned with how the Abraham Accords could lead to a growing Israeli military footprint near Iranian territory."Iran will feel obliged to condemn Riyadh if it normalizes with Israel and will be on the alert for any military or intelligence component to such a deal. That it will not tolerate," explained Slavin."Iran is afraid of greater military and security convergence of the Persian Gulf Arabs with Israel in formats such as the joint air defense system," Javad Heiran-Nia, the director of the Persian Gulf Studies Group at the Center for Scientific Research and Middle East Strategic Studies in Iran, told RS."Iran knows that by forming such a system, a 'balance deficit' will be detrimental to it. For this reason, Iran has announced the unveiling of hypersonic missiles capable of passing through any missile defense system. Iran sends the message to the Persian Gulf states that expanding their relations and forming a strong convergence in the region with Israel will not ensure their security," added Heiran-Nia.Signs of improved tiesLooking ahead, certain indicators can help assess the evolving state of Iranian-Saudi relations.As Iran and Saudi Arabia have previously enjoyed periods of détente, such as during the 1990s and early 2000s, Vaez told RS that "this one is unlikely to withstand the test of time unless it is institutionalized in the form of frequent high-level political engagement, standing bilateral committees that would proactively work to deepen ties between the two nations on multiple levels, and an inclusive regional security dialogue that starts thinking about a mutually tolerable and sustainable modus vivendi for all the key stakeholders."The main indicator of how Iranian-Saudi relations develop will not be the absence of conflict or disagreement, explained Aziz Alghashian, a fellow at the Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington. "Rather, it is how both Iran and Saudi react to these sensitive issues [such as the Dorra/Arash Gas Field dispute and unresolved tensions over Yemen], what kind of language will they use, and what kind of sentiments will they have in negotiating these sensitivities."Roughly six months after the diplomatic deal was announced in China, Slavin has somewhat low expectations for improved bilateral ties. "I would expect an improved atmosphere for Iranian pilgrims going on the hajj and a modest uptick in sports and other exchanges, plus limited trade in non-sanctioned goods." But she assesses that Iranian-Saudi reconciliation will be "very superficial."Nonetheless, as much as any optimism about a full rapprochement must be tempered, the current state of Iranian-Saudi relations is far more stable than the 2011-22 period. That is positive for the whole Middle East. The Gulf and the wider region stand to benefit, at least to some degree, from Tehran and Riyadh finding a way to "share the neighborhood," as former President Barack Obama once put it."A cold peace is…better than the alternative," said Slavin.

The research reviews the concept of governmental housing in Egypt, its types and development, and the most important challenges facing the state to provide housing units of high quality at reasonable prices that meet the needs and aspirations of users, and identify the most important design requirements for the housing unit by reviewing the design standards according to the unified Egyptian building law to ensure that housing projects meet the needs of users. Identify the value engineering methodology and the importance of its application to various government housing projects, due to its significant impacts on the level of performance, cost and quality, and the importance of the architect and decision-makers familiarizing themselves with its steps to follow this approach and its application to control quality and reduce the costs of establishing governmental housing projects from the beginning of the initial idea of the project to the implementation and maintenance . The use of computer applications to provide a tool in the form of a computer program that helps architects and those concerned to apply the value engineering approach, with the aim of reducing the costs of establishing government housing projects, taking into account the design standards and quality required for those projects. Applying the computer program to one of the designs of the governmental housing project by analyzing and evaluating the architectural design of the housing units in terms of the total area in order to reduce the wasted spaces inside the unit and its impact on reducing construction costs without compromising quality standards and then drawing conclusions and recommendations. Rapid urban growth in many developing countries has led to many problems (economic, social, health, security,.) in the absence of governments to meet the needs of citizens for housing, so slums appeared that lack the necessary services such as electricity, clean drinking water and sewage networks, Crime rates have also increased and environmental health has deteriorated in these areas. In April 2002, the United Nations Program on Housing Rights emerged as a joint initiative between UN-Habitat and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, which focused on governments' focus on taking appropriate measures to promote, protect and guarantee the right to adequate housing. In 2008, UN-Habitat declared that the development objective of the United Nations Program on Housing Rights is the right to adequate housing by trying to consider the affordability and accessibility of housing, and to support and enable housing reform and sustainability. Therefore, governments faced great challenges in how to provide adequate low-cost housing to meet the needs of users of all categories, the Egyptian government worked to provide a huge number of housing units to meet the increasing of population, it represented a huge burden on the state budget due to the increase in prices of building and construction materials. The value engineering methodology appeared nearly twenty years ago, and during this relatively small period, this technology was able to achieve impressive success in achieving great financial savings, which encouraged researchers and specialists in the field of construction management to study this technology and study how to apply it to various projects, the United States of America occupied the first place in the application of value engineering, while Japan occupied the second place, followed directly by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Dr. Jacqueline Fahmy, Head of the Eastern Mediterranean and Africa Regional Branch for Safe International, the American Society for Value Engineering, confirmed on the sidelines of the third value engineering conference that applies the value engineering methodology in Egypt, if the value engineering especially used in Egypt, will reduce the costs of real estate projects by up to 30% without compromising the quality and reducing the price per m2 of projects, the application of the methodology will lead to savings in the costs of governmental housing projects. The problem: We find that many of those concerned with providing housing, including architects, stakeholders and decision makers, lack the importance of applying the value engineering methodology in the field of governmental housing, which works to reduce the cost of constructing housing units in a way that does not affect the design standards, quality and needs of users of all categories, and helps the state to provide the largest possible number of sustainable housing units to meet the needs of citizens. Objectives: Providing a mechanism that helps architects and decision-makers in the field of housing by applying the value engineering methodology with the aim of reducing the costs of establishing governmental housing projects without compromising architectural design standards and quality, and thus helping the state to provide the largest number of housing units for eligible groups. Methodology: To achieve this goal, the research followed the deductive methodology to present the value engineering methodology, its concepts and definitions, the concepts of costs and their relationship to the different stages of the project, and how to benefit from this approach in governmental housing projects, and a review of the Egyptian building law that defines the design standards for housing units. Then the research used the inductive methodology in order to take advantage of computer applications in providing a suggested mechanism that helps architects to apply the value engineering methodology in order to reduce wasted spaces within the housing unit. Then the research followed the experimental method by applying the proposed computer program to one of the horizontal planes of a governmental housing model to evaluate the proposed mechanism by studying the spaces of the architectural spaces of the housing unit, and how to help the proposed mechanism to reduce wasted spaces and thus reduce construction costs and optimal utilization of resources. Results: that the proposed mechanism processed the entered data, whereby the unit area was reduced by 15%, equivalent to 21.27 m2, so that the total area of the housing unit became 118.73 m2 instead of 140 m2 after deleting unnecessary spaces, while maintaining the design standards of the housing unit. - the mechanism made the most recent modifications in the dimensions of the architectural spaces of the unit, and thus it was modified in the architectural design. -By entering the cost of constructing a flat meter = 3200 EGP, as well as entering the number of units in each floor, and the number of floors of the residential architecture, the program calculated the value of savings by creating housing units in the unit architecture, meaning that the unneeded costs were deleted. -Where the amount of 68,071.16 pounds was removed from the cost of constructing the housing unit, which represents unnecessary costs, and the total savings in the construction of one residential building became about 1,633,707.94 pounds. -Thus, the value engineering methodology was applied by eliminating unnecessary costs without affecting the required design and quality standards. - Reducing the area of the housing unit respected the design requirements of the Egyptian Building Law, and thus took into account the fulfillment of users' requirements. - the use of the proposed mechanism will help the architectural designer to reduce wasted and unnecessary spaces, and thus the optimal use of building lands through the application of the value engineering approach. - Reducing the wasted space in the housing unit will reduce construction costs and consumption of building materials, thus reducing the rate of environmental pollution and achieving the concept of sustainability. - By applying the value engineering approach from the beginning of the design idea, it will help reduce the costs of establishing housing projects by eliminating unnecessary costs, and thus will help the state to establish the largest number of housing units to meet the needs of citizens and help solve the housing problem. - The state must adopt the application of the value engineering methodology in all projects, especially housing projects, with the aim of reducing unnecessary costs and improving resource utilization.

