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"First published in one volume, May 1898." ; I. A.D. 378-1278--II. 1278-1485. ; Mode of access: Internet. ; 2

First published in one volume, 1898. ; Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ; I. A.D.378-1278 -- II. 1278-1485. ; Mode of access: Internet.

Padom Zapadnog Rimskog Carstva 476. poslije Kr. te ulaskom Gota u Rim, Europa se raspala na mnogo tada neorganiziranih, nepovezanih entiteta koji su započinjali izgradnju vlastitoga kulturnog i političkog identiteta. Kako je vrijeme prolazilo, tako se sve više gubio jedan unificirani mjerni sustav (rekli bismo: antički SI sustav mjera) te sve ono kulturno i tehnološko naslijeđe koje je Rim nakon sebe ostavio. Mjerni sustav uvijek je potreban da bi bilo koji vid društvene aktivnosti uopće opstao. S obzirom da je područje rimskog utjecaja bilo ogromno, a da je na njemu nastalo mnogo novih entiteta, nisu se uspjeli zadržati već uvriježeni mjerni sustavi nego su se počeli stvarati i upotrebljavati lokalni sustavi. Uporaba lokalnih mjernih sustava bila je katkad toliko rascjepkana da su gradovi koji su jedni drugima vidjeli zidine imali potpuno drugačije definirane odnose unutar mjernih sustava. Opisivanje svih mjernih jedinica tijekom srednjeg vijeka zahtijevalo bi puno vremena. Ovdje će biti opisano sve ono što se odnosi na mjerenje mase, što izravno ili neizravno utječe na točnost odnosno bolje rečeno vjerodostojnost izmjera, poglavito pri obavljanju razmjene novca u trgovanju na područjima s različitim mjernim sustavima. Te pojave često su iskorištavali ovlašteni mjenjači novca koji su na "zakonit" način potkradali drugu stranu.

Do Americans live in a liberal capitalist society, or a society in which big money, private security, and personal relations determine key social outcomes? Shlapentokh and Woods argue that the answer to these questions cannot be found among the conventional models. Offering a new analytical tool, the authors present a provocative explanation of the nature of contemporary society by comparing its essential characteristics to those of medieval European societies. Their feudal model emphasizes five elements: the weakness of the state to protect its citizens, conflict and collusion between and within organizations that involve corruption and other forms of illegal or semilegal actions, the dominance of personal relations in political and economic life, the prevalence of an elitist ideology, and the use of private agents and organizations to provide safety and security. Feudal America urges readers to look for explanations of contemporary social problems in medieval European history.

The aim of this study is to single out the latest directions taken by the historiography of the Religious and Military Orders established in Portugal in the Middle Ages and to discuss the current state of research into them. We shall also examine the main tendencies characterised by such research and the way it has been formally organized, drawing attention to how it fits in with other historical topics. The historical course of the Military Orders in Portugal has influenced the documentary output that supports research into the topic, and also the actual organization of the archives and their use. In this regard, we should first describe the orders, showing how they originated and where they became implanted, as well as their relationship with the monarchy.

This paper is to present the beginnings and the subsequent development and evolution of church law in the sphere of education from the 4th to the beginning of the 16th century. The roots of the acts of law presented by the Popes, synods and councils were based on the traditions of Roman law, but a variety of reasons from the field of policy, economy and society led to the need to establish a church school system. The aim of the Church was to create an independent school system with its own purposes, different from secular schools.

