Suchergebnisse

Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- Abbreviations and Acronyms -- 1 The EU ETS: The Pioneer-Main Purpose, Structure and Features -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 The Current EU ETS Legislative Framework -- 1.3 EU ETS Purpose and Scope -- 1.4 The Actors of the EU ETS: The Duties of the Operators and of the Participating States and the Sanctions Against Non-compliant Operators -- 1.5 Allocation Regime and Validity of the European Union Allowances -- 1.5.1 General Rules for Allocation of EUAs -- 1.5.2 The EU-Wide Cap for Stationary Installations and for Aircraft Operators -- 1.5.3 The Allocation Rules for EUAs to Stationary Installations -- 1.5.4 The Benchmarks and the Special Regime for Manufacturing and Risk of Carbon Leakage -- 1.6 The New Entrants Reserve (NER) and the NER300 Programme -- 1.7 Article 27 of the EU ETS Directive: The Exclusion of Small Installations -- 1.8 The Auctioning Regime -- 1.8.1 The Rules on Timing, Administration and Other Aspects of the Auctioning of GHG Emission Allowances According to EC Directive 2003/87 and EC Regulation 1031/2010 -- 1.8.2 The Auction Revenues -- 1.9 The Union Registry -- 1.10 Carbon Pricing -- 1.11 Incentives to Eco-Innovation and Technological Effectiveness -- 1.12 Back-Loading and Proposals for Other Structural Reforms of the EU ETS -- References -- 2 California, RGGI, Quebec: The Followers -- 2.1 The California Cap and Trade Scheme -- 2.1.1 Introduction -- 2.1.2 The California ETS: Main Scope, Purpose, Structure and Features -- 2.1.3 Duties of the Covered Entities and Competences of the California Air Resource Board (CARB) Executive Officer -- 2.1.4 Sanctions Against Non-compliant Entities -- 2.1.5 The Allocation Regime of the California Allowances -- 2.1.5.1 Nature and Validity of the Compliance Instruments -- 2.1.5.2 The Regime for Offset Credits Under the California ETS.

In this study, the African policy of the USA has been analyzed. In the bipolar world, in the competition with the Soviet Union and communist ideology, Africa was seen as a geography that should not be lost to its rivals in American foreign policy. It is observed that the interest of the USA, which became the sole power of the international system with the collapse of the Soviet Union, in Africa decreased in the first years of the post-Cold War period. However, after the terrorist attacks that took place in his country at the beginning of the twenty-first century, with the effect of the energy reserves that started to be discovered in the continent and the increasing interest of the great powers such as China, the EU, India, Japan and Russia towards Africa, the USA started military operations in Africa during the Bush era. By increasing its presence, it established a separate command responsible only for the continent and became the foremost commercial partner of the continental countries. With the presidents who came to power later, the interest in Africa decreased compared to the Bush era. In the Obama and Trump eras, it is seen that the USA lost its quality of being the most important trade partner of Africa to China and the EU. Therefore, it is seen that Africa, which rose to an important position in American foreign policy in 2001-2008, decreased in the following years. In this study, it will be emphasized how the 2008 economic crisis and the desire of the USA to reduce its dependence on foreign energy made a change in the African policy of the USA. With China's increasing interest in Africa, the fact that the continent has become a competition area of great powers will be discussed.

Purpose – This paper presents the results of an assessment of the aggregated competitiveness of the agricultural sector in the EU member states. The authors sought answers to the following questions: What is the general level of competitiveness of the agricultural sector in the European Union? Which countries are leaders in the EU and which are outsiders in this area? Research method – The analyses were based on a set of intentionally selected multi-criteria indicators and taxonomic methods. An aggregated Competitiveness Index (CI) was designed, which allowed evaluating and classifying EU countries into categories in terms of the studied phenomenon. The analysis draws upon data derived from the World Bank's and Eurostat statistical databases, and the assessment covered two years – 2004 and 2018. Results – The mean CI in 2018 for all the evaluated countries was 0.1701, while in the base year it was 0.1942, which means that in the analysed years the general competitiveness level of agricultural sectors in the EU member states declined. Considering the possible range of CI (0.1), this level was very low in both analysed years. The general competitiveness level fell due to: the reduced use of fertilisers, decrease in the relative export orientation, smaller area of arable land and a decline in employment in agriculture. Originality/value/implications/recommendations – The analysis of the agricultural sector presented in this paper, using a comprehensive index, is the approach that has not been previously applied, taking into account the selection of the components of a comprehensive index, which was made on the basis of the literature studies. The proposed index allowed classifying the countries of the European Union according to both their resources and performance in production and trade in the agricultural sector and comparing the position they occupied in 2004 and in 2018.

