The point of interest in this paper is the issue of state-sponsored terrorism. The essence of this form of terrorism is the intentional (indirect or direct) support, offered by state sponsors to terrorist organizations, and the intention to let them achieve their political, strategic or tactical goals, usually concerning the citizens, governments or the territory of third-party countries. The paper presents a classification of the range of such support and concentrates on the analysis of the motives and means applied by the state sponsors. Owing to historical conditions and the range and scope of support granted, the paper uses the examples of Iran, Syria and Iraq. Only the former two states offer permanent support to terrorist organizations in the Middle East. After the collapse of Saddam Hussein's regime, Iraqi authorities have abandoned this activity as it was actually harmful to the interests of their country.
The article discusses the cultural reasons for the radicalization of Western European foreign terrorist fighters (FTF) who migrated to Syria and Iraq after 2011 to fight in the ranks of the Islamic State (ISIS) and other jihadist organizations. Literature review and available research findings led to the conclusion that one of the structural reasons for this mobilization was identity problems and a state of anomie found among some Western European youth from immigrant backgrounds. In addition, mobilization in cyberspace played a major role along with efficient recruitment propaganda on social platforms and instant messaging apps. ; Artykuł poświęcony jest wyjaśnieniu kulturowych przyczyn radykalizacji zachodnieuropejskich zagranicznych bojowników terrorystycznych (foreign terrorist fighters, FTF), którzy po 2011 r. migrowali do Syrii i Iraku, aby walczyć w szeregach Państwa Islamskiego (ISIS) oraz innych organizacji dżihadystycznych. Przegląd literatury i dostępnych wyników badań pozwolił na sformułowanie wniosku, że jedną ze strukturalnych przyczyn tej mobilizacji były problemy z tożsamością oraz stan anomii występujący wśród części zachodnioeuropejskiej młodzieży ze środowisk imigranckich. Ponadto ogromną rolę odgrywała mobilizacja w cyberprzestrzeni i sprawna propaganda rekrutacyjna na platformach społecznościowych i w komunikatorach internetowych.
The article discusses the cultural reasons for the radicalization of Western European foreign terrorist fighters (FTFs) who migrated to Syria and Iraq after 2011 to fight in the ranks of the Islamic State (ISIS) and other jihadist organizations. Literature review and available research findings led to the conclusion that one of the structural reasons for this mobilization was identity problems and a state of anomie found among some Western European youth from immigrant backgrounds. In addition, mobilization in cyberspace played a major role along with efficient recruitment propaganda on social platforms and instant messaging apps. ; Artykuł poświęcony jest wyjaśnieniu kulturowych przyczyn radykalizacji zachodnieuropejskich zagranicznych bojowników terrorystycznych (foreign terrorist fighters, FTF), którzy po 2011 r. migrowali do Syrii i Iraku, aby walczyć w szeregach Państwa Islamskiego (ISIS) oraz innych organizacji dżihadystycznych. Przegląd literatury i dostępnych wyników badań pozwolił na sformułowanie wniosku, że jedną ze strukturalnych przyczyn tej mobilizacji były problemy z tożsamością oraz stan anomii występujący wśród części zachodnioeuropejskiej młodzieży ze środowisk imigranckich. Ponadto ogromną rolę odgrywała mobilizacja w cyberprzestrzeni i sprawna propaganda rekrutacyjna na platformach społecznościowych i w komunikatorach internetowych.
Autor w artykule podjął próbę charakterystyki podłoża współczesnego terroryzmu w Federacji Rosyjskiej. W jego opinii do rozwoju tego fenomenu przyczyniły się wyznaczniki kulturowo-polityczne, ideologiczne oraz społeczno-polityczne. Innymi czynnikami napędzającymi terroryzm są motywacje o charakterze religijnonacjonalistycznym, szczególnie widoczne na Kaukazie Północnym, z tendencją wzmacniania czynnika religijnego. W artykule przedstawiona została skrótowa charakterystyka organizacji terrorystycznych działających na terytorium Rosji. W tekście zawarto podstawowe dane statystyczne i charakterystykę typów zamachów terrorystycznych przeprowadzonych w ostatnich sześciu latach w Federacji Rosyjskiej. Czytelnik ma również możliwość poznania organizacji państwowego systemu zwalczania terroryzmu w Rosji. We wnioskach końcowych autor sugeruje konieczność zacieśnienia współpracy antyterrorystycznej z Rosją, co jest niezbędne dla bezpieczeństwa podczas organizowanych w Polsce mistrzostw Europy w piłce nożnej - Euro 2012, ale i potrzebne dla zapewnienia go w przyszłości. ; The author in his article has undertaken the task of tracing the origin of the modern terrorism in Russia. In his opinion cultural-political, ideological and socio- political factors contributed to the development of terrorism in Russia. Among other factors stimulating the growth of terrorism one needs to mention religiousnationalistic motivations, especially those present on the territory of The Northern Caucasus, with the special stress put on the increasing influence of the religious factor. The paper presents a brief outline of the terrorist organizations active on the territory of Russia. The author has included basic statistical data and typology of the kinds of terrorist attacks which have occurred in Russia over the past six years. The article provides its readers with the opportunity to gather the information concerning the organization of the state system aiming at fighting against terrorism. In the conclusion of the article the author suggests that a close antiterrorist cooperation be created with Russia, which proves to be essential for the safety of such events as Euro 2012 - The European Football Cup, as well as for the safety of any future events. ; В статье дана характеристика причин современного терроризма в Российской Федерации. По мнению автора, развитию этого феномена способствовали культурно-политические, идеологические и общественно-политические факторы. Немалое место в эскалации терроризма занимают националистические и религиозные причины, которые особенно ярко проявились на Северном Кавказе. В исследовании дано краткую характеристику террористических организаций действующих на территории России. Автор статьи приводит основные статистические данные и дает характеристику типов террористических актов, имевших место в Российской Федерации в течении последних шести лет. Рассмотрено также организацию государственной системы борьбы с терроризмом в России. Подводя итоги, автор обращает внимание на необходимость дальней шего укрепления антитеррористического сотрудничества с Россией, что особенно актуально в связи с организацией в Польше чемпионата Европы по футболу «Евро-2012», а также будет способствовать обеспечению безопасности в будущем.