Nas últimas décadas, o estudo da historiografia, da memória histórica e dos usos do passado tem suscitado cada vez maior atenção junto dos meios académicos. O medievalismo em particular, comummente entendido como a representação ou o uso da Idade Média no período pós-medieval, assume aqui um papel significativo, dada a importância da época medieval na cultura histórica romântica e nos processos de construção das identidades nacionais desde o século XIX. No contexto académico português, porém, o medievalismo foi ainda escassamente analisado, faltando um estudo que abranja as suas várias dimensões, da historiografia às políticas de memória. Esta dissertação pretende colmatar esta lacuna, ao explorar as várias representações da Idade Média em Portugal entre o final do século XIX e a primeira metade do século XX. Focando três grandes temas – escrita da história, património artístico e comemorações históricas – iremos demonstrar como certos conceitos, instituições, figuras, eventos e obras da história medieval portuguesa foram narrados, retrabalhados e celebrados, à luz dos discursos decadentistas sobre a nação e sobre o mundo ocidental e da evolução política do país neste período. Estudos internacionais sobre este tema permitirão a realização de exercícios comparativos, bem como considerar a dimensão transnacional do medievalismo português, inserido nas grandes correntes culturais e ideologias políticas que influenciaram as várias representações da época medieval neste período. No final, iremos verificar como uma visão essencialmente romântica da história portuguesa persistiu ao longo de grande parte do século XX, ao representar dicotomicamente a Idade Média de forma positiva em comparação com uma Modernidade identificada com declínio civilizacional e espiritual. ; In recent decades, the study of historiography, historical memory and the uses of the past has become a subject of increasing attention in academic circles. Medievalism in particular, commonly understood as the representation or use of the Middle Ages in the post-medieval period, assumes here an significant role, given the importance of the medieval epoch in Romantic historical culture and in nation-building processes since the nineteenth century. However, medievalism has still been scarcely analysed in the Portuguese context, lacking a study that encompasses its multiple dimensions, from historiography to politics of memory. This dissertation aims to fulfil this gap, by exploring the various representations of the Middle Ages in Portugal between the late nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century. Focusing on three major topics – writing of history, artistic heritage and historical commemorations –, we will demonstrate how certain concepts, institutions, figures, events and works of Portuguese medieval history were narrated, reworked and celebrated, in the light of decadentist discourses about the nation and the Western world and of Portugal's political evolution in this period. International research on the topic will allow the making of comparative analyses and the understanding of the transnational dimension of Portuguese medievalism, inserted in the major cultural trends and political ideologies that influenced the various depictions of the medieval epoch in this period. In the end, we will show that an essentially Romantic view of Portuguese history persisted through the twentieth century, dichotomically presenting the Middle Ages in a positive light in comparison with a Modernity identified with civilizational and spiritual decline.

"Reprinted from the American Historical Review, vi. 3." ; Mode of access: Internet.

From a historic perspective, the period of Roman rule and the following Middle Ages are polar opposites. For most, the city of Rome and the Western Roman Empire represent a time of advancement for the Mediterranean world while the Middle Ages are viewed as a regression of sorts for Europe. The reasons explaining the underlying cause of this transition from the Western Roman Empire to the Middle Ages are numerous but this paper will specifically focus on the practices started by the Romans themselves and how they contributed to the rise of the Early Middle Ages on the Italian Peninsula. More specifically, economic turmoil and urbanization following the 3rd century crisis in the city of Rome laid the groundwork for social, legislative, and political changes that thread the path to the fundamental characteristics of the Middle Ages. Changing views of the city and the countryside, the construction of latifundia and villas, and the passing of legislation that restricted the rights of laborers, in addition to other transformations in late Rome, all contributed to the decentralized governance, rural life, and serfdom that are characteristic of the Middle Ages. Ultimately, the goal of this paper is to illustrate that despite the major differences that exist between the Roman period and the Middle Ages, the practices of the late Western Roman Empire were often directly carried over into the Middle Ages and, as a result, for one to truly understand the origins of the Middle Ages, it is essential to comprehend the traditions started by the late Romans.