Melikhova T.O. ANALYSIS OF AVAILABLE METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE LEVEL OF ECONOMIC SECURITY OF AN ENTERPRISE FOR CONDUCTING MODERN DIAGNOSTICS OF ITS FINANCIAL CONDITIONPurpose. The purpose of the work is to analyze existing methods of assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise for conducting a modern diagnosis of its financial status in order to select the most appropriate methodology at the enterprise level. Methodology of research.The theoretical and methodological basis of the research is the situation of modern economic theory, scientific works of scientists, normative and legislative acts of Ukraine on the issues of assessing the level of economic security. In the process of research, the following methods were used: abstract-logical (to identify the essence of assessing the level of economic security as an economic category), analysis and synthesis, logical generalization, monographic (in the study of methods for assessing the level of economic security of enterprises). Findings. The analysis of the methods of assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise, given in the scientific literature, showed that among scientists there are different approaches, both to the choice of the methods themselves and the system of indicators or criteria of calculation. The critical analysis and generalized methods of assessing the economic security of enterprises are carried out, namely: 1. Methodology based on the functional components of economic security. 2. Methodology based on the indicator approach to assess the economic security of the enterprise. 3. Methodology based on an investment approach to assess the economic security of an enterprise. 4. Method of assessing the economic security of the enterprise is based on the approach of availability of net profit. 5. Methodology for assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise, which is based on a resource-functional approach, the calculations of which are carried out using an integral indicator. 6. Methodology for assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise, which is built on the basis of ball scores, when the basis for determining the level of safety are the limit values of the indicators and their rating. 7. Methodology for assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise that calculates an integral indicator of economic security in accordance with market value and economic security of its capital. Scientists give different methods and distinguish them different indicators. The most commonly used integral indicator, but the essence of any methodology for assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise remains in the study of the impact of the components on its overall level of economic security. Also, in each branch of the enterprises there are their peculiarities, since the importance of the influence of the selected components on the overall level of economic security depends on the type of its activity. Originality.It is necessary to summarize the existing methods of assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise to conduct a modern diagnosis of its financial condition.Practical value.The obtained results of the research are the basis for development of the author's methodology for calculating the period of returning investments in order to assess the incurred costs for the establishment of the company's economic security service in the short-and long-term. Key words: analysis; methodology; assessment; level; economic safety of the enterprise; financial condition. Melikhova T.O. ANALYSIS OF AVAILABLE METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE LEVEL OF ECONOMIC SECURITY OF AN ENTERPRISE FOR CONDUCTING MODERN DIAGNOSTICS OF ITS FINANCIAL CONDITIONPurpose. The purpose of the work is to analyze existing methods of assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise for conducting a modern diagnosis of its financial status in order to select the most appropriate methodology at the enterprise level. Methodology of research.The theoretical and methodological basis of the research is the situation of modern economic theory, scientific works of scientists, normative and legislative acts of Ukraine on the issues of assessing the level of economic security. In the process of research, the following methods were used: abstract-logical (to identify the essence of assessing the level of economic security as an economic category), analysis and synthesis, logical generalization, monographic (in the study of methods for assessing the level of economic security of enterprises). Findings. The analysis of the methods of assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise, given in the scientific literature, showed that among scientists there are different approaches, both to the choice of the methods themselves and the system of indicators or criteria of calculation. The critical analysis and generalized methods of assessing the economic security of enterprises are carried out, namely: 1. Methodology based on the functional components of economic security. 2. Methodology based on the indicator approach to assess the economic security of the enterprise. 3. Methodology based on an investment approach to assess the economic security of an enterprise. 4. Method of assessing the economic security of the enterprise is based on the approach of availability of net profit. 5. Methodology for assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise, which is based on a resource-functional approach, the calculations of which are carried out using an integral indicator. 6. Methodology for assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise, which is built on the basis of ball scores, when the basis for determining the level of safety are the limit values of the indicators and their rating. 7. Methodology for assessing the level of economic security of an enterprise that calculates an integral indicator of economic security in accordance with market value and economic security of its capital. Scientists give different methods and distinguish them different indicators. The most commonly used integral indicator, but the essence of any methodology for assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise remains in the study of the impact of the components on its overall level of economic security. Also, in each branch of the enterprises there are their peculiarities, since the importance of the influence of the selected components on the overall level of economic security depends on the type of its activity. Originality.It is necessary to summarize the existing methods of assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise to conduct a modern diagnosis of its financial condition.Practical value.The obtained results of the research are the basis for development of the author's methodology for calculating the period of returning investments in order to assess the incurred costs for the establishment of the company's economic security service in the short-and long-term. Key words: analysis; methodology; assessment; level; economic safety of the enterprise; financial condition. financial security of the enterprise", available at: file:///C:/Users/Nout/Downloads/assessment-of-level-of-financial-security-company.pdf (access date December20, 2017). 3. Khalina, V.Yu. (2014), "Methodical approach to assessing the level of economic security of the enterprise", available at: http://nbuv.gov.ua/UJRN/Vchtei_2014_1_24 (access date December20, 2017). 4. Nahorna, I.I. "Estimation of Sustainable Economic Security of an Industrial Enterprise", available at: 241_nagorna_i.i._ocinka_stijkoi_ekonomichnoi_bezpeki_promislovogo pidpriemstva (access date December20, 2017). 5. Illiashenko, O.V. (2016), "Methodological basis of forming and functioning of mechanisms of enterprise economic security system", Dissertation for Dr. Sc. (Econ.), Kyiv, Ukraine, 606 p. 6. Hryshko, N.Ye. (2013), "Formation of the estimated parameters of the economic safety components of the machine-building enterprise", Visnyk sotsialno-ekonomichnykh doslidzhen, iss. 1, pp. 62-69. 7. Yaremenko, O.F. (2009), "Mechanism of management of economic safety of machine-building enterprise",Thesis abstract for Cand. Sc. (Econ.), Khmelnitsky, Ukraine, 20 p. 8. Shlemko, V.T. and Binko I.F. (1997),Ekonomichna bezpeka Ukrayiny: sutnist i napryamky zabezpechennya [Economic security of Ukraine: the essence and directions of the provision], monograph, NISD, Kyiv, Ukraine,144 p. 9. Kozachenko, G.V., Ponomarev, V.P. and Lyashenko, O.M. (2003), Ekonomicheskaya bezopasnost: sushchnost i mekhanizmy obespecheniya [Economic security: the essence and mechanisms of provision],monograph, Libra, Kyiv, Ukraine, 280 p. 10. Pilova, D.P. (2007), "Formation and estimation of economic safety of mining and concentrating enterprises",Thesis abstract for Cand. Sc. (Econ.), Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine, 16 p. 11. Pokropyvnyi, S.F (2000), Ekonomika pidpryiemstva[Economy of the enterprise

