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Over the centuries, Switzerland has developed a unique and inimitable statehood that functions in peculiar geographical, social and political conditions, shaped by the tradition of exercising direct forms of power. It appears, however, that these tools of direct democracy can sometimes obstruct the changes of utmost significance for the development of modern statehood and democracy. This was the case of granting voting rights to women. Although many European and other states granted the rights to vote and stand for election to women in the 1920s and 1930s, Switzerland needed much longer to introduce this change: on the federal level, women's suffrage was granted as late as in 1971, and the last to enjoy the right to partake in the political life of their canton were the women of Appenzell Innerrhoden, granted the right in 1990. The objective of this paper is to analyze the influence of the mechanisms of direct democracy on the introduction of voting rights for Swiss women. ; Over the centuries, Switzerland has developed a unique and inimitable statehood that functions in peculiar geographical, social and political conditions, shaped by the tradition of exercising direct forms of power. It appears, however, that these tools of direct democracy can sometimes obstruct the changes of utmost significance for the development of modern statehood and democracy. This was the case of granting voting rights to women. Although many European and other states granted the rights to vote and stand for election to women in the 1920s and 1930s, Switzerland needed much longer to introduce this change: on the federal level, women's suffrage was granted as late as in 1971, and the last to enjoy the right to partake in the political life of their canton were the women of Appenzell Innerrhoden, granted the right in 1990. The objective of this paper is to analyze the influence of the mechanisms of direct democracy on the introduction of voting rights for Swiss women.

The federal principle in Switzerland has been developing for centuries. It was a process that has not always proceeded in a peaceful manner. The creation of Swiss statehood required reconciling different groups and interests. Today's federal solutions in Switzerland allow for the peaceful co-existence of different language and religious groups. Another challenge is to reconcile the interests of wealthy and poor cantons. Understanding how this happened can provide guidance for further integration within the European Union, which in many aspects might be compared to Switzerland. ; Zasada federalizmu w Szwajcarii rozwijała się przez wieki. Był to proces, który nie zawsze przebiega ł w sposób pokojowy. Stworzenie szwajcarskiej państwowości wymagało pogodzenia różnych grup i interesów. Dzisiejsze rozwiązania federalne w Szwajcarii umożliwiają pokojowe współistnienie różnych grup językowych i religijnych. Kolejnym wyzwaniem było pogodzenie interesów bogatych i biednych kantonów. Poznanie mechanizmów federalizmu szwajcarskiego może stanowić wskazówkę dla dalszej integracji w ramach Unii Europejskiej, która pod wieloma względami przypomina Szwajcarię.

Switzerland is an example of a state that has adopted specific solutions as regards the election and execution of executive power, which has generated the common conviction that the Swiss Confederation is among the most solid democracies in the world. Recent years have shown, however, that political practice has brought about a significant evolution of Swiss solutions as the distribution of power in the parliament has resulted in the abolition of the 'magical formula' that guaranteed the great (and stable) government coalition, and the emergence of initiatives aiming at changing the principles along which executive power is elected in Switzerland. The purpose of considerations presented in this paper is to analyze the specific character of how the executive institutions function in the Swiss Confederation, answer the question of what directions the changes to the composition of the Federal Council are taking, as well as address the directions of evolutionary changes to the principles of electing the members of the Swiss government. ; Switzerland is an example of a state that has adopted specific solutions as regards the election and execution of executive power, which has generated the common conviction that the Swiss Confederation is among the most solid democracies in the world. Recent years have shown, however, that political practice has brought about a significant evolution of Swiss solutions as the distribution of power in the parliament has resulted in the abolition of the 'magical formula' that guaranteed the great (and stable) government coalition, and the emergence of initiatives aiming at changing the principles along which executive power is elected in Switzerland. The purpose of considerations presented in this paper is to analyze the specific character of how the executive institutions function in the Swiss Confederation, answer the question of what directions the changes to the composition of the Federal Council are taking, as well as address the directions of evolutionary changes to the principles of electing the members of the Swiss government.

Switzerland is an example of a state that has adopted specific solutions as regards the election and execution of executive power, which has generated the common conviction that the Swiss Confederation is among the most solid democracies in the world. Recent years have shown, however, that political practice has brought about a significant evolution of Swiss solutions as the distribution of power in the parliament has resulted in the abolition of the 'magical formula' that guaranteed the great (and stable) government coalition, and the emergence of initiatives aiming at changing the principles along which executive power is elected in Switzerland. The purpose of considerations presented in this paper is to analyze the specific character of how the executive institutions function in the Swiss Confederation, answer the question of what directions the changes to the composition of the Federal Council are taking, as well as address the directions of evolutionary changes to the principles of electing the members of the Swiss government.