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Phenacoccus solenopsis (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) for the European Union (EU) territory. This species is not included in EU Commission Implementing Regulation 2019/2072. P. solenopsis is native to North America and has spread to all continents except Antarctica. It has recently been reported from Cyprus, Greece and Italy. This mealybug is a polyphagous pest, feeding on about 300 plant species. It usually feeds on aerial plant parts, especially new growth, but also occurs on roots, and is often associated with ants. It is an economically important pest of ornamentals, such as hibiscus and lantana, glasshouse vegetable crops, mainly bell pepper, tomato and eggplant, and field crops, such as cotton. Large populations cause die‐back and reduction in yield. Adult and immature P. solenopsis could enter the EU with imported fresh fruit, vegetables and cut flowers, although the main pathway of introduction is likely to be plants for planting. Host availability and climate suitability indicate that most of the EU would be suitable for establishment. The main natural dispersal stage is the first instar, which crawls over the plant or may be dispersed further by wind and animals. All stages may be transported over longer distances in trade. Phytosanitary measures are available and should prevent further introductions and slow the spread within the EU. P. solenopsis is under official control in Cyprus and has recently been reported in Greece and Italy. Assuming that these reports reflect a limited distribution, and P. solenopsis shortly comes under official control, it would satisfy all the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess for it to be regarded as a potential Union quarantine pest.

Abstract
Ukraine is very much a part of the global arms trade – both as a producer of components of military hardware, as well as a source of illicit weapons fuelling conflicts worldwide. The latter development has in fact become worse since the outbreak of war in the Donbass in 2014. Part of this connectivity to global markets is bound up in the country's Soviet inheritance, a vast network of military-industrial facilities that underpinned defence production in the 1950s-1980s. The Soviets were then engaged in a power struggle with the West over geopolitical influence, military superiority and, of course, nuclear parity. A far less understood consequence of this focus on defence was its impact on Soviet politics, particularly the rising prominence of regional economic elites from southeastern Ukraine, who came to be disproportionately represented in the Kremlin under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. This article examines this inheritance in three parts. The first maps out how changing economic and security priorities after Stalin laid the groundwork for regional elites in Dnipropetrovsk, Kyiv, Donetsk, and Kharkiv to cluster in significant ways, fundamentally altering the political landscape of the Soviet Union. The second part examines how that landscape was changed by the dissolution of the union and independence in 1991, in particular, how denuclearization, reforms to the defence sector and privatization altered the relationship of regional economic elites to centres of power in Moscow and Kyiv and made the emergence of the oligarchs possible. The third and final part examine continuities between past and present as it pertains to the current historical moment, specifically lingering infrastructural concerns and conflicts of interest that precipitated a major conflict between the Soviet Union's two largest successor states.

У статті проаналізовано питання нормативно-правового регулювання типових ліцензійних договорів відповідно до чинного законодавства України та хронологію становлення і розвитку відповідного радянського законодавства, зокрема про типові договори у авторському праві (видавничі договори). Досліджено питання фактичної реалізації п. 1 ст. 1111 Цивільного кодексу України про затвердження типових ліцен­зійних договорів. ; В статье проанализирован во­прос нормативно-правового регулирования типовых лицензионных договоров в соответствии с действующим законодательством Украины и хронология становле­ния и развития соответствующего советского законодательства, в частности, о ти­повых договорах в авторском праве (издательские договоры). Исследован вопрос фактической реализации п. 1 ст. 1111 Гражданского кодекса Украины об утвер­ждении типовых лицензионных договоров. ; The article analyses the actual implementation of the clause 1 of Article1111 of the Civil Code of Ukraine on the approval of model license agreements by authorized agencies or creative unions. It describes the legal status of listed subjects and examines their actual realization of mentioned powers. It turns out that the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine has approved the samples of the contracts in the field of copyright and related rights, which have recommendatory nature. Creative unions do not approve the respective model con­tracts. The author turned to the history of the establishment and development of rele­vant Soviet legislation on the model contracts in copyright law. This issue has been investigated in chronological order. It studies the relevant provisions of Soviet legisla­tion regarding the model publishing agreements (since 1925) as well as the change and transformation of these provisions. It was discovered the dependence of these provisions with the obligatory state registration of contracts and implementation of the principle on freedom of the contract. In conclusion, author states that the men­tioned law has lost its relevance and should be deleted herein.