As the prophet of the Gentiles, Job states, the life of Man upon earth is a warfare. During the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries war against the Tatars and later the Turks and increasingly the Muscovites impinged considerably on the Catholic and Orthodox populations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. War and its consequences made their mark on devotions (to St George, St Casimir, the Ten Thousand Military Martyrs) and church and chantry building; pilgrimage contributions were sidelined for rebuilding churches as well as castles destroyed by the Tatars. The spoils of war were displayed publicly in Vilnius (Wilno) cathedral and thanksgiving for victory and intercession for the fallen took physical form in the building of churches by both Catholic and Orthodox leaders. Personal and patriotic memory of the dead was visualised publicly in religious buildings. Growing traditions of organising public processions around the city of Vilnius placed the Kletsk (Klecko) memorial church of St George clearly on the annual calendar. In the documentary record war was both a literary topos and a harsh everyday reality. Jak głosi prorok Hiob: "Bojowanie jest żywot człowieczy na ziemi". W XV i XVI w. walki z Tatarami, a później Turkami i coraz częściej Moskwą znacznie utrudniały życie katolickich i prawosławnych społeczności Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. Wojna i jej skutki wywierały wpływ na kult świętych (Jerzego, Kazimierza, Dziesięciu Tysięcy Rycerzy Męczenników) i budownictwo kościelne; datki pielgrzymie były przeznaczane na odbudowę zarówno kościołów, jak i zamków zniszczonych przez Tatarów. Łupy wojenne wystawiane były na widok publiczny w katedrze wileńskiej, a dziękczynienie za zwycięstwa i modły za poległych wyrażały się w fundowaniu kościołów przez przywódców tak katolickich, jak i prawosławnych. Osobiste i patriotyczne formy upamiętnienia zmarłych znajdowały materialny wyraz w obrębie budowli kościelnych. Umacniająca się tradycja organizowania procesji wokół miasta Wilna i uroczystości w kościele św. Jerzego (pomniku zwycięstwa bitwy pod Kleckiem) zajęły stałe miejsce w roku liturgicznym. W źródłach wojna ukazuje się nam jako literacki topos, a także jako codzienny znój. Karas ir dievobaimingumo išraiškos Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje vėlyvesniais viduramžiaisSantraukaXV–XVI a. sandūroje padaugėjus totorių, turkų bei maskolių užpuolimų prieš Lietuvos didžiosios kunigaikštystės teritoriją, pastarosios katalikų ir stačiatikių bendruomenės susidūrė tiesiogiai su karo smurtu. Karas turėjo nemažų pasekmių ir tuomet jau gyvybingam vietiniam religiniam gyvenimui. Padidėjo pagarba karingiems šventiesiems Jurgui, Kazimierui, šventiesiems 10 000 karių-kankinių; vyko bažnyčių bei altorių steigimas; maldininkų aukos Bažnyčiai perleidžiamos totorių išniokotų šventyklų ir pilių remontui. Vilniaus katedroje viešai kabo užkariautų priešų vėliavos, o padėkos Dievui už pergalę, maldos už žuvusiųjų išganymą akivaizdžiai įsikūnijo bažnyčių, vienuolijų, cerkvių statybose. Vilniaus mieste įsitvirtinus tradicijai vesti viešas procesijas tarp dvasinių įstaigų; Klecko mūšio paminklas, šv. Jurgio bažnyčia įsišaknijo miestiečių istorinėje atmintyje.