Over the centuries, Switzerland has developed a unique and inimitable statehood that functions in peculiar geographical, social and political conditions, shaped by the tradition of exercising direct forms of power. It appears, however, that these tools of direct democracy can sometimes obstruct the changes of utmost significance for the development of modern statehood and democracy. This was the case of granting voting rights to women. Although many European and other states granted the rights to vote and stand for election to women in the 1920s and 1930s, Switzerland needed much longer to introduce this change: on the federal level, women's suffrage was granted as late as in 1971, and the last to enjoy the right to partake in the political life of their canton were the women of Appenzell Innerrhoden, granted the right in 1990. The objective of this paper is to analyze the influence of the mechanisms of direct democracy on the introduction of voting rights for Swiss women.

Od wielu lat prowadzony jest dyskurs naukowy, dążący do ujęcia zjawisk integracyjnych w Europie w teoretyczne ramy. Wielu badaczy, zajmujących się tworzeniem modeli rozwoju współpracy międzynarodowej sugeruje przeniesienie analizy z poziomu systemu na poziom poszczególnych państw, celem lepszego uzasadnienia motywów integracji oraz jej zróżnicowanych form. Z kolei zrozumienie zachowania państwa na arenie międzynarodowej, w tym działań podjętych wobec innych aktorów – państw lub organizacji, na płaszczyźnie bilateralnej lub multilateralnej nie jest możliwe bez wyjaśnienia natury i charakteru procesów decyzyjnych. Niniejszy artykuł jest więc próśb zwrócenia uwagi na proces decyzyjny, jako istotnego elementu analizy procesów integracyjnych w Europie. Co więcej, punktem odniesienia jest Szwajcaria, formalnie nienależąca do UE, ale silnie z niż zintegrowana, głównie na bazie powiązań bilateralnych. Zaprezentowana charakterystyka procesu decyzyjnego w kraju niebędącego członkiem Wspólnoty pokazuje, jakie elementy należałoby brać pod uwagę, analizując zachowanie państw na arenie międzynarodowej oraz dlaczego właściwa jego analiza może posłużyć wyjaśnieniu alternatywnych form integracji europejskiej, stanowiąc tym samym przyczynek do dyskusji nad jej teoretycznymi aspektami. ; For many years we have been witnessing scientific disputes between researchers, who are involved in modelling the development of European integration. Many of them have suggested moving its analysis from the level of whole system to the level of individual states, in order to justify better the motives of integration and its various forms. The understanding of the behaviour of the states on the international arena, including actions taken towards other actors – also states or organizations, is not possible without explaining the nature and character of the decision-making processes. Therefore, this article is focusing on the decision-making process as an important element in the analysis of European integration. Switzerland is used here as a reference point, a country formally remaining outside of the EU, but practically strongly integrated with the Community. The presented characteristics of decision-making process in Switzerland shows which elements should be taken into account when analysing the behaviour of states on the international arena, and why its proper analysis can be used to clarify the alternative forms of European integration. Thus, providing a contribution to the discussion on its theoretical aspects.