У статті проаналізовано питання нормативно-правового регулювання типових ліцензійних договорів відповідно до чинного законодавства України та хронологію становлення і розвитку відповідного радянського законодавства, зокрема про типові договори у авторському праві (видавничі договори). Досліджено питання фактичної реалізації п. 1 ст. 1111 Цивільного кодексу України про затвердження типових ліцен­зійних договорів. ; В статье проанализирован во­прос нормативно-правового регулирования типовых лицензионных договоров в соответствии с действующим законодательством Украины и хронология становле­ния и развития соответствующего советского законодательства, в частности, о ти­повых договорах в авторском праве (издательские договоры). Исследован вопрос фактической реализации п. 1 ст. 1111 Гражданского кодекса Украины об утвер­ждении типовых лицензионных договоров. ; The article analyses the actual implementation of the clause 1 of Article1111 of the Civil Code of Ukraine on the approval of model license agreements by authorized agencies or creative unions. It describes the legal status of listed subjects and examines their actual realization of mentioned powers. It turns out that the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine has approved the samples of the contracts in the field of copyright and related rights, which have recommendatory nature. Creative unions do not approve the respective model con­tracts. The author turned to the history of the establishment and development of rele­vant Soviet legislation on the model contracts in copyright law. This issue has been investigated in chronological order. It studies the relevant provisions of Soviet legisla­tion regarding the model publishing agreements (since 1925) as well as the change and transformation of these provisions. It was discovered the dependence of these provisions with the obligatory state registration of contracts and implementation of the principle on freedom of the contract. In conclusion, author states that the men­tioned law has lost its relevance and should be deleted herein.

"Se valora el Derecho Comunitario Centroamericano ante la eventual creación del Sistema de la Marca Comunitaria de Centroamericana, en la que contempla la existencia del Tribunal Supranacional. Se comentará las principales características y funcionamiento del Derecho Comunitario Centroamericano, las diferencias que existe entre el Derecho interno, Internacional y Comunitario; así como también se destacan ciertas particularidades del tema marcario; los principios de la Unidad y Autonomía de la Marca Comunitaria; el ius prohibendi del Derecho Exclusivo que se concede al titular de una marca, destacándose la importancia que tienen los Tribunales Supranacionales en el contexto del Sistema de Marca Comunitaria, tal como lo ha establecido la Unión Europea, mediante su oficina EUIPO y sus respectivos tribunales; todo en aras de motivar la implementación del Sistema de la Marca Comunitaria Centroamericana." / "Appreciation is expressed of Central American Community Law to implement the Central American Community Trademark System; commenting on its main features and operation, the differences that exists between domestic, international and community law; as well as it also highlights certain specific characteristics of the trademark subject; the principles of the Unity and Autonomy of the Community Trademark; The ius prohibendi as the Exclusive Right granted to the proprietor of a trade mark, emphasizing the importance that the supranational courts have in the context of the Community Trademark System, as set forth by the European Union, through its EUIPO office in order to encourage the implementation of the Central American Community Trademark System, for this an explanation of the Jurisdictional Protection of the Exclusive Right granted by the "Community corpus" of the European mark is provided; and the role played by the Supranational Courts of Justice, with jurisdiction in the field of Community Trademark Law."

The article is devoted to definition of specifics of implementation of one-man rule among Rurik's princely dynasty during X-XII centuries. The author analyses the process of establishing of sole authority of Kiev princes Ruriks in Rus' and determines the main activities of the dynasty representatives in consolidation of East-Slavic tribal unions.The feudal structure that existed in Rus' (and later in Russia) about thousand years has begun forming in the 9th -century. Early feudalism lasted during the 9th–11th-century. It coincided with a period of political-territorial forming of Rus' state. It was a kind of transition, when the central government was unable to restrict the local nobility rights. The Varangian princes have defeated Khazars with the goal territory consolidation Slavic tribal unions, and relying on military retinues, slowly, one by one, have subordinated the south-eastern tribes and put on them tribute during the 9th– 10th-century. They had implemented a number of authority-management reforms that allowed to the Kievan princes to take into their hands from local princes the right to individual-private solving of political, power and financial prob-lems in Rus' space. The Riurik's dynasty began the process of unification of East Slavic tribal unions in one state during the 9th –10th-century. At the period of sustainable dynasty development (during 11th century – 30-ies 12th century) all East Slavic tribal groups found themselves in the ―Empire Riurik's dynasty‖. It has become an important political and military force in Eastern Europe: successful campaigns has carried out against Byzantine Empire, favourable trade agreements were concluded with emperors, Kievan princes established dynastic ties with many of the most powerful royal families of Europe.

