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In the last two decades, this society has experienced the paradigm shift known as the Information Age, which impacted our world, and changed the structure of our nation's economy, our work environments, our institutions, our lifestyles and how we plan for the future. In order to survive, corporate leaders in the United States turned to a few innovative men who taught quality management theories. The successes of quality management swept through the ranks of the corporate world and were eventually considered by the government, health-care facilities and educational intuitions. The concept of empowerment was generated by this movement. This concept introduced new ways of thinking to liberate the potential that resides in all people. While we can never return to the old world, empowerment enables us to look at our reality in a different way. Many will chose to reject empowerment theories. Some will learn how to work with others in new and innovative ways. This study involved a university faculty and their perceptions of empowerment in their work environment.

In general the quality of philosophy in Vilnius University (founded in 1579) was quite comparable to that of other Jesuit universities in Western Europe. The dominant philosophical school was Scholasticism. In the Faculty Philosophy in Vilnius University alongside with other science the following branches of philosophy were taught: logic, physics or the natural philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and politics. Ideas, closely related to beginnings of mathematical logic, brought to light. The most courageous lectures tried to acquaint their students with achievements in philosophy and natural sciences of the epoch of Renaissance and Modern times. A new stage in the development of philosophy began with the spread of philosophy of the epoch of Enlightenment. The conditions for the development of professional philosophy emerged in period of independent state. The Soviet occupation of Lithuania destroyed the tradition of philosophy. Only in 1989 Faculty of Philosophy in Vilnius University was re-established. ; Straipsnyje glaustai apžvelgiama Vilniaus universiteto Filosofijos fakulteto istorija. Pateikiama jo priešistorė – filosofijos studijos Vilniaus jėzuitų kolegijoje. Kartu su universitetu įkurtas Filosofijos fakultetas sukūrė pasauliečių filosofinį lavinimą. Jame puoselėta aukšto lygio logikos teorija, išsaugojusi viduramžių logikos naujoves. Gamtos filosofija aškino materiją, judėjimą, erdvę, laiką, begalybę, kontinuumą, priežastingumą, Aptariamos scholastinės psichologijos, kosmologijos kursų, politikos teoretikų problemos. Naujas filosofijos raidos laikotarpis buvo Apšvietos epocha: fakultete buvo supažindinama su naujujų amžių filosofijos teorijomis – empirizmu ir racionalizmu, su F. Bacono, J. Locke'o, R. Descarteso, G. Leibnizo ir kitų autorių pažiūromis. Į tuometinės filosofijos studijas įėjo ir naujųjų amžių gamtos mokslai. Edukacinė komisija panaikino Filosofijos fakultetą ir išbraukė filosofiją iš studijų programų. Fakulteto nebuvo ir XIX amžiuje, jis nebuvo įkurtas ir lenkiškame Stepono Batoro universitete (1919–1939). Sovietų okupacija Lietuvoje sugriovė filosofijos tradiciją – tik 1989 m. buvo atkurtas Filosofijos fakultetas Vilniaus universitete.

The Department of Economics and Development Studies at Gadjah Mada University's Faculty of Economics (from hereforth referred to as DEDS-FE-GMU) sets its purpose first, to become a leading research based education center, second providing an international first-rate education in economics, and third to be at the forefront of academic institutions in the field of business economics. Accomplishment of the department's missions requires planning and execution of several phases of improvement programs within the next five academic years. The programs are categorized into improvements in terms of educational facilities, teaching staff and education process, the quality of student output. The department plans to improve and upgrade all existing education support systems. A more modern and complete library is a necessity, with a competent staff of librarians to assist lecturers and students in obtaining data. The language lab will be enhanced with the most up-to-date teaching aids to facilitate more effective process of learning English. Lastly, the computer lab will be upgraded to incorporate more multimedia and internet aspects. All of the facilities will have more staff and longer opening hours and therefore more student attendance. Improvement of lecturers and the teaching staff is conducted through many efforts. Internationally, more lecturers will be assigned to pursue post-graduate degrees at quality foreign schools in the near future. Domestically, the frequency of attending national conferences and workshops will be increased. Internally, the department plans to start a series of seminars and internal consultations to maintain the quality of education, formulate better methods of education, and establish a system of class notes for courses. Student output is measured in terms of the quality of graduates from the program. The quality of graduates is expected to rise as a result of the following activities in the next five years. More English based instructions and improved language lab will enable students to post higher averageTOEFL scores of 500. The ratio of student to lecturers is expected to reach 7.5 students/lecturer, leading to more concentrated classes. The average study time (coursework plus skripsi) of students is expected to drop from the current figure of 4 years and 10 month. The average cumulative GPA is expected to reach 3.3. Finally, the waiting time of graduates to enter new jobs will be reduced to 3 months after graduation. Through careful planning and execution, the goals of the department will be accomplished. The department can draw upon the resources of its teaching staff, which are among the most respected in the country, and its alumni, who are among the most prominent in the government and private sectors. Its reputation and credibility is proven in the numerous joint education and research programs it has initiated with the most important public institutions and private corporations all over the country. It also holds the distinction as one of two departments offering a doctorate program in economics in Indonesia.

