Suchergebnisse

Improper wastewater management could result in significant damage to the treatment plants and the final recipient aquatic ecosystem. In the past, wastewater management did not get much attention from different stakeholders. However, recently a paradigm shift of wastewater and storm water management is evolving from a simple sanitary and flood control, respectively, to a whole environmental protection function. A very important aspect of the sewer systems management policy is to detect and eliminate an illicit intrusion. This PhD research is consisting of two main pillars. In the first pillar, the issues regarding the identification of an illicit intrusion in a sewer system have been addressed, proposing a source identification (SI) methodology. In the second pillar, different innovative methodologies have been proposed to find the optimal placement of a limited number of sensors in the sewer system. In the thesis, the SI is solved through a simulation-optimization model, combining the hydraulic and quality simulation tool Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) with a genetic algorithm code (GALib) as an optimizer. It requires online measurements from some sensors placed on the network. The SWMM does not have the programmer's toolkit. To integrate the SWMM simulator with the proposed automated SI methodology, an ad-hoc toolkit has been developed. A pre-screening procedure, based on the pollution matrix concept and considering the topology of sewers, has been implemented to reduce the computational effort. The SI methodology has been tested on two different networks. One is a literature network taken from the SWMM example manual while the other is one sub-catchment of the real sewer network of Massa Lubrense, a town located near Naples, Italy. The results show that the pre-screening procedure reduces the computational effort significantly, and it has a crucial role in large systems. In investigating the performances of the SI methodology, its sensitivity respect to the genetic algorithm parameters has been verified. Moreover, the influence of the uncertainty of the inflows values and the measurement errors on the results have been investigated. Another core problem associated with the water quality monitoring of sewers is represented by the optimal placement of a limited number of sensors for the early detection of an illicit source. In the thesis, the sensor location is expressed as a single or multi-objective optimization problem and the SWMM is used to extract the water quality data. Different formulations have been proposed and tested. First, an Information Theory (IT) based multi-objective optimization methodology is presented. The IT approach considers two objectives: the Joint entropy, the information content of a set of sensors, which is kept as high as possible; the Total correlation, a measure of redundancy, which is kept as low as possible. In the second multi-objective approach Detection time, to be minimized, and Reliability, to be maximized, are considered. In both cases, the multi-objective problems are solved using the Non-Dominating Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II (NSGA-II). As a third alternative, a single objective Greedy based optimization tool has been tested. The previously considered objectives are also used with different combinations. The Massa Lubrense sewer network is used to test the performances of various proposed procedures. A normalized comparison among all approaches shows that the Greedy based approach could be a handy alternative for optimizing the sensor locations in sewer systems ; La gestion incorrecte des eaux usées peut entraîner des dommages importants sur les stations de traitement et sur le récepteur final (écosystème aquatique). Dans le passé, la gestion des eaux usées n'a pas retenu beaucoup d'attention de la part des différentes parties prenantes. Toutefois, récemment, le changement de modèle de gestion des eaux usées et des eaux pluviales, a évolué du simple contrôle sanitaire et des inondations, à une protection globale de l'environnement. Un aspect très important, dans la politique de gestion des systèmes d'assainissement, est de détecter et d'éliminer une intrusion illicite, qui peut être intentionnelle. Ce travail thèse de doctorat est constitué de deux parties