The UK European Union membership referendum 2016 and its results actualized the study of the British initiatives in the sphere of integration before the entry into the European Economic Community in 1973. The article is devoted to the little-known in Russian historiography "Grand Design"of H. Macmillan, nominated in the wake of the failure of the Suez operation against Egypt in 1956. Plan with such bright and eye-catching name suggested the creation of a broad integration group in Europe as alternative with Britain as a leader to the preparing for the establishment of projects of the European Economic Community and the European Atomic energy community. The project was designed to restore the prestige of the Conservative Party and to strengthen the shaky position of Britain in NATO and European affairs after Suez Crisis. At the same time the emergence of the plan reflected the desire of the Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan to weaken the struggle inside political establishment between supporters and opponents of the country's full-fledged participation in the European integration and take the lead in the integration movement from France. Analysis of the content of the project and attempts to implement it within the framework of a Free Trade Area (FTA) reveals the essence of the "special position" of the UK towards supranational integration and the British vision of the future of European integration. Modern United Kingdom appeared in the new European realities after the Referendum on the country's membership in the European Union and returns to the starting point on the path of supranational integration and to the search for its place in Europe. In these circumstances, the ideas expressed by British politicians more than half a century ago, may again prove to be demanded and relevant.

В статье рассматриваются современные тенденции и перспективы развития глобальной интеграции в мировом экономическом пространстве. Показано, что постсоциалистические трансформации не вписываются в классические модели трансформационных переходов, так как имеют иную стадийность, отличаются специфичной иерархией процедурных и структурных факторов, носят смешанный характер, реализуют одновременные преобразования в различных сферах, сохраняют значимость властных номенклатур, стимулируют появление сложносоставных конфликтов. Большое внимание в статье уделяется особенностям интеграционных процессов в Европе, в Северной Америке, в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе. На примере рассмотрения Европейского Союза (ЕС), Североамериканского соглашения о свободной торговле (НАФТА), форума «Азиатско-Тихоокеанское экономическое сотрудничество» (АТЭС), являющихся центрами мировой интеграции, в которых сосредоточены масштабные экономические, финансовые, научно-технологические и людские ресурсы, по своей важности сопоставимые с их политическими, военно-стратегическими значениями, проанализированы этапы становления и развития интеграционных союзов, обозначены дальнейшие направления их стратегического развития. ; The article considers the modern tendencies and prospects of development of global integration in the global economic environment. It is shown that post-socialist transformation do not fit the classic model of transformational crossings, as have other stages, different specific hierarchy of procedural and structural factors are mixed, implement simultaneous transformations in various fields, save the importance of powerful items, stimulate the emergence of complex conflicts. Great attention is paid to the peculiarities of integration processes in Europe, in North America, the Asia-Pacific region. On the example of the European Union (EU), the North American free trade agreement (NAFTA), the Asia-Pacific economic cooperation (APEC), which are the centers of global integration, which focused on large-scale economic, financial, scientific-technological and human resources, by their importance comparable to their political, military-strategic values, analyzed the stages of formation and development of the integration of the unions further directions of their strategic development.

The procedures for gaining, maintaining, suspending, withdrawing or re-gaining official bovine tuberculosis free herd status and for certification for intra-Union trade are based on the results of tuberculin skin tests. The skin test has a number of drawbacks, therefore the suitability of the gamma interferon test and other tests to be included by EU legislation was assessed. Suitability means that the test has a sensitivity equivalent or superior to the standard test currently used in the European Union and specificity not lower than that of the standard test with the lowest specificity used in the EU. Furthermore, there should be no foreseeable practical difficulties that could compromise test performance. It was concluded that purified protein derivative based gamma interferon tests can be included amongst the official tests for the purpose of demonstrating freedom. However, some results suggest that the specificity of the purified protein derivative based gamma interferon tests may not always be as high as the single intradermal tuberculin test. In case the test is included, the protocols for its use for this purpose should be harmonised in the EU. Based on the reviewed information, other tests should not yet be considered for inclusion in the official tests for the purpose of granting and retaining official tuberculosis free herd status. Further evaluation of the suitability of the gamma interferon tests test should study the influence of factors such as the presence of environmental mycobacteria, prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in the herd, the age type and bovine tuberculosis test history of the animals all of which may affect test specificity and hence the suitability of the test for demonstrating freedom from bovine tuberculosis in different situations.