In the modern world the expansion of the semantic field of security takes place, which is the reason for the existence of a number of risks, with a very wide dimension. In addition to traditional natural hazards and existing threats to civilization, there is a new one that is closely related to the implementation of modern technologies, information systems, and communication systems. They are a sign of the times and an inevitable consequence of progress. At the same time society (especially informed civil society) requires more and more of their country, demanding ever higher levels of security and protection to enable its further development. Providing such protection requires considerable strengths and resources, and the intersectoral cooperation of public and private subjects. Developing international contacts and extensive cooperation in this dimension is necessary, but existing forms of security protection are limited to the territory of one state and cannot fulfill these tasks. The fight against terrorism is also a question of access to information about people traveling regularly or prolonging their stay in other states. In the face of these processes we should look for new solutions and undertake such activity, with a scale corresponding to the scale of risk. The cooperation of various entities – understood as combining expertise, manpower and resources – while engaging modern technology, seems to be most appropriate. ; We współczesnym świecie następuje stałe rozszerzanie się zakresu znaczeniowego bezpieczeństwa, czego powodem jest istnienie wielu zagrożeń, mających bardzo szeroki wymiar. Obok tradycyjnych zagrożeń naturalnych i dotychczasowych zagrożeń o charakterze cywilizacyjnym pojawiają się wciąż nowe, które mają ścisły związek z wdrażaniem nowoczesnych technologii, systemów informatycznych, systemów komunikacji. Są one znakiem czasu i nieuchronną konsekwencją postępu. Jednocześnie społeczeństwo (zwłaszcza informacyjne społeczeństwo obywatelskie) wymaga coraz więcej od swojego państwa, żąda coraz wyższego poziomu zabezpieczenia i ochrony, umożliwiającego mu dalszy rozwój. Zapewnienie takiej ochrony wymaga zaangażowania znacznych sił i środków oraz międzysektorowej współpracy podmiotów publicznych i prywatnych. Rozwijanie kontaktów międzynarodowych i szeroko zakrojonej współpracy w tym wymiarze powoduje, że dotychczasowe formy ochrony bezpieczeństwa ograniczone do terytorium jednego państwa przestają spełniać swoje zadania. Nie należy zapominać, że warunkiem ograniczania oddziaływania przedstawionych zagrożeń bezpieczeństwa jest reakcja na ich źródła. Walką z terroryzmem jest również kwestia dostępu do informacji o osobach podróżujących regularnie lub przedłużających pobyt w państwach. W obliczu tych procesów należy poszukiwać nowych rozwiązań i podejmować takie działania, których skala będzie odpowiadała skali zagrożeń. Współpraca różnych podmiotów – rozumiana jako łączenie wiedzy, sił i środków – przy jednoczesnym zaangażowaniu nowoczesnych technologii, wydaje się być najodpowiedniejsza.
The article examines if Poland can, in accordance with international law, effectively combat pressure on the border with a country de facto supporting an aggressor. Analysis of, among others, the Geneva Refugee Convention, EU law, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and jurisprudence validate previous findings that right to life and prohibition of torture are non-derogable, permitting to protect borders and fight with terrorism. National procedures are challenged by a need to individualize decisions refusing entry and denying protection. Still, this does not justify violating human rights.
The main problem of this article is constructed in the form of the question "How has the political emancipation of citizens affected the mechanisms of power in Spain after 2011?" and focuses on the analysis of the changes taking place in the local political order as a consequence of individuals' aspirations to secure their own political subjectivity. The transfer of votes to the Podemos party is treated as a result of seeking a new framework for political action by the left-wing voters under the conditions defined by terror management theory as a existential terrorism of globalization.
