Suchergebnisse

Over the centuries, Switzerland has developed a unique and inimitable statehood that functions in peculiar geographical, social and political conditions, shaped by the tradition of exercising direct forms of power. It appears, however, that these tools of direct democracy can sometimes obstruct the changes of utmost significance for the development of modern statehood and democracy. This was the case of granting voting rights to women. Although many European and other states granted the rights to vote and stand for election to women in the 1920s and 1930s, Switzerland needed much longer to introduce this change: on the federal level, women's suffrage was granted as late as in 1971, and the last to enjoy the right to partake in the political life of their canton were the women of Appenzell Innerrhoden, granted the right in 1990. The objective of this paper is to analyze the influence of the mechanisms of direct democracy on the introduction of voting rights for Swiss women. ; Over the centuries, Switzerland has developed a unique and inimitable statehood that functions in peculiar geographical, social and political conditions, shaped by the tradition of exercising direct forms of power. It appears, however, that these tools of direct democracy can sometimes obstruct the changes of utmost significance for the development of modern statehood and democracy. This was the case of granting voting rights to women. Although many European and other states granted the rights to vote and stand for election to women in the 1920s and 1930s, Switzerland needed much longer to introduce this change: on the federal level, women's suffrage was granted as late as in 1971, and the last to enjoy the right to partake in the political life of their canton were the women of Appenzell Innerrhoden, granted the right in 1990. The objective of this paper is to analyze the influence of the mechanisms of direct democracy on the introduction of voting rights for Swiss women.

The federal principle in Switzerland has been developing for centuries. It was a process that has not always proceeded in a peaceful manner. The creation of Swiss statehood required reconciling different groups and interests. Today's federal solutions in Switzerland allow for the peaceful co-existence of different language and religious groups. Another challenge is to reconcile the interests of wealthy and poor cantons. Understanding how this happened can provide guidance for further integration within the European Union, which in many aspects might be compared to Switzerland. ; Zasada federalizmu w Szwajcarii rozwijała się przez wieki. Był to proces, który nie zawsze przebiega ł w sposób pokojowy. Stworzenie szwajcarskiej państwowości wymagało pogodzenia różnych grup i interesów. Dzisiejsze rozwiązania federalne w Szwajcarii umożliwiają pokojowe współistnienie różnych grup językowych i religijnych. Kolejnym wyzwaniem było pogodzenie interesów bogatych i biednych kantonów. Poznanie mechanizmów federalizmu szwajcarskiego może stanowić wskazówkę dla dalszej integracji w ramach Unii Europejskiej, która pod wieloma względami przypomina Szwajcarię.

Switzerland is an example of a state that has adopted specific solutions as regards the election and execution of executive power, which has generated the common conviction that the Swiss Confederation is among the most solid democracies in the world. Recent years have shown, however, that political practice has brought about a significant evolution of Swiss solutions as the distribution of power in the parliament has resulted in the abolition of the 'magical formula' that guaranteed the great (and stable) government coalition, and the emergence of initiatives aiming at changing the principles along which executive power is elected in Switzerland. The purpose of considerations presented in this paper is to analyze the specific character of how the executive institutions function in the Swiss Confederation, answer the question of what directions the changes to the composition of the Federal Council are taking, as well as address the directions of evolutionary changes to the principles of electing the members of the Swiss government. ; Switzerland is an example of a state that has adopted specific solutions as regards the election and execution of executive power, which has generated the common conviction that the Swiss Confederation is among the most solid democracies in the world. Recent years have shown, however, that political practice has brought about a significant evolution of Swiss solutions as the distribution of power in the parliament has resulted in the abolition of the 'magical formula' that guaranteed the great (and stable) government coalition, and the emergence of initiatives aiming at changing the principles along which executive power is elected in Switzerland. The purpose of considerations presented in this paper is to analyze the specific character of how the executive institutions function in the Swiss Confederation, answer the question of what directions the changes to the composition of the Federal Council are taking, as well as address the directions of evolutionary changes to the principles of electing the members of the Swiss government.

Switzerland is an example of a state that has adopted specific solutions as regards the election and execution of executive power, which has generated the common conviction that the Swiss Confederation is among the most solid democracies in the world. Recent years have shown, however, that political practice has brought about a significant evolution of Swiss solutions as the distribution of power in the parliament has resulted in the abolition of the 'magical formula' that guaranteed the great (and stable) government coalition, and the emergence of initiatives aiming at changing the principles along which executive power is elected in Switzerland. The purpose of considerations presented in this paper is to analyze the specific character of how the executive institutions function in the Swiss Confederation, answer the question of what directions the changes to the composition of the Federal Council are taking, as well as address the directions of evolutionary changes to the principles of electing the members of the Swiss government.