학위논문(석사)--서울대학교 대학원 :경영대학 경영학과,2020. 2. 윤석화. ; 최근 가속화되는 시장경쟁, 불확실한 외부환경, 심화되는 업무의 복잡성 및 기술의 발전으로 인해 조직은 구조적인 변화를 직면하고 있다. 현대 조직은 탈 관료제 및 분화된 하위구조, 네트워크 기반 구조 등으로의 변화를 통해 최대 효율성을 취하고자 하며, 이러한 조직의 구조적인 변화는 조직이 변화 무쌍한 외부환경에 효과적으로 적응할 수 있도록 한다. 또한, 현대 조직은, 구조적인 위계질서를 극복하고 이를 통해 구성원들에게 자율성을 부여함으로써 지속 가능한 경쟁우위의 원천인 구성원의 창의성을 증가시킬 수 있다. 이번 연구에는 이러한 사회변화에 조직이 효과적으로 적응 할 수 있는 핵심적인 리더십으로 임파워링 리더십을 선정하였다. 왜냐하면, 임파워링 리더십이 구성원에게 권력을 배분하고, 책임감을 부여하며, 직무의 자율성 보장을 통해 구성원을 보다 창의적인 활동이 가능하도록 여건을 조성해주기 때문이다. 이번 연구에서는 임파워링 리더십이 구성원의 창의적 업무성과에 미치는 효과와, 심리적인 메커니즘에 대해서 본격적으로 다루었다. 먼저, 구성원이 자원이 충분하다고 느끼면 심리적인 안정감을 느끼게 되고 이것이 창의적인 업무성과로 이어진다는 선행연구들과, 구성원이 상사와 좋은 사회적 교환관계를 가지고 있으면 그에 대한 의무감으로 보다 창의적인 성과를 낸다는 선행연구들이 다른 리더십이나 혹은 상사의 개인적인 특성과는 함께 연구되었다. 하지만, 임파워링 리더십과 구성원의 심리적 안정감 및 상사에 대한 의무감과의 정적인 상관관계를 다룬 연구는 없었다. 이에 이번 연구에서는 상사의 임파워링 리더십이 구성원에게 자원을 제공하고, 좋은 사회적 교환관계를 형성하기 때문에 구성원의 창의적 업무성과와 정적인 상관관계를 가지는데, 이 상관관계에 매개변수로 구성원의 심리적 안정감과 상사에 대한 의무감을 거친다는 심리적인 메커니즘에 대해 밝히고자 하였다. 또한 최근 임파워링 리더십이 항상 업무성과들과 정적인 상관을 지니지 않는다는 결과들이 도출되고 있는데, 이에 대한 해석을 기존 연구자들이 구성원의 개인적인 특성에 집중해 분석한 것과 달리, 이번 연구에서는 상사의 개인적인 특성에 대한 구성원의 인식이 정적, 혹은 부적 조절변수로 작용하여 항상 임파워링 리더십이 업무성과와 우상향 선형 관계를 가지지는 않는다는 것을 밝히고자 하였다. 특히, 이번 연구는 상사의 자기지향 및 타인지향이 가지고 있는 조절효과를 확인하고자 하였다. 이번 연구는 한국에 있는 여러 산업에 종사하는 리더와 구성원을 1대1로 대응시켜 데이터를 확보하였으며, 해당 기업에는 공기업과 사기업이 모두 포함되었다. 위계적 회귀분석 결과, 임파워링 리더십과 구성원의 심리적 안정감, 상사에 대한 의무감은 통계적으로 매우 유의미한 결과를 보였고, 위계적 회귀분석 결과 예상과는 다르게 임파워링 리더십과 구성원의 창의적 업무성과를 구성원의 상사에 대한 의무감과 구성원의 심리적 안정감이 매개한다는 가설은 확인되지 않았다. 이에 추가적으로 경로분석을 실시한 결과, 임파워링 리더십이 창의적 업무성과에 미치는 직접효과가 기대했던 수준보다 커서 매개효과가 통계적으로 유의미하지 않음을 확인하였다. 또한 조절효과 역시 예상과는 다르게 상사의 타인지향이 임파워링 리더십과 상사에 대한 의무감 사이에만 통계적으로 유의미한 조절효과를 보이는 것을 확인하였다. 본 연구가 제공하는 이론적 기여는 다음과 같다. 첫째로, 임파워링 리더십이 보여주는 업무성과와의 상반된 관계에 대해서 새로운 해석을 제공하였으며, 심리적 안정감 및 상사에 대한 의무감과의 정적인 상관을 제공함으로써 임파워링 리더십 연구에 기여하였다. 둘째로, 기존 연구들에서 연구의 직접적인 변수로 사용하지 않고 이론을 설명하는 데에 간접적으로 사용되던 의무감이라는 변수를 직접 측정하여 실증적으로 활용하였다. 셋째로, 자기지향과 타인지향의 변수의 관계를 확인하였고, 두 변수간의 관계에 대하여 설명하였던 경쟁 및 협력이론에 실증적 근거를 제시하였다. 마지막으로, 불성실한 응답을 제외하기 위한 방법론적 실천을 통하여, 활용한 데이터의 질을 높이기 위한 연구를 실증적으로 적용하였다는 것이다. ; In order to flexibly cope with dramatic external changes triggered by turbulent environments, accelerating world market competition, increasing task complexity and technology development, work organizations should accept the changing trend of organizational structures. They adapt to de-bureaucratized, flattered, and network-based organization structure to maximize work efficiency. Given such changes in the organizational structure, granting job autonomy, responsibilities, and power to subordinates become a key factor of settling in fast changing environment and maintaining sustainable competitive advantage. Empowering leadership enables organizations to keep up with fast changing environments by allocating power, authorizing responsibilities, and granting job autonomy to subordinates. And this empowerment eventually becomes a source of creativity. In the present study I demonstrated the psychological mechanism of empowering leadership on subordinate's creative performance. Giving job resources and constructing good social exchange relationships have a positive relationship with subordinate's creative performance. Also, according to conservation of resources theory and social exchange theory, many antecedent researches have already demonstrated that these traits of leadership have a positive effect on subordinate's psychological safety and felt obligation to supervisor. Nonetheless, previous studies did not directly test the positive relationship between empowering leadership and subordinate's psychological safety and felt obligation to supervisor. To overcome such a research gap, in the present study, I demonstrated the psychological mechanism between empowering leadership and subordinate's creative performance which is mediated by subordinate's psychological safety and felt obligation to supervisor using conservation of resources theory and social exchange theory. Also, recently some studies have focused on curvilinear and mixed results of the empowering leadership, and they mostly focused on subordinate's individual traits. In this study, I focused on leader's individual traits and subordinate's perception is another key of mixed results of empowering leadership. This study suggested that subordinate's perception of their leader's other-orientation and self-concern could be a positive or negative moderator between empowering leadership and mediating variables. A sample of 161 leader and member dyads were collected from government-owned enterprises and privately-owned enterprises which are located in Republic of Korea in diverse industries. The hierarchical regression and path analysis results showed that empowering leadership has a positive relationship with subordinate's psychological safety and felt obligation to supervisor. However, unexpectedly the positive relationship between empowering leadership and subordinate's creative performance was not mediated by psychological safety or felt obligation to supervisor. To demonstrate these unexpected results, this study conducted path analysis. I made two path analysis models for comparison; study model and a modified study model which excludes the main effect between empowering leadership and subordinate's creative performance. From this comparison, I found that direct effect between empowering leadership and creative performance is unexpectedly significant which leads to unexpected study results of mediating effects. Also, only subordinate's perception of leader's other-orientation had a statistically marginal moderating effect between empowering leadership and felt obligation to supervisor. These findings contribute to organizational behavior literature in the following ways. First, this study expands our understanding of empowering leadership by suggesting its positive effect on subordinate's psychological safety and felt obligation to supervisor. This study also suggests new perspectives to mixed result of empowering leadership by focusing on subordinate's perception of leader's individual traits and attribution of leader's empowering leadership motive. Second, this study used felt obligation as a study variable and provided empirical data for felt obligation literature. Third, this study not only shows the moderating effect of leader's other-orientation between empowering leadership and felt obligation to supervisor, but also demonstrates that self-concern and other-orientation are not bi-polar concepts. Additionally, this study provided empirical basis for theory of cooperation and competition. Lastly, this study used bogus items and self-reporting method in order to identify careless responses and exclude them from study data. By using these methods of screening careless responses, this study used strict study data and contributed to the literature of data screening by providing empirical data. Despite some methodological limitations and unexpected study results, these findings suggest reconcile the inconsistent findings on empowering leadership by presenting new psychological mechanisms of psychological safety and felt obligation to supervisor and provide practical implications for leaders. I hope this study invigorates future research on empowering leadership and antecedent of psychological safety and felt obligation. ; Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION 1 Ⅱ. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 5 1. Empowering Leadership 5 2. Psychological Safety 10 3. Felt Obligation 13 4. Self-concern and Other-orientation 15 Ⅲ. HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 18 1. The Main Effect between Empowering Leadership and Creativity 18 2. The Mediating Mechanism of Psychological Safety 18 3. The Mediating Mechanism of Felt Obligation 22 4. The Moderating Role of Self-concern and Other-orientation 26 Ⅳ. METHODS 32 1. Sample and Procedure 32 2. Measures 33 3. Analytical Strategy 35 Ⅴ. RESULTS 38 Ⅵ. POST-HOC STUDY 58 Ⅶ. DISCUSSION 64 1. Summary of Study Results 64 2. Theoretical and Practical Implications 66 3. Limitations and Directions for Future Research 70 Ⅷ. CONCLUSION 72 REFERENCES 73 APPENDIX 89 ABSTRACT (IN KOREAN) 93 ; Master

Introduction: Distributed Research Infrastructures are becoming increasingly more salient as science expands and universities continue to look for new means to cooperate and share expertise and expenses on large-scale projects. One area which has seen much development in recent years is biobanking, as there have been numerous attempts to harmonise the different biobanking standards over the years, none of which have been entirely successful. BBMRI.se was an EU-initiative that sought to harmonise the biobanks nationwide. BBMRI.se, was thus selected as a case for studying how a distributed Research Infrastructure was set up. At the time of its creation, the organisation constituted the largest investment ever made by the Swedish Research Council in a medical Research Infrastructure. The organisation involved all Swedish universities with a medical faculty, in addition to two other universities. However, the organisation was marred by a number of controversies and would eventually fold in 2018. Aim: This dissertation is to elucidate the mechanisms involved in the construction of a medical large-scale distributed Research Infrastructure, and to understand the motivations and rationale of the experts who activate themselves in constructing it. Thus, the overall aim of this doctoral thesis is to identify the benefits and constraints of forming a large-scale medical, distributed Research Infrastructure. Specifically, this dissertation looks at a real-life case while comparing it to the available literature covering the development of Research Infrastructures as well as some of the theories covering mindsharing and collective entrepreneurship. The ambition is to contribute knowledge on the determining factors in bringing a large-scale infrastructure together as well as the risks associated with it. Hence, this dissertation asks the following research question: What are the principal lessons for researchers, entrepreneurs and funders that can be inferred from the formation of a large-scale distributed Research Infrastructure towards securing more sustainable prospects for similar, future endeavours? More precisely, this dissertation seeks to determine what the most debated topics are within the academic discourse on Research Infrastructures (study I), after which it looks at the factors involved in constructing shaping a distributed Research Infrastructure (study II). The study then endeavours to looks at some of the pitfalls and how managerial self-governance affects organisational failure (study III). The study then seeks to investigate the mind-set of the managers/pioneers involved in setting up BBMRI.se and if they perceive the organisation in a similar fashion for the other managers (study IV) and how they have reasoned behind their motivations for joining the initiative in the first place (study V). The overall results have endeavoured to elucidate what components are at work when forming such an infrastructure at an organisational level, but also to understand the reasoning and motivation that the individuals responsible in setting up the infrastructure might have had, and how their visions and/or actions may have impacted on the organisation. Method: Some various designs and data collection methods were used in this dissertation. Study I was a literature study carried out as a narrative review using the PRISMA statements as a guideline. Both the Web of Science (WOS) and PubMed databases were scoured for articles. Study II-V used qualitative, semi-structured interviews with BBMRI.se managers. All of these studies took on the form of iterative, directed content analyses, with the exception of study III, which was an inductive, directed content analysis. Results: Study I found that the most commonly discussed topics concerned the need for developing and expanding the use of "infrastructures". The findings indicated that the future of scientific research calls for a deeper and more widespread multidisciplinary forms of collaboration. Study II found that it is crucial to