As the prophet of the Gentiles, Job states, the life of Man upon earth is a warfare. During the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries war against the Tatars and later the Turks and increasingly the Muscovites impinged considerably on the Catholic and Orthodox populations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. War and its consequences made their mark on devotions (to St George, St Casimir, the Ten Thousand Military Martyrs) and church and chantry building; pilgrimage contributions were sidelined for rebuilding churches as well as castles destroyed by the Tatars. The spoils of war were displayed publicly in Vilnius (Wilno) cathedral and thanksgiving for victory and intercession for the fallen took physical form in the building of churches by both Catholic and Orthodox leaders. Personal and patriotic memory of the dead was visualised publicly in religious buildings. Growing traditions of organising public processions around the city of Vilnius placed the Kletsk (Klecko) memorial church of St George clearly on the annual calendar. In the documentary record war was both a literary topos and a harsh everyday reality. Jak głosi prorok Hiob: "Bojowanie jest żywot człowieczy na ziemi". W XV i XVI w. walki z Tatarami, a później Turkami i coraz częściej Moskwą znacznie utrudniały życie katolickich i prawosławnych społeczności Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. Wojna i jej skutki wywierały wpływ na kult świętych (Jerzego, Kazimierza, Dziesięciu Tysięcy Rycerzy Męczenników) i budownictwo kościelne; datki pielgrzymie były przeznaczane na odbudowę zarówno kościołów, jak i zamków zniszczonych przez Tatarów. Łupy wojenne wystawiane były na widok publiczny w katedrze wileńskiej, a dziękczynienie za zwycięstwa i modły za poległych wyrażały się w fundowaniu kościołów przez przywódców tak katolickich, jak i prawosławnych. Osobiste i patriotyczne formy upamiętnienia zmarłych znajdowały materialny wyraz w obrębie budowli kościelnych. Umacniająca się tradycja organizowania procesji wokół miasta Wilna i uroczystości w kościele św. Jerzego (pomniku zwycięstwa bitwy pod Kleckiem) zajęły stałe miejsce w roku liturgicznym. W źródłach wojna ukazuje się nam jako literacki topos, a także jako codzienny znój. Karas ir dievobaimingumo išraiškos Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje vėlyvesniais viduramžiaisSantraukaXV–XVI a. sandūroje padaugėjus totorių, turkų bei maskolių užpuolimų prieš Lietuvos didžiosios kunigaikštystės teritoriją, pastarosios katalikų ir stačiatikių bendruomenės susidūrė tiesiogiai su karo smurtu. Karas turėjo nemažų pasekmių ir tuomet jau gyvybingam vietiniam religiniam gyvenimui. Padidėjo pagarba karingiems šventiesiems Jurgui, Kazimierui, šventiesiems 10 000 karių-kankinių; vyko bažnyčių bei altorių steigimas; maldininkų aukos Bažnyčiai perleidžiamos totorių išniokotų šventyklų ir pilių remontui. Vilniaus katedroje viešai kabo užkariautų priešų vėliavos, o padėkos Dievui už pergalę, maldos už žuvusiųjų išganymą akivaizdžiai įsikūnijo bažnyčių, vienuolijų, cerkvių statybose. Vilniaus mieste įsitvirtinus tradicijai vesti viešas procesijas tarp dvasinių įstaigų; Klecko mūšio paminklas, šv. Jurgio bažnyčia įsišaknijo miestiečių istorinėje atmintyje.

This dissertation examines how the performance of medieval rituals at the tsar's court, in the dramas of modernist playwrights, and in early cinema can be read as commentaries on the sociopolitical situation during the Russian Empire's last two decades. These rituals include the commemorative celebrations at the court of Nikolai II, rites of passage in dramas modeled on medieval mystery plays, and costume dramas of early filmmakers. My approach examines these three expressions of the medieval aesthetic and their correlations as homologous actions that were symptomatic of the medieval revival during the fin de si�cle. Ritual thus becomes a way of performing medievalism and hence a constituent part of this phenomenon's development in the Russian Empire. Two national myths, in particular, which this dissertation investigates, emerge through the performance of these medieval rituals: the myths of tsar (authority) and of revolution (rebellion). "Late Imperial Russia" refers to the period of the last tsar, which lasted from 1894 until his abdication in 1917, with the peak of the medieval revival coinciding with the years preceding World War I, 1894-1914. Assessing these years through political and cultural "performances" of the period allows to present this historical moment as a time of transition that was rife with intimations of social, political, and cultural reforms. Victor Turner's concept of social drama, together with Richard Schechner's performance theory, provides a framework for translating these modes of ritualized behavior as aesthetic responses to the sociopolitical conditions of the Russian Empire's final years.