After the remarkable expansion, and rapid growth of institutions of higher education (IHEs) between 1950 and 1970, campuses started to show signs of financial stress. By 1970, a number of institutions were faced with financial difficulties due to declining resources and steady increases in enrollment (Hansen & Stampen, 1981). The support that American society and government provided for IHEs earlier this century has decreased, in part due to criticism surrounding management techniques. The general public and state legislators are calling for increased accountability, assessment, graduation rates, and faculty productivity in the three traditional missions of higher education: teaching, research and service. These external demands have influenced the way work is conducted in all domains of the academy, including the faculty domain. There is little doubt that calls for improved undergraduate education, increased use of technology, a greater focus on applied (versus pure) research, and expanded outreach among others, have affected faculty teaching, research, and service activities. Yet research examining how this activities have shifted in recent years is very limited. In parallel vein, the recognition and reward system of IHEs (e.g., merit salary increases, teaching load, equipment and facilities) encourage faculty to engage in certain activities that are more valued than other activities. Traditional reward structures at many institutions have recognized research endeavors at the expense of teaching and service activities. It is reasonable to suggest, therefore, that if IHEs wish to shift attention among teaching, research and service endeavors of faculty, they need to design reward structures to recognize and value the activities they want faculty to undertake. There is very little evidence to suggest that IHEs have adapted their reward structures to promote such changes on the part of faculty. Therefore, the present study elicits information about faculty perceptions of the way their teaching, research, and service activities have shifted in recent years and how reward structures have or have not been adapted to support these shifts. The methodology used in this research is semi-structured interviews. Four departments at one university were selected for inclusion in the sample. From each department, ten faculty were randomly selected to participate in the study. The interviews were taped and transcribed to facilitate the analysis of the data. Conclusions drawn from the study suggest that changes in teaching, research, and service have taken place in recent years. The majority of changes related to the use of technology, followed by changes in class size, teaching style, curriculum reform and the use of teamwork. Faculty perceived that teaching, research, and service activities have changed in recent years in response to internal and external demands, however, the recognition and reward systems have not changed to reflect those changes. The results of this study suggest that both administrators and faculty may use these data to create new measures of faculty productivity that better reflect changes among the three university missions. The data may also provide other government and private agencies with different ways to assess institutional productivity. ; Ph. D.

Producción Científica ; There is at present no comprehensive directory of medicines available in European countries. Such a directory would be valuable to policy analysts, clinicians, regulatory agencies, pharmaceutical companies and consumer groups. The aim of this project was to compile such a directory of all medicines marketed in each of the European Union member countries. METHODS: Lists of medicines for each country, compiled from several national sources, classified by Anatomical-Chemical-Therapeutic (ATC) code. Census date was late 1998. RESULTS: A comprehensive directory was created using data from 14 of the 15 European Union countries. Numbers of trade names and of active ingredients varied widely, from Germany with 18,554 and 1,973, respectively, to Denmark with 1,915 and 1,016, respectively. In individual therapeutic areas, there were variations in the numbers of active ingredients available: the least variation between countries was in antineoplastic medicines (ATC code L, maximum number available in any country 101, minimum 60) and wider variation in alimentary (ATC code A, maximum 256. minimum 103) or cardiovascular (ATC code C, maximum 269, minimum 112). Only 7% of all the active ingredients were available in all the countries studied. The Scandinavian countries had the greatest proportion of active ingredients (60%) available in all other countries. Each country had a number of active ingredients available only in that country Italy had the largest number of these. CONCLUSIONS: The directory illustrates the wide variations in the availability of medicines across the European Union. The range of drugs available in each country represents differences in regulatory and market policies, as well as cultural and historic differences. This directory lends itself to many further analyses.