identify the potential collaborative and deliberative organisational elements of organisational team building already at the outset of establishing a distributed Research Infrastructure. The study also found that, contrary to suggestions of extant literature, the establishment of a distributed Research Infrastructure does not necessarily counteract organisational fragmentation. Study III identified that an organisation with high levels of task uncertainty and low levels of organisational integration will suffer from organisational fragmentation. The type of fragmentation manifested in BBMRI.se is best identified as a "fragmented adhocracy". This means that the organisation's mission statement is subject to diverse views, leading to goals that are separate, unstable and sometimes even conflicting, while also lacking in co-ordination. The study also found that the organisation lacked a "liaison device" and instead depended on a more traditional model of planning and control systems through its reliance on strategy documents and interim evaluation reports. This was in spite of the fact that this model is better suited for a more vertical organisational structure. Study IV investigated how managers/associates of BBMRI.se perceived the organisation's brand and the role of "mindsharing". The results showed that mindsharing occurred throughout the initial two stages ("Brand Strategic Analysis" and "Brand Identity"), but would disspate throughout the remaining two final stages ("Brand Operationalising", and "Post Implementation Reflections"). This resulted in a fragmented brand perception, which resulted in the failure of generating a "pull-effect" for the BBMRI.se brand. Study V looked at how collective entrepreneurial team cognition of the instigators behind BBMRI.se changes throughout the process of establishing the organisation. The study devised a new "action phase model", known as the "4 I's" of entrepreneurship, where each "I" elaborated on the entrepreneurial rationale behind the various stages of the creation process. These were "Intention", "Initiation", "Implementation" and "Introspection". The results illustrated that the respondents agreed that there was a need for BBMRI.se, while disagreeing on what the organisation should be doing and what its challenges consisted of. The homogenous mind-set would begin to dissipate once the "Initiation" stage was reached, declining further throughout the Implementation stage. Conclusion: The overall conclusions from study I-V have shown that distributed Research Infrastructures carries potential to form a platform to pool scientific research in the face of the ever-expanding sciences, where the demands of co-financing and scientific co-operation are becoming ever so pressing. In addition, distributed Research Infrastructures have the benefit of utilising initial synergy effects and using multidisciplinary teams. In line with the contention of Gibbons et al. (1994), this carries the potential of opening up new possibilities of scientific knowledge production. Provided there is a political incentive in place to allocate the necessary funding, the process of establishing a distributed Research Infrastructure can be done in a considerably swift timespan. However, there are several inherent risks. Most notably, there was a lack of "infrastructuring", as defined by Star and Bowker (2002). This means that scientists as well as the policy- makers should gradually learn together through a learning process about how to creating an effective large-scale infrastructure. This may have prevented mindsharing from becoming consolidated throughout the formation process (Aaker, 1996; Acuña, 2012; Azevedo, 2005; J. Griffin, 2009; Holt, 2016; Krishnan, Sullivan, Groza, & Aurand, 2013; Stevens, 2003). This, in turn, would also put an end to the collective entrepreneurship that had up till that point characterised BBMRI.se, in which the motivations and drivers of the initiators/managers, as well as their respective recollections of the same, were instrumental features (Cardon, Post, & Forster, 2017; Czarniawska-Joerges & Wolff, 1991; Sakhdari, 2016). Moreover, the integration of autonomous "National Champions" (leading scientists within their field) carries a risk of the "principal-agent" problem, which in turn can lead to "moral hazard" as the "National Champion(s)" may elect to undertake added risks, since someone else bears the cost of those risks (Holmstrom, 1982; Laffont & Martimort, 2002; Steets, 2010). There is also an over- whelming risk of organisational fragmentation, which, coupled with managerial neglect, may cause the eventual failure of the organisation.

Poverty and social exclusion are often associated with long-term unemployment, but being employed is not always sufficient to provide decent living conditions for workers and their families. The 'low-wage workers' are often associated with an image of men and women struggling to support their families and living at risk of poverty and social exclusion. With an average net monthly wage of around 350 Euro in 2015 Macedonia was positioned among European countries with lowest level of workers compensation. As a consequence, Macedonia on average scores much worse regarding the indicators of poverty and social exclusion vis-à-vis more developed EU countries. In these circumstances, it is a challenging task to reveal the nature and potential consequences of low pay employment, which in the case of Macedonia is even more appealing due to the fact that wages on average are already low by international standards. Apart from creating hardship for workers and their families, low-paid work imposes a financial burden for countries' welfare systems. The costs for improving the living conditions of vulnerable segments encompass unemployment benefits as well as costs of activation programmes, social assistance and other cash transfers. In addition, the administration of all these programs requires a complex system of social assistance and it is associated with sizeable government spending. For instance, the current social assistance system in Macedonia is fragmented consisting of many types of programmes rather than having a single comprehensive program, while the total spending on social assistance in 2016 was about one percent of GDP. Although most of the former socialist countries have substantially reduced the initially high unemployment, during the post-transitional development they still struggle in attaining satisfactory wage levels. Since wages represent the most prominent determinant of the households' wellbeing, the relatively stagnant real wages compared to more developed European countries have been considered as an important factor for high and sustainable rates of poverty and social exclusion in these countries. Therefore, the sub-optimal labour market outcomes in post-transition are generally result of the initially high unemployment followed by sharp decline of real wages which, remained stagnant despite subsequent unemployment reduction. In other words, the post-transition can be distinguished as a specific development period where transitional recession has had long lasting economic and social effects even after its formal termination. In this context, policy measures intended to improve the wellbeing of the population have to be based upon previous comprehensive analyses of the labour market characteristics and have to be implemented by credible governments. The aggregate compensation received by employees from their employers represents the most significant part of total household income. Namely, this income category in almost all economies is higher than other forms of personal income such as: income from investment, self employment, pensions and various government welfare programmes. In addition, the importance of wages arises from the fact that pension schemes are often based on wage levels and their dynamics. By contrast, the self-employed do not receive wages, but sell directly their labour in the market. The property and enterprise owners obtain income from rents, dividends and other financial instruments' gains. The unemployed in certain countries and under constraints receive public financial support. For instance, the income from wages and salaries in Macedonia in 2015 represented 56.5 percent of total disposable household income. This is even more pronounced among urban population where wages and salaries represent more than 61 percent of total disposable household income. Although income from self-employment plays important role among rural population, the income from wages and salaries for this category still accounts for almost one half of total disposable household income. In this context, it is worth mentioning that we apply term wages to payments received by workers who are paid on a salaried basis, for example monthly rather than an hourly basis. The term is used this way merely for convenience and is of no consequence for most purposes. However, it is important to distinguish among wages, earnings and income. The term wages often refers to the payment for a unit of time, whereas earnings refer to wages multiplied by the number of time units. Thus earnings depend on both wages and the length of time the employee works. Both wages and earnings are normally defined and measured in terms of direct monetary payments to employees. Finally, total income represents the most encompassing category over resources of a person or household during a given time period, usually a year. The income includes earnings, benefits and unearned income, which consists of dividends or interest received on investments and transfer payments received from the government in the form of welfare payments, unemployment benefits etc. Personal earnings from work are important category in the economy since higher earnings mean higher consumption as well. If total consumption grows, this will boost sales throughout the industries, increasing productivity which, in turn is conducive to a further growth in earnings. According to the Keynesian multiplier assumption, income increase will be followed again by growth in consumption, giving rise to a positive feedback loop. Having in mind the importance of the wage share in total household income, we can assume that the wage level to great extent determines the level of living standard, poverty and social exclusion in the society. The aim of this research is twofold. First, to determine the nature of the low pay phenomenon in Macedonia, i.e. to what extent it is a result of differences in the productivity of workers or it reflects the job-related