principales. Dans la première partie les problèmes relatifs à l'identification d'une intrusion illicite dans un système d'assainissement ont été abordés, proposant une méthodologie d'identification de la source (IS). Dans la deuxième partie, différentes méthodologies innovantes ont été proposées pour trouver l'emplacement optimal d'un nombre limité de capteurs dans le système d'assainissement. Dans cette thèse, le ISest résolu grâce à un modèle de simulation-optimisation, combinant l'outil de simulation Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) avec un code d'optimisation basé sur un algorithme génétique (Galib). Ceci nécessite des mesures en ligne de certains capteurs placés sur le réseau. Le SWMM ne possède pas l'outil de programmation. Afin d'intégrer le simulateur SWMM à la méthodologie de IS automatisé proposée, un outil ad-hoc a été développé. Une procédure de présélection, basée sur le concept de la matrice de la pollution et compte tenu de la topologie des égouts, a été mis en œuvre pour réduire l'effort de calcul. La méthodologie IS a été testée sur deux réseaux différents. L'un est un réseau connu dans la littérature, extrait du manuel de SWMM, tandis que l'autre réseau est un sous-bassin versant du réseau d'assainissement de Massa Lubrense, village situé près de Naples, en Italie. Les résultats montrent que les procédures de présélection réduisent considérablement l'effort de calcul, avec un rôle crucial pour les grands systèmes. En enquêtant sur la performance de la méthodologie IS, sa sensibilité par rapport aux paramètres de l'algorithme génétique a été vérifiée. En outre, l'influence de l'incertitude des flux entrés et des erreurs de mesure sur les résultats ont été approfondi. Un autre problème fondamental, associé à la surveillance de la qualité de l'eau des égouts, est le placement optimal d'un nombre limité de capteurs pour la détection précoce d'une source illicite. Dans la thèse l'emplacement du capteur est exprimé avec un problème d'optimisation mono ou multi-objectif. Le SWMM est utilisé pour extraire les données de qualité de l'eau. Différentes formulations ont été proposées et testées. Tout d'abord, la Théorie de l'Information (TI) basée sur la méthodologie d'optimisation multi-objectif est présentée. La TI considère deux objectifs : l'entropie conjointe, le contenu de l'information dans un ensemble de capteurs, qui est maintenu aussi haut que possible ; la corrélation totale, une mesure de la redondance, qui est maintenue aussi faible que possible. Dans la seconde approche multi-objectifs le temps de détection doit être minimisé et la fiabilité qui doit être maximisée. Les deux cas, les problèmes multi-objectifs sont résolues en utilisant l'algorithme Non-Dominating Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II (NSGA-II). Comme troisième alternative, un outil d'optimisation mono-objectif (Greedy) a été testé. Les objectifs précédemment considérées sont utilisés avec différentes combinaisons. Le réseau d'assainissement de Massa Lubrense a été utilisé pour tester les performances des différentes procédures proposées. Une comparaison normalisée entre toutes les approches montre que l'approche basée sur Greedy pourrait être une alternative pratique pour l'optimisation des emplacements de capteurs dans les systèmes d'assainissement

Die Entwässerung von Autobahnen erfolgt in Deutschland häufig über das angrenzende Bankett, was zu einem erheblichen Schwermetalleintrag in den Straßenrandbereich führt. Aus Sicht des Grundwasserschutzes müssen Straßenbankette daher über ein ausreichendes Schwermetallretentionsvermögen verfügen. Bankette bestehen in der Regel aus dem in der Umgebung anstehenden Oberboden. Neu angelegte Bankette müssen dagegen aufgrund geänderter rechtlicher Vorgaben aus einer definierten Boden-Schotter-Mischung konstruiert werden, um das Befahren im Notfall zu ermöglichen. In dieser Arbeit habe ich das Schwermetallrückhaltevermögen bestehender und neu angelegter, standfester Bankette untersucht, um eine potentielle Gefährdung des Grundwassers durch die Infiltration des Straßenabflusses abzuschätzen. Um die Schwermetallbelastung (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb und Zn) von Banketten/ Straßenrandböden verschiedener Standorte in Europa zu bestimmen, wurde eine umfassende Literaturstudie