Over the centuries, Switzerland has developed a unique and inimitable statehood that functions in peculiar geographical, social and political conditions, shaped by the tradition of exercising direct forms of power. It appears, however, that these tools of direct democracy can sometimes obstruct the changes of utmost significance for the development of modern statehood and democracy. This was the case of granting voting rights to women. Although many European and other states granted the rights to vote and stand for election to women in the 1920s and 1930s, Switzerland needed much longer to introduce this change: on the federal level, women's suffrage was granted as late as in 1971, and the last to enjoy the right to partake in the political life of their canton were the women of Appenzell Innerrhoden, granted the right in 1990. The objective of this paper is to analyze the influence of the mechanisms of direct democracy on the introduction of voting rights for Swiss women.

Od wielu lat prowadzony jest dyskurs naukowy, dążący do ujęcia zjawisk integracyjnych w Europie w teoretyczne ramy. Wielu badaczy, zajmujących się tworzeniem modeli rozwoju współpracy międzynarodowej sugeruje przeniesienie analizy z poziomu systemu na poziom poszczególnych państw, celem lepszego uzasadnienia motywów integracji oraz jej zróżnicowanych form. Z kolei zrozumienie zachowania państwa na arenie międzynarodowej, w tym działań podjętych wobec innych aktorów – państw lub organizacji, na płaszczyźnie bilateralnej lub multilateralnej nie jest możliwe bez wyjaśnienia natury i charakteru procesów decyzyjnych. Niniejszy artykuł jest więc próśb zwrócenia uwagi na proces decyzyjny, jako istotnego elementu analizy procesów integracyjnych w Europie. Co więcej, punktem odniesienia jest Szwajcaria, formalnie nienależąca do UE, ale silnie z niż zintegrowana, głównie na bazie powiązań bilateralnych. Zaprezentowana charakterystyka procesu decyzyjnego w kraju niebędącego członkiem Wspólnoty pokazuje, jakie elementy należałoby brać pod uwagę, analizując zachowanie państw na arenie międzynarodowej oraz dlaczego właściwa jego analiza może posłużyć wyjaśnieniu alternatywnych form integracji europejskiej, stanowiąc tym samym przyczynek do dyskusji nad jej teoretycznymi aspektami. ; For many years we have been witnessing scientific disputes between researchers, who are involved in modelling the development of European integration. Many of them have suggested moving its analysis from the level of whole system to the level of individual states, in order to justify better the motives of integration and its various forms. The understanding of the behaviour of the states on the international arena, including actions taken towards other actors – also states or organizations, is not possible without explaining the nature and character of the decision-making processes. Therefore, this article is focusing on the decision-making process as an important element in the analysis of European integration. Switzerland is used here as a reference point, a country formally remaining outside of the EU, but practically strongly integrated with the Community. The presented characteristics of decision-making process in Switzerland shows which elements should be taken into account when analysing the behaviour of states on the international arena, and why its proper analysis can be used to clarify the alternative forms of European integration. Thus, providing a contribution to the discussion on its theoretical aspects.

For many years we have been witnessing scientific disputes between researchers, who are involved in modelling the development of European integration. Many of them have suggested moving its analysis from the level of whole system to the level of individual states, in order to justify better the motives of integration and its various forms. The understanding of the behaviour of the states on the international arena, including actions taken towards other actors – also states or organizations, is not possible without explaining the nature and character of the decision-making processes. Therefore, this article is focusing on the decision-making process as an important element in the analysis of European integration. Switzerland is used here as a reference point, a country formally remaining outside of the EU, but practically strongly integrated with the Community. The presented characteristics of decision-making process in Switzerland shows which elements should be taken into account when analysing the behaviour of states on the international arena, and why its proper analysis can be used to clarify the alternative forms of European integration. Thus, providing a contribution to the discussion on its theoretical aspects. ; Od wielu lat prowadzony jest dyskurs naukowy, dążący do ujęcia zjawisk integracyjnych w Europie w teoretyczne ramy. Wielu badaczy, zajmujących się tworzeniem modeli rozwoju współpracy międzynarodowej sugeruje przeniesienie analizy z poziomu systemu na poziom poszczególnych państw, celem lepszego uzasadnienia motywów integracji oraz jej zróżnicowanych form. Z kolei zrozumienie zachowania państwa na arenie międzynarodowej, w tym działań podjętych wobec innych aktorów – państw lub organizacji, na płaszczyźnie bilateralnej lub multilateralnej nie jest możliwe bez wyjaśnienia natury i charakteru procesów decyzyjnych. Niniejszy artykuł jest więc próbą zwrócenia uwagi na proces decyzyjny, jako istotnego elementu analizy procesów integracyjnych w Europie. Co więcej, punktem odniesienia jest Szwajcaria, formalnie nienależąca do UE, ale silnie z nią zintegrowana, głównie na bazie powiązań bilateralnych. Zaprezentowana charakterystyka procesu decyzyjnego w kraju niebędącego członkiem Wspólnoty pokazuje, jakie elementy należałoby brać pod uwagę, analizując zachowanie państw na arenie międzynarodowej oraz dlaczego właściwa jego analiza może posłużyć wyjaśnieniu alternatywnych form integracji europejskiej, stanowiąc tym samym przyczynek do dyskusji nad jej teoretycznymi aspektami.