peculiarities; and second, we are interested to identify the consequences of low earnings for persistent labour market segmentation and poverty. With respect to this, we will address the following research questions: What is the post-transitional context for exploring the phenomenon of low-pay and its consequences upon the wellbeing of workers and their families? How we can determine the profile of low-wage workers in Macedonia and whether they can be considered as being temporarily or permanently affected by low pay phenomenon? Is the low pay work characteristic among certain population segments contributing to higher risk of poverty and social exclusion? What are the implications for labour market and social policies aiming to improve the well-being of the low-paid employees? Despite the existence of a large body of works on wage determination, income inequality, various aspects of employment structure and labour market segmentation, no studies have so far specifically addressed the issue of low pay in Macedonia. Having in mind the above considerations, this paper is structured as follows. In Part 1, we provide the background of research by defining the context of post-transition. Moreover, we pay attention to the case of Macedonian transitional restructuring and we review the general labour market trends, labour market dynamics and the dynamics of wages and income inequality in Macedonia. In Part 2 we analyse the nature of low pay employment in Macedonia by paying attention to earning function and determinants of low pay from comparative static point of view. In addition, in this part we present the earning profiles and we analyse the gender pay gap. The core subject of this part is the identification of the low pay determinants and dynamics of low pay. In Part 3 we analyse the consequences of low earnings on poverty and social exclusion. In this context, we first introduce the AROPE indicators as most widely used measures for risk of poverty and social exclusion in Europe. Moreover, we empirically explore the factors affecting the in-work poverty and social exclusion in Macedonia by paying attention to the role of various social transfers. Finally, in Part 4 we convey the main findings from research and formulate the policy recommendations that will target the low pay segments in the Macedonian society. More precisely, as potential field for policy intervention we consider education and training, active labour market policies, unionisation and collective bargaining, wage subsidies and taxation and statutory minimum wage. In addition, we propose a set of complementary policy measures that will help in preventing the in-work poverty and social exclusion.

At present, the Colombian Pension System is in a financial deficit because, only for the year 2017 alone, it took 33.2 billion pesos for pensions from the Expenditure Budget, from an estimated 224.4 billion for the General Budget of the Nation (Law 1815 and 1837 of 2017). That is, almost 15% of the PGN invested in the pension scheme. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has reported in its economic assessment to Colombia that, despite advances in the macroeconomic policies of the fiscal system, the country still faces the challenge of reducing income inequality which people receive. Therefore, the OECD considers that Colombia must design a new economic policy that allows to restructure its tax system, modifying the tax structure, taxing all types of exorbitant income received by natural persons so that there is more redistributive justice taxes are more favorable to growth and increase incomes in the medium term under the true principle of equity, taxing all kinds of exorbitant income received per person, beginning to tax, for example, all the high allowances especially that elderly receive for pensions. However, under Law 1819 of 2016, whereby a "supposed" structural tax reform is sought, pensions were not touched and remain an exempt income up to an amount equivalent to 1,000 UVT ($31,859.000 cop), since the amount of pension that an older adult may receive is not diminished. In Chile, a member country of the OECD, for example, pensions have a ceiling of 13.5 UTM that is equivalent to $ 535,261.5 Chilean pesos. That is, a Chilean elderly citizen in retirement age who receives more than $ 535,261.5 Chilean pesos, equivalent to $ 2,481,522.9 of Colombian pesos monthly, must declare income and pay the monthly tax of workers monthly, caused by means of withholding, which are carried out by the Pension Fund Administrators in that country (Article 43 n ° 1, Law on Income Tax / 2014). In Colombia, that ceiling is well above a twelfth part more than Chile. Therefore, having an unfair and regressive tax system are latent threats to economic and social development. If a different tax regime pensions is applied that allows the financial optimization of the resources that are destined to this system; That is to say, to tax pension income from high allowances, to gradually reduce the tax-free amount, or to apply a contribution rate to all pensions as in Canada, the pension system would be economically sustainable and would allow inclusion in the system of older adults, which are in extreme poverty.The Colombian Government to solve the problem of extreme poverty of the elderly in the country and allow the inclusion of more people into the pension system, has developed Although today programs have been developed as the Economic Periodic Benefits BEP. BEPS are a flexible savings system designed for self-employed workers who cannot earn sufficient income because of the informality of the economic activity they are engaged in or because they earn less than a monthly minimum wage, and all those who, for different circumstances, did not meet the requirements to receive the pension. This type of aid will only provide a basic pension to an older adult in Colombia within 30 years' time, and not immediately. Thus, there must be a public economic policy that permeates all present and future government plans, with respect to the sustainability of the pension system, in order to face the challenges brought by the growth of the elderly population and the decrease of new jobs for generations to come. The pension tax is a reality embodied in all OECD countries, where pensions are treated as income, or in other cases, there are contribution rates that apply to the allowances of all the elderly who benefit of the pension system, which helps to sustain the system and make possible the fair redistribution not only of resources, but also of burdens. ; Actualmente, el sistema pensional en Colombia se encuentra en un déficit financiero, ya que, solo para el año 2017, se necesitaron 33,2 billones de pesos para pensiones del Presupuesto de Gastos, de un estimado de 224,4 billones para el Presupuesto General de la Nación (PGN). Es decir, casi el 15% del PGN es destinado a sufragar el rubro de pensiones. La Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE) ha reportado en su evaluación económica sobre Colombia que, a pesar de los avances en las políticas macroeconómicas del sistema fiscal, el país todavía se enfrenta al reto de reducir la desigualdad de los ingresos que reciben las personas. Por lo tanto, la OCDE considera que Colombia debe diseñar una política económica que permita reestructurar su sistema fiscal, gravando todo tipo de ingresos exorbitantes recibidos por cada persona natural para que haya más justicia redistributiva y se materialice verdaderamente el principio de equidad, empezando a gravar, por ejemplo, todas las mesadas altas que reciben los adultos mayores por concepto de pensiones. Sin embargo, con la Ley 1819 de 2016, por medio de la cual se pretende adoptar una reforma tributaria estructural, las pensiones no fueron afectadas y siguen siendo un ingreso exento hasta un monto equivalente a 1.000 UVT ($31.859.000 COP), ya que no se modificó el numeral 5 del artículo 206 del Estatuto Tributario. En Chile, país miembro de la OCDE, por ejemplo, las pensiones tienen un techo de 13,5 UTM, que equivalen a $535.261,5 pesos chilenos. Es decir, un adulto mayor chileno en edad de jubilación que cada mes reciba más de $535.261,5 pesos chilenos, equivalentes a $2.481.522.9 COP, deberá declarar renta y pagar mensualmente el impuesto único de los trabajadores, causado por medio de la retención que realizan las Administradoras de Fondos de Pensiones en ese país5. En Colombia, ese techo está muy por encima de lo regulado en otras jurisdicciones. Por ende, contar con un sistema tributario inequitativo y regresivo son amenazas latentes al desarrollo económico y social. Si se aplicara un régimen fiscal diferente a las pensiones, que permitiera la optimización financiera de los recursos que se destinan a este sistema, esto es, gravar el ingreso por pensión de mesadas altas, disminuir progresivamente el monto exento de impuesto o aplicar una tasa de contribución a todas las pensiones como sucede en Canadá, el sistema pensional sería económicamente sostenible y permitiría la inclusión al sistema de adultos mayores que se encuentran en extrema pobreza. El Gobierno colombiano, en un intento por solucionar el problema de extrema pobreza de los adultos mayores en el país y permitir la inclusión de más personas al sistema pensional, ha desarrollado programas como los Beneficios Periódicos Económicos (BEP). Los BEP son un sistema de ahorro flexible, diseñado para los trabajadores independientes que no alcanzan a obtener suficientes ingresos debido a la informalidad de la actividad económica a la que se dedican o porque ganan menos de un salario mínimo mensual, y todas aquellas personas que, por diferentes circunstancias, no cumplieron los requisitos para recibir la pensión. Este tipo de ayudas solo le proporcionará una pensión básica a un adulto mayor en Colombia dentro de 30 años, y no inmediatamente. Por ende, se identifica una falta de política económica que permee todo plan de gobierno presente y futuro con respecto a la sostenibilidad del sistema pensional, con el fin de afrontar los retos que trae el crecimiento de la población de adultos mayores y el decrecimiento de nuevos empleos para las generaciones venideras. El impuesto a las pensiones es una realidad plasmada en todos los países de la OCDE, donde las pensiones son tratadas tributariamente como un ingreso, o en otros casos, existen tasas de contribución que se aplican a las mesadas de todos los adultos mayores que se benefician del sistema pensional, lo que ayuda al sostenimiento del sistema y hacen posible la redistribución justa no solo de los recursos, sino también de las cargas.