There can be no reasonable doubt that smoking is now a major public health problem in Malta. The trends of smoking patterns among the Maltese are alarming. Much to the detriment of the health of the Maltese, there has been a steadily rising trend in smoking habits. This is especially evident among school-children, young adults and women in general. It can safely be said that among these groups, smoking has now reached epidemic proportions. A recent survey among the Maltese population revealed that in the age-group 25 to 29 years, 60% of males and 45.7% of females smoked regularly. This trend is even more worrying when one considers Maltese school-children. In the age-group 14 to 16 years, 29.3% of boys and 14.9% of girls were self- declared smokers. In the majority of these, the age of starting smoking was 13 years, while boys tended to start smoking even earlier. This rapidly increasing addiction to tobacco in Malta is also mirrored by the rate of consumption of cigarettes. Over the years 1980-1982, there was a 15.5% rise in sales of cigarettes and in fact consumption in 1982 stood at a staggering 4.02kg per head. Moreover, unless curbed, these trends will continue to rise as tobacco is more insidiously addictive than heroin. At a population level, the consequences and the burdens that the Maltese health system will have to shoulder in the future will be massive and disastrous. ; N/A

In Britain the tools are now available to provide better information on safety of medicines in both hospital and community settings, and this could be done at relatively modest cost. The needs of patients, doctors, and pharmacists are changing; although more research is needed, such information as is presently available must be both better and more widely publicised and understood. Universities, government, the pharmaceutical industry, and educated journalism all have an important part to play in this process.

Canada's medicare system has provided Canadians with high-quality health care for almost three decades. Now Canadian health care appears to be at risk of losing the single-payer system, which is the premise on which medicare is built. As medicare comes under increasing financial pressure, many are calling for the introduction of private care as a means of bolstering our health care system and maintaining its quality. Although it appears alluring to some politicians, physicians and commentators, privatization could very well lead to the demise of the principles and practices of the Canadian health care system as we know it, with little clear benefit to the public or physicians.

The medical profession was shaped a century or so ago by the interaction of three forces. These were a class structure in which doctors were largely held to be gentlemen to whom deference was due, a society dominated by the activity of production (hence the label of the working class for the majority), and the doctrines of liberalism as the guiding star in politics. Prime Minister Gladstone defined his task as "opening doors and windows." The outcome was a minimum of government interference and control with the belief that professional self regulation was the way to ensure that practice matched principle. The state (the word was hardly ever used) was self effacing almost to the point of non-existence. These are ghosts of the past, but it is a comparatively recent past. Within memory, the major domestic preoccupation of politicians of all parties was how, and to what ends, the working class could be absorbed into the political system. Health had a crucial part to play in this task, as Lloyd George and others saw early on. The "panel" was very much a forerunner of the NHS. Indeed, Bevan based part of his case in 1946 on the claim that 21 million people were already on the "panel," clear evidence of the degree to which society was still dominated by production. While speaking of Nye Bevan, we might examine his claim that the NHS was "pure socialism." In fact, it was rather closer to being "impure liberalism" in the consideration with which general practitioners and consultants were treated, the considerable freedom enjoyed by local administrations, and the low profile of government itself. That is why many remember the period as something of a golden age. It suited almost everyone very well.