For many years we have been witnessing scientific disputes between researchers, who are involved in modelling the development of European integration. Many of them have suggested moving its analysis from the level of whole system to the level of individual states, in order to justify better the motives of integration and its various forms. The understanding of the behaviour of the states on the international arena, including actions taken towards other actors – also states or organizations, is not possible without explaining the nature and character of the decision-making processes. Therefore, this article is focusing on the decision-making process as an important element in the analysis of European integration. Switzerland is used here as a reference point, a country formally remaining outside of the EU, but practically strongly integrated with the Community. The presented characteristics of decision-making process in Switzerland shows which elements should be taken into account when analysing the behaviour of states on the international arena, and why its proper analysis can be used to clarify the alternative forms of European integration. Thus, providing a contribution to the discussion on its theoretical aspects. ; Od wielu lat prowadzony jest dyskurs naukowy, dążący do ujęcia zjawisk integracyjnych w Europie w teoretyczne ramy. Wielu badaczy, zajmujących się tworzeniem modeli rozwoju współpracy międzynarodowej sugeruje przeniesienie analizy z poziomu systemu na poziom poszczególnych państw, celem lepszego uzasadnienia motywów integracji oraz jej zróżnicowanych form. Z kolei zrozumienie zachowania państwa na arenie międzynarodowej, w tym działań podjętych wobec innych aktorów – państw lub organizacji, na płaszczyźnie bilateralnej lub multilateralnej nie jest możliwe bez wyjaśnienia natury i charakteru procesów decyzyjnych. Niniejszy artykuł jest więc próbą zwrócenia uwagi na proces decyzyjny, jako istotnego elementu analizy procesów integracyjnych w Europie. Co więcej, punktem odniesienia jest Szwajcaria, formalnie nienależąca do UE, ale silnie z nią zintegrowana, głównie na bazie powiązań bilateralnych. Zaprezentowana charakterystyka procesu decyzyjnego w kraju niebędącego członkiem Wspólnoty pokazuje, jakie elementy należałoby brać pod uwagę, analizując zachowanie państw na arenie międzynarodowej oraz dlaczego właściwa jego analiza może posłużyć wyjaśnieniu alternatywnych form integracji europejskiej, stanowiąc tym samym przyczynek do dyskusji nad jej teoretycznymi aspektami.

An important element shaping the political system of Switzerland was adopting the Federal Constitution in 1848. The current Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation was adopted in 1999. The current political system of this country can be referred to as directorial; however, because this specific system manifests itself mainly through the significant role of the cantons, it is also referred to as a "parliamentary-cantonal" system. The paper was divided into six parts: historical and institutional determinants, socio-political divisions, assumptions and functioning of Swiss federalism, party system and "magic formula", main political institutions, and instruments and procedures. In the article, both institutional and legal methods were applied. An important element of the system is the large degree of independence and self-reliance of the cantons and the communes. What determines the shape of the political parties and the socio-political division of Switzerland is the multiculturalism of the country. The fundamental democratic instruments in the country comprise referenda, popular initiatives, and popular assemblies. ; Uchwalenie Konstytucji Federalnej w 1848 roku było istotne dla kształtowania systemu politycznego Szwajcarii. Współczesne brzmienie Konstytucji Federalnej Konfederacji Szwajcarskiej uchwalono w 1999 roku. Obecnie system tego kraju można określić mianem parlamentarno komitetowego (system konwentu). Ze względu jednak na jego specyfikę, objawiającą się w głównie w dużej roli kantonów, jest określany także jako parlamentarno-kantonalny. Artykuł podzielono na sześć części: uwarunkowania historyczne i instytucjonalne, podziały socjopolityczne, założenia i funkcjonowanie szwajcarskiego federalizmu, system partyjny i "formuła magiczna", główne instytucje ustrojowe oraz instrumenty i procedury. W badaniach zastosowano podejście instytucjonalno-prawne, analizę systemową oraz analizę historyczną. W toku badań wykazano, że istotnym elementem systemu jest duża niezależność i samodzielność kantonów, a także gmin. Czynnikiem determinującym kształt partii politycznych i podział socjopolityczny Szwajcarii jest przede wszystkim jej wielokulturowość. Zasadniczymi instrumentami demokratycznymi w tym państwie są: referendum, inicjatywa ludowa, zgromadzenie ludowe.

Although nowadays the idea of direct democracy has been dominated by the system of representative government, in modern countries a tendency to trust some power to the hands of citizens still can be observed. This solution guarantees each of the interest groups active involvement in political life and thanks to that they are able to have real impact on producing legal solutions in their country. On the other hand, decisions resulting from using participatory democracy institutions may generate several negative effects, both on the political and social levels. The paramount goal of the article is to present the impact of using tools of direct democracy on national security. Accordingly, the practices of using referendum in Switzerland, Great Britain, Catalonia, as well as legislative initiative in Poland were analyzsed, with special attention given to their impact on safety. ; Chociaż idea demokracji bezpośredniej została zdominowana przez system rządów przedstawicielskich, to współczesne państwa zapewniają stosunkowo szeroki wachlarz instytucji, które w swoim założeniu mają aktywizować obywateli i dawać im realne szanse na formułowanie nowych rozwiązań prawnych. Z drugiej strony przeprowadzona w artykule analiza wykazuje, że stosowanie takich narzędzi jak referendum czy inicjatywa obywatelska może generować szereg negatywnych skutków, które w konsekwencji będą stanowić poważne zagrożenie dla sytuacji politycznej oraz społecznej w państwie. Nadrzędnym celem artykułu stała się zatem analiza wybranych głosowań referendalnych (przykład Szwajcarii, Wielkiej Brytanii oraz Katalonii), a także inicjatywy ustawodawczej (kazus Polski), w wyniku której ukazany zostanie pejoratywny wpływ wyżej wymienionych instytucji na szeroko pojęte bezpieczeństwo w państwie.