In the last years we have experienced the growing interest of the communities in further discovering and interacting with their environments. To this end we have been witnesses of initiatives to develop smart environments to control our houses, hospitals, factories, etc., in an attempt to increase our quality of life and improve our experiences as users. Such initiatives have been possible due to the Internet of Things (IoT), considered as the next step in the evolution of the information and communication technologies (ICT). The IoT is taking connectivity to new devices, such as RFID tags, sensors, actuators, etc., and with these devices, new ways to interact with our environments. However, these initiatives do not end with smart homes or factories but had also spread to Smart Cities. Smart Cities is a field on the rise that attracts interest not only of the research community but also of companies and public governments. From a user point of view, a smart city can be seen as an integration of the services, such as traffic management, public transport scheduling, etc., devoted to making cities more citizen friendly, efficient and sustainable. However, to provide the users with such services, the research community should consider the smart city from a lower point of view and regard it as an environment where different agents producing and/or consuming information coexist. Hence, in a smart city are equally important the agents that obtain measurements from the environment and those that act on behalf of an user to answer a certain query. The knowledge of any of these agents, as well as the smart city's knowledge, can be semantically represented using different ontologies. To have an open smart city that is fully accessible to any agent and hence to provide the enhanced services to the final users, there is the need to ensure a seamless information exchange between the different agents and the city. If the different agents and the smart city use a common ontology, the information exchange would be straight. However, in most cases, this is not the case. A smart city is usually developed in several stages and possibly by different parties since it is common that public and private deployments coexist within the same smart city. In each one of such stages, a new sub-system is added to offer a new range of services, which rely on a new set of devices and which define new types of agents to interact both with the devices and with the final users. In order to ensure, that this new sub-system is compatible with the previous ones, some approaches propose forcing the ontologies of the different types of agents to comply with that of the smart city. Another approach would be to provide the smart city with a set of predefined correspondences between the concepts represented in the different ontologies and exploit such equivalences as bridges to translate the information. However, these solutions would either contradict the open nature of a smart city, as in the first case, or limit its evolution, in the second. For instance, using the first approach, a user-agent from another city would not be able to use any service and it would not be possible to reuse sub-systems between smart cities. Following the second approach, it would be necessary to manually update all the equivalences in case that an ontology changed and propagate such changes all over the smart city. In this thesis we describe a novel proposal to tackle this problem: relying on ontology matching techniques to guarantee the automatic information exchange between the agents and the smart city. In order to develop our proposal we have studied both the background on ontology matching and smart cities aiming at gaining knowledge on the different matching solutions, on how to apply them to a practical scenario as a smart city and what the requirements of ontology matching in smart cities are. To gain such knowledge we have performed a review of the literature published on ontology matching within the last decade and we have also performed a practitioner-oriented survey to obtain first-hand knowledge on the main challenges in ontology matching. This review and subsequent survey supported our intuition that the amount of practical applications where ontology matching is used is far below the theoretical developments and that this fact still remains as an area of concern for practitioners. With this background review, we have also confirmed that the integration of ontology matching solutions in smart cities has not been addressed before. By themselves, both the literature review and survey are also useful tools for new practitioners approaching the field get a general idea at a stroke. We have applied this knowledge to the definition of a new ontology matching algorithm, which we have named OntoPhil, to be integrated in a smart city and to assume the task of matching the different agent's ontologies to the ontology of the smart city avoiding human interaction. In this algorithm we have used different matching techniques that exploit both the linguistic features of the ontologies and their internal structures. In the scope of this algorithm we have also defined a new measure to determine the similarity between the concepts in the ontologies to match. This algorithm works in three main steps. First, by relying on the similarity measure that we have defined, OntoPhil computes some initial correspondences between the entities of the ontologies. We named these initial correspondences binding points. Then, taking these binding points as pivots, we rely on structural matching techniques to discover other binding points to exploit them as well, this way iteratively building a set of possible correspondences between the ontologies. As final step, this set of correspondences is filtered to produce the final output of the algorithm, where only the most promising correspondences are kept. The next step in the evolution of our thesis was validating the defined algorithm. To do this, we have followed a twofold approach. First, as matching algorithm, we have used the benchmarks and datasets provided by the Ontology Alignment Evaluation Initiative (OAEI'13), to assess the overall behavior of OntoPhil in different matching tasks. These tests also allowed the comparison of OntoPhil with some state-of-the-art matching algorithms. Such comparison was done by relying on the results of the OAEI matching tasks and also supported by a subsequent statistical evaluation procedure. For this statistical evaluation we have applied the Friedman's test and the Holm's procedure on the results of one of the OAEI matching tasks. The results obtained account for the validity of OntoPhil as matching algorithm and place it among the top performing algorithms. Besides, the application of the statistical procedure can be used as an example for other researchers as procedure to compare different versions of their algorithms or an algorithm to some reference others. The second part of the validation was to test the performance of OntoPhil as part of a smart city. To this end, we have defined some specific experiments, involving the SOFIA ontology for smart cities and several agents' ontologies. These agents' ontologies represent the main type of agents that are deployed in a smart city and were retrieved online out of websites devoted to projects and initiatives of IoT and integrated in our testbed. The results obtained corroborate the usefulness of ontology matching in smart cities and open the door to further developments in this field.