Article describes a complex political crisis lasting in Mali and his probable implications. There were presented in detail two fundamental aspects of this crisis such as: the Tuareg (MNLA) and islamists rebellion started in January as well as military coup from march 2012. It was claimed that the military intervention at the beginning of 2013 r., in which French army was involved, was an indispensable solution – but insufficient. It was found that sweeping reforms are needed to value Tuareg participation in political and economic life of the country (for eg. in the form of autonomy). It was demonstrated that labile interior situation in Mali might destabilize all order in Western and Sub-Saharan Africa as well as in Sahel area by increasing the threat of terrorism, Islamic fundamentalism and crime (especially by AKIM, Boko Haram and MUJAO). Not to mention the safety of North Africa, where the situation after the Arab Spring is still fragile, and in the longer term, Europe and the USA.
Terrorism is defined as use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to indulge fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, social or religious. Bioterrorism is terrorism by intentional release or dissemination of biological agents, mainly bacteria or viruses. Use of biological weapons is attractive from the terrorists' point of view because of low production costs, major range and easiness of transmission. The first mention of the use of primitive biological weapons date back to the 6th century. Use of plague-infested corpses as offensive means in the 14th century caused a spread of bubonic plague through the whole Europe. The biggest development of biological weapons took place in the interwar period and in the cold war era. Biological weapon trails and research were conducted by super powers such as USSR, UK, USA and Japan. At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of bioterrorism occurred, which put humanity in the face of a terrifying threat. Cholera is a deadly disease that has caused a worldwide phenomenon throughout history. Its imperative weapon, the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, has allowed cholera to seize control and wipe out a huge percentage of the human population. V. cholerae's toxins are the primary causes of cholera's lethal symptoms. The bacterium contains toxins that help it accomplish its job of invading the human system and defeating the body's powerful immune system. With its sibling bacterium Escherichia coli, V. cholerae has become one of the most dominant pathogens in the known world. V. cholerae's strategies in causing the infamous deadly diarrhea have been widely studied, from the irritation of the intestinal epithelium to the stimulation of capillary leakage, as well as the internal effects of the disease such as the Peyer's patches on the intestinal walls. Overall, the Vibrio cholera bacterium has made cholera a tough disease to overcome, and because of its deadly virulence factors, cholera has become one of the most frightening diseases a human body could ever encounter. Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, comma-shaped bacterium. Some strains of V. cholerae cause the disease cholera. V. cholerae is facultatively anaerobic and has a flagellum at one cell pole. V. cholerae was first isolated as the cause of cholera by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini in 1854, but his discovery was not widely known until Robert Koch, working independently 30 years later, publicized the knowledge and the means of fighting the disease. V. cholerae pathogenicity genes code for proteins directly or indirectly involved in the virulence of the bacteria. During infection, V. cholerae secretes cholera toxin, a protein that causes profuse, watery diarrhea. Colonization of the small intestine also requires the toxin coregulated pilus (TCP), a thin, flexible, filamentous appendage on the surface of bacterial cells.
The main objective of security policy is to prevent threats, which means to fight certain phenomena at their very source. Governments of many countries threatened by a terrorist attack are still searching for an effective way to prevent attacks on intended terrorist targets and to uncover them in time. It is now recognised that monitoring telephone and internet communications is one of the most effective ways to combat terrorism. In recent years, international security has become one of the most debated issues due to, among other things, the coronavirus pandemic and numerous terrorist attacks. An important factor in preventing these threats is how the state and its services function through the use of a variety of tools and techniques, thus creating new and unique ethical and legal problems. The force and impact of state policy measures are often excessive and disproportionate to the threats posed. In this case, civil rights and liberties are most often violated. Doubts that arise when analysing these two values also stimulate reflection on the question to what extent the state is the victim of threats and to what extent it itself is the aggressor. Contemporary threats such as terrorism or the coronavirus pandemic are a major source of public fear that has far-reaching implications for public governance. The analysis carried out in this study examines the use of digital technologies for surveillance and control of the public by governments as a means to combat contemporary threats. The article describes both cases highlighting the importance of digital technology in maintaining security and cites evidence showing the threats that electronic surveillance poses to democratic norms. In other words, digital control over society promotes security but also restricts civil rights and liberties. The article emphasizes the worrying tendency for governments to implement technology rapidly without sufficient concern for the consequences for socio-political life.
The aim of this article is to present the most important assumptions and goals of three international regional initiatives important from the point of view of Central, Central and Eastern Europe and Central and South Europe: the Visegrad Group, the Three Seas Initiative and the Central European Initiative, as well as institutional and legal solutions of selected countries associated with them in the field of terrorist prevention. For the analysis of the materials found, including studies and documents, the content analysis, the method of information synthesis and critical analysis were used. In addition, a case study, conceptual analysis and synthesis used in the description of key conclusions drawn after the literature review on various solutions, concepts and methods related to the presented issues (international regional initiatives, prevention and combating terrorism in exemplary countries) were used.