An important element shaping the political system of Switzerland was adopting the Federal Constitution in 1848. The current Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation was adopted in 1999. The current political system of this country can be referred to as directorial; however, because this specific system manifests itself mainly through the significant role of the cantons, it is also referred to as a "parliamentary-cantonal" system. The paper was divided into six parts: historical and institutional determinants, socio-political divisions, assumptions and functioning of Swiss federalism, party system and "magic formula", main political institutions, and instruments and procedures. In the article, both institutional and legal methods were applied. An important element of the system is the large degree of independence and self-reliance of the cantons and the communes. What determines the shape of the political parties and the socio-political division of Switzerland is the multiculturalism of the country. The fundamental democratic instruments in the country comprise referenda, popular initiatives, and popular assemblies. ; Uchwalenie Konstytucji Federalnej w 1848 roku było istotne dla kształtowania systemu politycznego Szwajcarii. Współczesne brzmienie Konstytucji Federalnej Konfederacji Szwajcarskiej uchwalono w 1999 roku. Obecnie system tego kraju można określić mianem parlamentarno komitetowego (system konwentu). Ze względu jednak na jego specyfikę, objawiającą się w głównie w dużej roli kantonów, jest określany także jako parlamentarno-kantonalny. Artykuł podzielono na sześć części: uwarunkowania historyczne i instytucjonalne, podziały socjopolityczne, założenia i funkcjonowanie szwajcarskiego federalizmu, system partyjny i "formuła magiczna", główne instytucje ustrojowe oraz instrumenty i procedury. W badaniach zastosowano podejście instytucjonalno-prawne, analizę systemową oraz analizę historyczną. W toku badań wykazano, że istotnym elementem systemu jest duża niezależność i samodzielność kantonów, a także gmin. Czynnikiem determinującym kształt partii politycznych i podział socjopolityczny Szwajcarii jest przede wszystkim jej wielokulturowość. Zasadniczymi instrumentami demokratycznymi w tym państwie są: referendum, inicjatywa ludowa, zgromadzenie ludowe.

Although nowadays the idea of direct democracy has been dominated by the system of representative government, in modern countries a tendency to trust some power to the hands of citizens still can be observed. This solution guarantees each of the interest groups active involvement in political life and thanks to that they are able to have real impact on producing legal solutions in their country. On the other hand, decisions resulting from using participatory democracy institutions may generate several negative effects, both on the political and social levels. The paramount goal of the article is to present the impact of using tools of direct democracy on national security. Accordingly, the practices of using referendum in Switzerland, Great Britain, Catalonia, as well as legislative initiative in Poland were analyzsed, with special attention given to their impact on safety. ; Chociaż idea demokracji bezpośredniej została zdominowana przez system rządów przedstawicielskich, to współczesne państwa zapewniają stosunkowo szeroki wachlarz instytucji, które w swoim założeniu mają aktywizować obywateli i dawać im realne szanse na formułowanie nowych rozwiązań prawnych. Z drugiej strony przeprowadzona w artykule analiza wykazuje, że stosowanie takich narzędzi jak referendum czy inicjatywa obywatelska może generować szereg negatywnych skutków, które w konsekwencji będą stanowić poważne zagrożenie dla sytuacji politycznej oraz społecznej w państwie. Nadrzędnym celem artykułu stała się zatem analiza wybranych głosowań referendalnych (przykład Szwajcarii, Wielkiej Brytanii oraz Katalonii), a także inicjatywy ustawodawczej (kazus Polski), w wyniku której ukazany zostanie pejoratywny wpływ wyżej wymienionych instytucji na szeroko pojęte bezpieczeństwo w państwie.