The study compares the cost-sharing (co-payment) arrangements for prescribed medicines in a sample of EU countries. Through a set of typical prescription scenarios, the cost burden to individual patients of prescriptions are examined, in the context of drug price, and from the perspective of therapeutic need. The cost to patients of medicines is consistently lower in some, and higher in other, countries, regardless of the type of prescription charge system. Fixed charge systems, as opposed to graduated co-payment systems, are obviously more likely to lead to similar charges for the treatment of comparable clinical conditions, but depending on the level of the charge, can result in the patient paying a higher charge than the price of the drug to the health organisation. Exemption from charges for prescription medicines, commonly relate to clinical condition and level of income. Some systems also have age-related criteria and apply ceilings to the total prescription cost burden borne by the patient. The impact on patient costs of specific policy formulations is discussed and a sproposal is made for cost convergence for comparable therapies. The method used in this study may also provide a route for investigating model systems prior to implementation. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Although Canadian health care reform has constrained costs and improved efficiency, it has had a profound and mixed effect on Canadian academic medicine. Teaching hospitals have been reduced in number and size, and in patient programs have shifted to ambulatory and community settings. Specialized care programs are now multi-institutional and multidisciplinary. Furthermore, the influence of regional planning bodies has grown markedly. Although these changes have likely improved clinical service, their impact on the quality of clinical education is uncertain. Within the academic clinical department, recruitment of young faculty has been greatly complicated by constraints on licensing, billing numbers, fee-for-service income and research funding. The departmental practice plan based on university funds and fee-for-service income is being replaced by less favourable funding arrangements. However, emphasis on multidisciplinary programs has rendered these departments more flexible in structure. The future of Canadian academic medicine depends on an effective alliance with government. Academia and government must agree, particularly on human-resource requirements, research objectives and the delivery of clinical and academic programs in regional and community settings. The establishment of focal points for academic health sciences planning within academic health sciences centres and within governments would assist in these developments. Finally, government and the academic health sciences sector must work together to remove the current impediments to the recruitment of highly qualified young faculty.

Family medicine has matured as an academic and scientific discipline with its own core concepts, knowledge, skills, and research domains. It has acquired much expertise in studying common illnesses; the integration of medical, psychological, social, and behavioral sciences; patient-centered care; and health services delivery. Many health care challenges in the 21st century will place a great demand on primary care, which can serve its purpose only if it is of high quality and evidence based. Family medicine research can contribute to many areas of primary care, ranging from the early diagnosis to equitable health care. Stakeholders, such as the World Health Organization, governments, and funding agencies, are becoming more supportive to family medicine research because they recognize its key importance in improving the quality of primary care and bridging the gap between biomedical research and clinical practice. Family medicine can play a leading role in shifting the paradigm of medical research from the laboratory to the person. The 21st century should be a golden age of family medicine research because the time is right for the discipline, the health care environment is most suitable, and stakeholders are supportive. Family medicine must prepare for it by building up its research track record and capacity. ; published_or_final_version

Family medicine has matured as an academic and scientific discipline with its own core concepts, knowledge, skills, and research domains. It has acquired much expertise in studying common illnesses; the integration of medical, psychological, social, and behavioral sciences; patient-centered care; and health services delivery. Many health care challenges in the 21st century will place a great demand on primary care, which can serve its purpose only if it is of high quality and evidence based. Family medicine research can contribute to many areas of primary care, ranging from the early diagnosis to equitable health care. Stakeholders, such as the World Health Organization, governments, and funding agencies, are becoming more supportive to family medicine research because they recognize its key importance in improving the quality of primary care and bridging the gap between biomedical research and clinical practice. Family medicine can play a leading role in shifting the paradigm of medical research from the laboratory to the person.

Faculty members at two small Canadian universities were sent a questionnaire in which they were asked about research activities and preferences, views of themselves as researchers, and views about factors which they felt either constrained or facilitated research activities. Respondents were highly committed to research, though gave teaching an equally high priority. Views of influences were similar across universities, with non-teaching commitments, teaching commitments, availability of graduate students, and availability of library holdings seen as most detrimental. Personal motivation and university research offices were seen as positive influences. We consider how faculty views might affect university policy and suggest, among other things, that universities might want to develop a formal policy in which individual faculty be allowed to specialize to some extent in research or teaching. ; Les professeurs des deux petites universités canadiennes ont répondu à un questionnaire portant sur leurs activités et préférences de recherche, leurs représentations d'eux-mêmes comme chercheurs et leurs perceptions des facteurs qui aident ou gênent les activités de recherches. Les professeurs accordent une grande priorité à la recherche ainsi qu'à l'enseignement. Peu de différences sont observées dans les perceptions des professeurs des deux universités. Les plus grands obstacles sont les fonctions de participation à l'université, les charges d'enseignement, la disponibilité des étudiants des deuxième et troisième cycles et la disponibilité des livres à la bibliothèque. La motivation des chercheurs et les bureaux de l'administration de la recherche sont perçus de manière positive. Les auteurs traitent par la suite de la façon dont les représentations des professeurs peuvent affecter les politique universitaires. Ils suggèrent, par exemple, que les universités puissent autoriser les professeurs à consacrer plus de temps à la recherche ou à l'enseignement.

First published 1977. This edition published August 2002 by Abraham Guillen Press & Arm The Spirit