The globalization of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) production began in the 1980s in the Southern Highlands of Bolivia. It has generated transformations in the agrarian system of the region questioning the production sustainability. The low quinoa yields experienced by quinoa producers within indigenous communities is a major issue for the different actors of the production chain, scientists, development institutions and policy makers. Today, they mainly attribute it to soil degradation. Consensus that changes in current field-level practices are needed has led to a search for agro-technical innovations. This study analyses the transition from subsistence agriculture to an export-oriented production system, underlying factors that could explain low yields and territorial resource management issues. We use various theoretical frameworks (farming systems, political ecology and collective action) to characterize the changes that occurred at different temporal and spatial scales, from actual producers' individual life courses to the history of this region for the last forty years. Interviews, participatory observation, workshops and role-playing games were conducted in four rural communities. Results show that explaining low yields by soil degradation has no sound scientific basis. Moreover, this explanation does not take into account the complex interactions that exist between environmental, technical, social and political factors. In fact, this study first shows that actual farming practices are not adapted to the agro-ecological conditions of the new production areas, and that the organic certification norms are not sufficient to ensure the production sustainability. It also stresses the emergence of social tensions related to the new rules of land access and land use, which emerge in a context of weakening of the community's authorities, of high spatial mobility and of the diversification of activities among the farmers. It finally reveals a disconnection between research and development activities and this new context. Soil degradation is an agro-technical discourse disseminated among market chain actors which hides crucial problems. Rebuilding a sustainable relationship between communities and their environment require collective agreements for land and agricultural resource management, and a broader vision that takes into account social, institutional and political processes. ; La globalización de la producción de quinua (Chenopodium quinoa) iniciada a partir de los años 80 en el Altiplano Sur de Bolivia, se constituyó en un vector de cambios que generó profundas transformaciones en el sistema agrario de esta región. Estas transformaciones hicieron emerger, entre los actores involucrados en la cadena productiva y quienes se relacionan con ella (científicos, instituciones de desarrollo, tomadores de decisiones), una generalizada preocupación sobre la sostenibilidad de la producción. Dichas inquietudes, centradas principalmente sobre los bajos rendimientos obtenidos por los agricultores, se le han atribuido a la degradación de los suelos, alertando sobre la urgente necesidad de que se modifiquen las prácticas agrícolas mediante diversas innovaciones agrotécnicas. Frente a esta problemática, este estudio analizó las transformaciones agrarias surgidas de la transición de una agricultura de subsistencia a una agricultura de exportación así como los factores de fondo que explican los bajos rendimientos obtenidos por los agricultores. El estudio se apoya sobre diferentes enfoques teóricos (sistemas agrarios, ecología política y teoría de acción colectiva) para analizar las transformaciones descritas a través de diferentes escalas temporal y espacial, desde las trayectorias de vida de algunos agricultores hasta la historia regional de los últimos cuarenta años. Igualmente, se aplicaron diferentes herramientas (entrevistas, observación participante, talleres participativos y juego de roles) en cuatro comunidades representativas y ante actores institucionales en las escalas regional y nacional. Nuestro análisis revela que atribuirle a la degradación de los suelos la baja productividad de los cultivos no posee ningún fundamento científico serio. Esta explicación no toma en consideración las complejas interacciones que se presentan entre los factores ambientales, técnicos, sociales y políticos del sistema. En efecto, este trabajo demuestra en primer lugar, la desadaptación de las prácticas actuales de cultivo a las condiciones agroecológicas de las nuevas zonas de producción así como la insuficiencia de las normas de certificación orgánica para asegurar la sostenibilidad de la producción. En segundo lugar, revela el surgimiento de tensiones sociales vinculadas a las nuevas reglas de acceso y uso de la tierra, en un contexto en el que se presenta un debilitamiento de la gestión comunal en la gestión de los recursos y en el que la movilidad espacial y la pluriactividad caracterizan a la población cultivadora de quinua. Finalmente, demuestra la falta de articulación entre las acciones de investigación y desarrollo y el contexto actual. La degradación de los suelos es un discurso agrotécnico difundido por algunos actores de la cadena productiva. Este discurso oculta los problemas vinculados a la gestión individual y colectiva de los recursos territoriales, profundamente transformados por el auge de la quinua. La construcción de acuerdos colectivos para reconstruir una relación sostenible entre las comunidades y su ambiente debe abordarse desde una visión territorial que toma en cuenta los procesos sociales, institucionales y políticos. ; La mondialisation de la production de la quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), initiée dans les années 80 dans l'Altiplano Sud de la Bolivie, a bouleversé le système agraire de cette région. Parmi les acteurs de la filière (producteurs, organisations professionnelles, importateurs) et ceux qui lui sont associés (gestionnaires, agents de développement, chercheurs), ces changements ont fait émerger des questionnements sur la durabilité de la production, principalement centrés sur une dégradation des sols dont la baisse des rendements agricoles serait l'indicateur le plus fiable. Cette perte de productivité des sols appellerait un changement urgent des pratiques agricoles au sein des communautés rurales, passant notamment par diverses innovations agro-techniques. Cette étude analyse les transformations agraires liées au passage d'une agriculture de subsistance à une agriculture d'exportation, ainsi que les facteurs de fonds qui expliquent les faibles rendements des parcelles. Plus largement, cette étude questionne les modes de gestion actuels des ressources du territoire. Elle s'appuie sur différentes approches (systèmes agraires, écologie politique et théorie de l'action collective) pour analyser ces transformations décrites à travers différentes échelles temporelles et spatiales, depuis le parcours individuel de vie jusqu'à l'histoire régionale des quarante dernières années. Différents outils (réalisation d'entretiens, observation participante, ateliers participatifs et jeux de rôles) ont été utilisés au sein de quatre communautés rurales représentatives et auprès d'acteurs régionaux et nationaux. Notre analyse révèle qu'il n'est pas scientifiquement prouvé que les faibles rendements soient la conséquence de la dégradation des sols. Cette explication néglige les interactions complexes qui existent entre facteurs environnementaux, techniques, sociaux et politiques. En effet ce travail démontre tout d'abord l'inadaptation de certaines pratiques actuelles de culture aux conditions agroécologiques des nouvelles zones de production ainsi que l'insuffisance des normes de certification biologique pour assurer la durabilité de la production. Il signale ensuite l'apparition de tensions liées aux nouvelles formes d'accès et d'usages des terres, dans un contexte où la gestion communautaire des activités agricoles et des ressources foncières s'est progressivement affaiblie, et où la pluriactivité et la mobilité restent des pratiques généralisées parmi les producteurs de quinoa. Il démontre enfin le manque d'articulation entre les actions de recherche et de développement et ce nouveau contexte. La dégradation des sols est un discours agro-technique diffusé par certains acteurs de la filière. Ce discours occulte des enjeux cruciaux liés à la gestion de l'espace et des ressources agricoles. La construction d'accords collectifs pour reconstruire de liens durables entre les communautés et leur environnement doit s'inscrire dans une vision plus large du territoire qui prenne en compte les processus sociaux, institutionnels et politiques.

El objetivo de esta tesis es dotarse de una metodología de análisis dinámica en el tiempo que permite revalorar permanentemente la problemática de la escasez de agua dulce en función de la oferta y la demanda. Para ello, hemos tenido en cuenta las variaciones de sus factores conductores, y entre ellos sobre todo el de las necesidades en el desarrollo humano. La metodología es de manejo operativo, en la que se puedan introducir de manera rápida y sencilla los cambios en las variables que van a determinar la oferta y la demanda dinámica de agua dulce. La propuesta metodológica se caracteriza por varios puntos clave. En primer lugar, desarrollamos una discusión terminológica y conceptual en la que, a partir del estado del arte actual llegamos a definir los conceptos de la oferta y la demanda dinámica de agua dulce renovable como primer paso fundamental de nuestra metodología, elaborando un glosario terminológico y conceptual propio para este trabajo. A partir de la caracterización de la oferta y la demanda dinámica se analiza el escenario business as usual constatándose y valorándose la gravedad de la situación de los nueve países que forman la región del golfo de Guinea, debida fundamentalmente a la no existencia o a la no implementación de gestión de extracción, distribución y abastecimiento de agua dulce por falta de recursos económicos o voluntades políticas. Nuestro segundo paso metodológico permite corroborar la calificación usual de la situación de estos países como de escasez económica. Para poder cubrir esta etapa de la propuesta metodológica ha sido necesario resolver, también metodológicamente, la muy importante escasez de datos para la mayoría de países en desarrollo. Nuestra propuesta metodológica parte por supuesto de trabajar con la realidad, detectando inconvenientes y limitaciones al aplicarla al caso de estudio de los países de nuestra región. Una de estas limitaciones es claramente la falta de datos necesarios para elaborar nuestros escenarios o para determinar los estándares o confeccionar el nuevo índice; en la medida que se han ido presentando estas circunstancias, hemos recurrido a soluciones metodológicas que nos han permitido estimar nuevos datos a partir de correlaciones y/o extrapolaciones de los datos existentes. El siguiente punto clave y una de las aportaciones principales de este trabajo de propuesta metodológica es a partir de unas determinadas objetivizaciones de estándares de demanda de agua dulce ligados a unos niveles aceptables de bienestar y calidad de vida, reanalizar mediante la construcción y análisis de los escenarios de futuro correspondientes, las posibilidades y debilidades reales de estos países en relación con la escasez de agua dulce. El último punto clave es la elaboración de una propuesta de un índice que nos permite evaluar de forma sintética y rápida la situación de un país o región según el nivel de capacidad para satisfacer demandas de agua dulce correspondientes a un estándar de demanda establecido de forma clara y explícita. Dicho índice nos permite detectar de forma temprana posibles alertas que más allá de una escasez física o económica nos sean útiles (al igual que en el caso de la representación y el análisis de los resultados de los distintos escenarios de