This introductory essay consists of two parts. The fi rst is a contextualisation of the overall purpose of the monographic section, as well as a general summary of the questions, issues and themes which we were proposing to debate. The second part is an Appendix, which sets out the guidelines of the database MedItaNunC, which supported some of the research, and now provides not only a large percentage of the source material, but also a methodology about the connections which can be made through the information brought together. The essay looks at the historiography of the subject, including the recent wealth of research published from the perspective of gender studies in this area, and the way in which the Italian material fi ts into it. It also explains the chosen chronology, and the geographical spread used in the volume, and the important input of archaeology, which has helped propose new questions. Lastly, it sets out the three core themes which run through the other papers in the volume: the links between female monasteries and the city elites, the history of the monasteries concerned in the light of both their foundation and hagiographical myths, their material culture, and their ideological place in the cityscape, and fi nally, the attempt to identify the diff erence, if any, between female and male monastic houses. It is hoped that the collection will provide a fi rst panorama of female monasticism across the multiplicity of Italian political and cultural landscape.

Los estudios sobre política de las Islas Británicas en la baja edad media han tendido a tratar sobre territorios concretos o a poner el Reino de Inglaterra en el centro de los debates. No obstante, en términos de su tamaño y carácter interno, hay buenas razones para considerar el Reino de Escocia y el Señorío de Irlanda como modelos de sociedad política. Más allá las significativas diferencias en el estatus, leyes y relaciones externas, hacia el año 1400 los dos territorios pueden relacionarse por compartir experiencias comunes de gobierno y de guerras internas. Éstas son las más aparentes desde una perspectiva regional. Tanto Irlanda y Escocia operaban como sistemas políticos regionalizados en los que predominaban los intereses de las principales casas aristocráticas. La importancia de dichas casas fue reconocida tanto internamente como por el gobierno real. Observando en regiones paralelas, Munster y el nordeste de Escocia, es posible identificar rasgos comparables y diferencias de largo término en dichas sociedades. ; Studies of the polities of the British Isles in the later middle ages have tended to deal with the individual lands or to place the English kingdom at the centre of discussions. However, in terms of their size and internal character there are good reasons for considering the Scottish kingdom and the lordship of Ireland as models of political society. Beneath the significant differences of status, law and external relationships, around 1400 the two lands can be regarded as sharing common experiences of government and internal warfare. These are most apparent from a regional perspective. Both Ireland and Scotland operated as regionalised polities in which the interests of major aristocratic houses predominated. The importance of such houses was recognised both internally and by the royal government. By looking at parallel regions, Munster and north-east Scotland, it is possible to identify comparable features and long-term differences between these societies.

Studies of the polities of the British Isles in the later middle ages have tended to deal with the individual lands or to place the English kingdom at the centre of discussions. However, in terms of their size and internal character there are good reasons for considering the Scottish kingdom and the lordship of Ireland as models of political society. Beneath the significant differences of status, law and external relationships, around 1400 the two lands can be regarded as sharing common experiences of government and internal warfare. These are most apparent from a regional perspective. Both Ireland and Scotland operated as regionalised polities in which the interests of major aristocratic houses predominated. The importance of such houses was recognised both internally and by the royal government. By looking at parallel regions, Munster and north-east Scotland, it is possible to identify comparable features and long-term differences between these societies. ; Los estudios sobre política de las Islas Británicas en la baja edad media han tendido a tratar sobre territorios concretos o a poner el Reino de Inglaterra en el centro de los debates. No obstante, en términos de su tamaño y carácter interno, hay buenas razones para considerar el Reino de Escocia y el Señorío de Irlanda como modelos de sociedad política. Más allá las significativas diferencias en el estatus, leyes y relaciones externas, hacia el año 1400 los dos territorios pueden relacionarse por compartir experiencias comunes de gobierno y de guerras internas. Éstas son las más aparentes desde una perspectiva regional. Tanto Irlanda y Escocia operaban como sistemas políticos regionalizados en los que predominaban los intereses de las principales casas aristocráticas. La importancia de dichas casas fue reconocida tanto internamente como por el gobierno real. Observando en regiones paralelas, Munster y el nordeste de Escocia, es posible identificar rasgos comparables y diferencias de largo término en dichas sociedades.