Aims To describe the extent to which the content of the European Commission's Communication on alcohol reflects public health-based scientific evidence. Design Document retrieval and content analysis. Setting European Union. Participants Background documents leading up to the European Commission's Communication on alcohol, the Communication itself and implementation actions following the Communication. Measurements Documents were read and analyzed for evidence-based alcohol policy content. Findings Although the Communication acknowledges and supports existing interventions which have high evidence for effectiveness, such as enforcing blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limits for drivers, it extensively promotes other interventions which have been shown to be ineffective; for example, recommending education and persuasion strategies as a measure across all its five priority areas. Measures to influence price are mentioned only once in relation to sales in drinking venues limiting two-for-one drinks offers. Measures to control physical availability are mentioned infrequently. Conclusions The Communication reflects the science, in that it acknowledges the significance of alcohol as a social and health determinant in Europe. However, it places more emphasis on policy actions with less evidence for effectiveness than on those with strong evidence. It also focuses its efforts more on mapping member state actions and coordinating knowledge exchange than on providing concrete recommendations for action or developing Europe-wide policy measures. This may be a compromise between the rights of Member States to develop national policy and legislation and the obligation of the European Union as a collaborative body to protect health. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the European Union's roots as a trading block emphasizes collaboration with industry stakeholders and this influences the ability to prioritize health over trade considerations.

The incorporation of non-traditional crops for Argentine Republic became notable in the late XX century and early XXI by technological innovations that allow very significant yields, the opportunity represented by the exportation of agricultural products, as is the case of cherry, favoured by the exchange rate, and against seasonality of production for consumer markets in the Northern Hemisphere. The main cherry-growing areas are three: the Uco Valley in Mendoza province, the Los Antiguos Valley in the province of Santa Cruz and the Lower Valley of the Chubut River (VIRCH) in the province of same name, which met the requirements for achieving good crop yields. The main destination of this nectarine is in addition to domestic consumption, exports to the US and the European Union (EU), representing an important trade surplus for producing areas. ; La incorporación de cultivos que no son tradicionales para la República Argentina se hizo notable a fines del siglo XX y principios del XXI por las innovaciones tecnológicas que permiten rindes muy significativos, la oportunidad que representa la exportación de algunos productos agropecuarios como es el caso de la cereza favorecidos por el tipo de cambio, y la contraestacionalidad de la producción, respecto de los mercados consumidores del hemisferio norte. Las principales zonas de cultivo de cerezo son tres: el Valle de Uco en la provincia de Mendoza, el Valle Los Antiguos en la provincia de Santa Cruz y el Valle inferior del río Chubut (VIRCH), en la provincia homónima; las cuales cumplen con los requisitos para lograr buenas producciones del cultivo. El principal destino de esta fruta es además del consumo interno, la exportación a EEUU y la Unión Europea (UE), representando un saldo comercial importante para las zonas productoras.

The paper deals with a model for assessing disparities in the development of commercial facilities. The term "commercial facilities" helps one perceive distribution not only as an economic activity in itself but also as an urban infrastructure and as a component of an urban area that forms a town, area which should be designed in accordance with the new concepts promoted by the European Union: integrated town planning, and urban regeneration. The paper consists of three parts: the first part briefly presents the importance of town development from the perspective of the theory of urban area modelling; the second part deals with the functional integration of commercial facilities into urban regeneration projects; the third part suggests a model for assessing regional disparities in the development of commercial facilities, which – using the "point method" – can be applied so that it meets the requirement of quantifying the equipment levels reached and make space comparisons. This model is based on ten indicators relevant to the studied field, as taken from Statistical Yearbook of Romania. For Romania, it is all the more necessary to define programmes for the territorial development of commercial facilities as, at present, major disparities have been caused by the disequilibrium resulted from the uncontrolled expansion of the great multinational distribution chains, which equally hindered the small independent trade and the network of shops specific to the main/historical centres of towns. The outcome of our research confirms the need that local communities should think and act consistently with the new policy of sustainable development of towns, promoted within the European Union, aimed at observing the basic principles of the territory planning policy: restructuring and strengthening the structurally deficient areas.