Konfederacja Szwajcarska, jako państwo neutralne o niewielkich rozmiarach, zmuszona jest do stosowania w swej polityce zagranicznej instrumentów zaliczanych do tzw. soft power. Jednym z nich jest pomoc rozwojowa, udzielana państwom słabiej rozwiniętym, także znajdującym się w stanie tranzycji ustrojowej. Przykładem tego rodzaju działań jest pomoc Szwajcarii dla państw Kaukazu Południowego, wynikająca m.in. z historycznych kontaktów, a w czasach współczesnych rozpoczęta w ramach pomocy humanitarnej po trzęsieniu ziemi w 1988 r. Armenia, Azerbejdżan i Gruzja wspierane są w ramach planów strategicznych zarówno przez państwo szwajcarskie, jak i prywatnych donatorów. Oprócz tego Szwajcaria z powodzeniem pełni rolę mediatora w sporze gruzińsko-rosyjskim i turecko-armeńskim. ; The Swiss Confederation, as a neutral state, is forced to apply in its foreign policy instruments classifi ed as the so-called soft power. One of them is development assistance granted to less developed countries, also undergoing the period of political transition. An example of this type of Swiss activities is the assistance to the countries of the South Caucasus, resulting, inter alia, from historical contacts, in modern times initiated as part of humanitarian aid after the earthquake in 1988. Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are supported as part of strategic plans by both the Swiss state and private donors. Switzerland also successfully plays the role of a mediator: in the Georgian-Russian and Turkish-Armenian dispute.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Swiss political parties were formed. Basic press organs also crystallized, which became the official nationwide titles of particular trends. Regardless of internal discrepancies, most of these bodies pursued a fairly consistent propaganda policy regarding the future of multicultural lands after the end of the First World War. One of the issues that fit into this theme was the issue of the Polish-Ruthenian-Lithuanian borderland. The entire Helvetic public opinion was of the opinion that it was necessary to create a federal state in Central Europe, which was to be an antidote to emerging nationalist movements. The promotion of such a solution was related to the desire to disseminate in Europe its own, Swiss constitutional solutions, which had proven to function efficiently for half a century. In the conditions of the borderland of Central Europe, such a vision turned out to be unrealistic. Revealing nationalist tendencies and ineffective attempts to find a compromise solution between the representatives of the emigration of nations in question present in Switzerland led to the collapse of the idea of promoting the Slavic federation in the Helvetic press in autun 1918.

Konsultacje ludowe są jedną ze współcześnie spotykanych form partycypacji obywateli w procesach podejmowania rozstrzygnięć spraw ogólnospołecznych, w tym w procesach prawotwórczych. W czasie nasilonych dyskusji w polskiej sferze publicznej na temat kształtu modelu demokratycznego warto przedstawić, jak tego typu rozwiązanie uregulowane jest w państwie o ugruntowanej demokracji, to jest w Szwajcarii oraz jakie są konsekwencje praktyczne takich unormowań. Wnioski płynące z porównania obu systemów są następujące: choć regulacje polskie można, z pewnymi zastrzeżeniami, ocenić pozytywnie, jako potencjalnie umożliwiające współudział jednostek w procesach decyzyjnych, to realizacja tych założeń normatywnych, na tle praktyki szwajcarskiej nie wygląda okazale. ; People's consultation is one of the forms of citizen participation in processes of settling national cases that can be found nowadays. These processes include legislative processes. During intensive discussions in Polish public sphere regarding the shape of democratic model, it is worth presenting, how that sort of solution is regulated in a country with well-established democracy, i.e. Switzerland, and what are practical consequences of that sort of normalization. The conclusion of comparison of both systems as follows: although the Polish regulations can be, with some objections, positively assessed as the one that can potentially enable entities' participation in decision-making processes, realization of these legal provisions against the background of the Swiss practice does not look impressively.