futuro) para la toma decisiones, en función de los objetivos pretendidos. La herramienta de apoyo para elaborar las representaciones de los escenarios es, en sí misma, otro elemento instrumental que además de tener una buena resolución de diseño gráfico, debe facilitar los cálculos necesarios para el análisis de los escenarios, así como almacenar la información de forma cómoda y en la que se puedan introducir cambios fácilmente. La metodología es una herramienta objetiva y útil dirigida a responsables políticos y técnicos, estudiosos e investigadores que dé soporte a la toma de decisiones y/o a la visualización de la valoración de la escasez de agua dulce en el marco de un pretendido desarrollo humano sostenible. ; This thesis describes a methodology for dynamic analysis over time that makes it possible to continually re-assess fresh-water scarcity as a function of supply and demand. The methodology takes into account variations in the driving factors, including, most importantly, human-development needs. The methodology can be controlled operationally. Changes in the variables that determine the dynamic fresh-water supply and demand can be entered quickly and easily. Our methodological proposal contains several key points. We begin with a discussion of terminology and concepts. Taking the current state of the art as our starting point, as a fundamental first step in our methodology we define the concepts of dynamic renewable fresh-water supply and demand. We then present a glossary of the terms and concepts used in this thesis. Following the characterisation of dynamic supply and demand, we analyse the "business-as-usual" scenario. We point out the seriousness of the situation in the nine Gulf of Guinea countries. The fundamental reason for this situation is the non-existence or non-implementation of policies aimed at extracting, distributing and supplying fresh water, due to a lack of economic resources or political will. The second step in our methodology is to corroborate the usual description of the situation in these countries, particularly in terms of the economic scarcity that characterises them. To properly complete this stage of the methodology, it has been necessary to find a solution to the inadequacy of the data available in most developing countries. Our proposal works with reality, which involves detecting disadvantages and limitations when applying the methodology in the countries of this particular region. One such limitation, clearly, is the lack of the necessary data for constructing the scenarios, determining the standards and creating the new index; as these circumstances have arisen, we have implemented methodological solutions that have enabled us to estimate new data on the basis of correlations and/or extrapolations of existing data. The next key point is also one of the main contributions of this methodological proposal. We set the goal of achieving certain standards of fresh-water demand based on acceptable levels of welfare and quality of life. Then, by constructing and analysing the corresponding future scenarios, we re-examine the real possibilities and weaknesses of each country as relates to the scarcity of fresh water. The last key point of our proposal is the generation of an index that enables us to evaluate, quickly and synthetically, the situation of a particular country or region on the basis of its capacity to satisfy fresh-water demand in a way that meets a clearly and specifically defined standard. This index enables the early detection of possible problems that go beyond physical or economic scarcity. Like the representation and analysis of the results of the various future scenarios, this early-warning system will enable decisions to be made in accordance with the established goals. The support tool used to generate the representations of the scenarios must have good graphic-design resolution, be able to make the calculations necessary for analysing the scenarios, and store the information in a practical way that allows changes to be entered easily. This methodology is meant to be used by politicians, engineers, scholars and researchers as a useful and objective support tool for decision-making and/or visualising levels of fresh-water scarcity as part of larger efforts to achieve the goal of sustainable human development. ; Postprint (published version)

El objetivo de esta tesis es dotarse de una metodología de análisis dinámica en el tiempo que permite revalorar permanentemente la problemática de la escasez de agua dulce en función de la oferta y la demanda. Para ello, hemos tenido en cuenta las variaciones de sus factores conductores, y entre ellos sobre todo el de las necesidades en el desarrollo humano. La metodología es de manejo operativo, en la que se puedan introducir de manera rápida y sencilla los cambios en las variables que van a determinar la oferta y la demanda dinámica de agua dulce. La propuesta metodológica se caracteriza por varios puntos clave. En primer lugar, desarrollamos una discusión terminológica y conceptual en la que, a partir del estado del arte actual llegamos a definir los conceptos de la oferta y la demanda dinámica de agua dulce renovable como primer paso fundamental de nuestra metodología, elaborando un glosario terminológico y conceptual propio para este trabajo. A partir de la caracterización de la oferta y la demanda dinámica se analiza el escenario business as usual constatándose y valorándose la gravedad de la situación de los nueve países que forman la región del golfo de Guinea, debida fundamentalmente a la no existencia o a la no implementación de gestión de extracción, distribución y abastecimiento de agua dulce por falta de recursos económicos o voluntades políticas. Nuestro segundo paso metodológico permite corroborar la calificación usual de la situación de estos países como de escasez económica. Para poder cubrir esta etapa de la propuesta metodológica ha sido necesario resolver, también metodológicamente, la muy importante escasez de datos para la mayoría de países en desarrollo. Nuestra propuesta metodológica parte por supuesto de trabajar con la realidad, detectando inconvenientes y limitaciones al aplicarla al caso de estudio de los países de nuestra región. Una de estas limitaciones es claramente la falta de datos necesarios para elaborar nuestros escenarios o para determinar los estándares o confeccionar el nuevo índice; en la medida que se han ido presentando estas circunstancias, hemos recurrido a soluciones metodológicas que nos han permitido estimar nuevos datos a partir de correlaciones y/o extrapolaciones de los datos existentes. El siguiente punto clave y una de las aportaciones principales de este trabajo de propuesta metodológica es a partir de unas determinadas objetivizaciones de estándares de demanda de agua dulce ligados a unos niveles aceptables de bienestar y calidad de vida, reanalizar mediante la construcción y análisis de los escenarios de futuro correspondientes, las posibilidades y debilidades reales de estos países en relación con la escasez de agua dulce. El último punto clave es la elaboración de una propuesta de un índice que nos permite evaluar de forma sintética y rápida la situación de un país o región según el nivel de capacidad para satisfacer demandas de agua dulce correspondientes a un estándar de demanda establecido de forma clara y explícita. Dicho índice nos permite detectar de forma temprana posibles alertas que más allá de una escasez física o económica nos sean útiles (al igual que en el caso de la representación y el análisis de los resultados de los distintos escenarios de futuro) para la toma decisiones, en función de los objetivos pretendidos. La herramienta de apoyo para elaborar las representaciones de los escenarios es, en sí misma, otro elemento instrumental que además de tener una buena resolución de diseño gráfico, debe facilitar los cálculos necesarios para el análisis de los escenarios, así como almacenar la información de forma cómoda y en la que se puedan introducir cambios fácilmente. La metodología es una herramienta objetiva y útil dirigida a responsables políticos y técnicos, estudiosos e investigadores que dé soporte a la toma de decisiones y/o a la visualización de la valoración de la escasez de agua dulce en el marco de un pretendido desarrollo humano sostenible. ; This thesis describes a methodology for dynamic analysis over time that makes it possible to continually re-assess fresh-water scarcity as a function of supply and demand. The methodology takes into account variations in the driving factors, including, most importantly, human-development needs. The methodology can be controlled operationally. Changes in the variables that determine the dynamic fresh-water supply and demand can be entered quickly and easily. Our methodological proposal contains several key points. We begin with a discussion of terminology and concepts. Taking the current state of the art as our starting point, as a fundamental first step in our methodology we define the concepts of dynamic renewable fresh-water supply and demand. We then present a glossary of the terms and concepts used in this thesis. Following the characterisation of dynamic supply and demand, we analyse the "business-as-usual" scenario. We point out the seriousness of the situation in the nine Gulf of Guinea countries. The fundamental reason for this situation is the non-existence or non-implementation of policies aimed at extracting, distributing and supplying fresh water, due to a lack of economic resources or political will. The second step in our methodology is to corroborate the usual description of the situation in these countries, particularly in terms of the economic scarcity that characterises them. To properly complete this stage of the methodology, it has been necessary to find a solution to the inadequacy of the data available in most developing countries. Our proposal works with reality, which involves detecting disadvantages and limitations when applying the methodology in the countries of this particular region. One such limitation, clearly, is the lack of the necessary data for constructing the scenarios, determining the standards and creating the new index; as these circumstances have arisen, we have implemented methodological solutions that have enabled us to estimate new data on the basis of correlations and/or extrapolations of existing data. The next key point is also one of the main contributions of this methodological proposal. We set the goal of achieving certain standards of fresh-water demand based on acceptable levels of welfare and quality of life. Then, by constructing and analysing the corresponding future scenarios, we re-examine the real possibilities and weaknesses of each country as relates to the scarcity of fresh water. The last key point of our proposal is the generation of an index that enables us to evaluate, quickly and synthetically, the situation of a particular country or region on the basis of its capacity to satisfy fresh-water demand in a way that meets a clearly and specifically defined standard. This index enables the early detection of possible problems that go beyond physical or economic scarcity. Like the representation and analysis of the results of the various future scenarios, this early-warning system will enable decisions to be made in accordance with the established goals. The support tool used to generate the representations of the scenarios must have good graphic-design resolution, be able to make the calculations necessary for analysing the scenarios, and store the information in a practical way that allows changes to be entered easily. This methodology is meant to be used by politicians, engineers, scholars and researchers as a useful and objective support tool for decision-making and/or visualising levels of fresh-water scarcity as part of larger efforts to achieve the goal of sustainable human development. ; Postprint (published version)