durchgeführt. Das Schwermetallrückhaltevermögen eines langjährig bestehenden Autobahnbankettes an der A115 wurde anhand verschiedener Labor- und Feldversuchen ermittelt. An einem anderen Abschnitt der A115 wurde eine Lysimeterstation mit drei unterschiedlichen Bankettvarianten errichtet, um das Schwermetallrückhalte-vermögen neu gebauter, standfester Bankette zu untersuchen. Die Literaturstudie ergab, dass die Schwermetallkonzentrationen in der obersten Bodenschicht (0–<5 cm) in den ersten 5 m neben der Straße an allen Standorten stark erhöht sind, im Mittel lagen sie bei 0.7 (Cd), 28 (Cr), 48 (Cu), 25 (Ni), 106 (Pb) und 179 (Zn) mg kg-1. Dies ist der Bereich in dem der Straßenabfluss primär infiltriert. Die Schwermetallkonzentrationen der Bodenmatrix nahmen in der Regel mit zunehmender Tiefe und Entfernung zur Straße ab. Die Studie zeigte weiterhin, dass die Konzentrationen in der Bodenlösung nicht zwangsläufig diesem Muster entsprechen. Die Lösungskonzentrationen in 10 m Entfernung zur Straße waren oftmals höher als am unmittelbare Straßenrand, was auf die geringeren Boden pH-Werte und Sickerwasserraten in dieser Entfernung zurückzuführen ist. Im bestehenden Bankett der A115 waren die Schwermetallkonzentrationen um bis zu 30-mal höher (Cd und Cu) als die Konzentrationen des Referenzbodens in ca. 800 m Entfernung zur Straße. Die Lösungskonzentrationen im Sickerwasser waren ebenfalls erhöht, sie lagen zum Teil über den Konzentrationen des Straßenabflusses. In Laborversuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Schwermetallretentionsvermögen des bestehenden Banketts 10 bis 20 Mal höher war als das des Referenzbodens. Der Eintrag von Sedimenten und Partikeln führte zu einem Anstieg des pH-Wertes und des Corg Gehaltes im Bankett und somit auch zu einer Erhöhung der Sorptionsfähigkeit. Die Messungen an der Lysimeterstation haben gezeigt, dass die Schwermetalle im Straßenabfluss größtenteils an Partikel bzw. Sedimente gebunden (78-98%) sind. Zusammen mit dem Straßenablauf wurden große Mengen an Sedimenten (4,7 kg m-² a-1) in das Bankett eingetragen. Im Mittel lagen die Konzentrationen bei 0.6 (Cd), 58 (Cr), 166 (Cu), 21 (Ni), 29 (Pb) und 527 (Zn) µg L-1. Durch die hohen Infiltrationsraten direkt an der Straße war die Grundwasserneubildungsrate im Bereich des Bankettes um bis 22-mal höher (4100 mm a-1) als unter natürlichen Bedingungen. Die Lösungskonzentrationen im Sickerwasser der beiden standfesten Varianten waren nicht signifikant höher als die der nicht standfesten Referenz. Die Gesamtkonzentrationen in der Bodenlösung waren, je nach Element, mehr als doppelt so hoch wie die Lösungskonzentrationen und lagen zwischen 0,4-0,7 (Cd), 14-20 (Cr), 28-114 (Cu), 11-25 (Ni), 16-42 (Pb) und 67-97 (Zn) µg L-1. Der Anteil partikulär gebundener Schwermetalle an der Gesamtkonzentration war in den neu gebauten Banketten deutlich höher als in dem bestehenden Bankett. Dies ist vermutlich auf die relativ kurze Standzeit der Bankettlysimeter zurückzuführen ist. Das Schwermetallrückhaltevermögen von bestehenden Banketten genügt in der Regel den geltenden rechtlichen Ansprüchen in Bezug auf den Grundwasserschutz. An langjährig betriebenen Autobahnstandorten kann es aber aufgrund von Schwermetalldesorption vereinzelt zu problematischen Lösungskonzentrationen im Bankett kommen. Die Versickerung von Straßenabfluss in standfeste Bankette führt, in Bezug auf die aktuellen Prüfwerte, nicht zu einer erhöhten Grundwassergefährdung. Die hohen Infiltrationsraten im Bereich des Bankettes führen, trotz relativ niedrigen Sickerwasserkonzentrationen, zu einer Verlagerung erheblicher Schwermetallfrachten in tiefere Bodenschichten und damit möglicherweise auch ins Grundwasser. Um die Schwermetallfrachten im Bankettbereich möglichst gering zu halten sollte einen Mindestfeinkornanteil (<0,063 mm) für Bankettmaterialien festgelegt werden. Zukünftige Forschungsvorhaben in diesem Bereich sollten untersuchen inwieweit sich das Schwermetallretentionsvermögens neu gebauter, standfester Bankette im Laufe der Betriebszeit verändert. ; The decentralised infiltration of highway runoff into the adjacent embankment is a common stormwater management practice that sustainably changes the quality of the soils and soil solution. Accumulation, retardation and migration of metals plays an important role in terms of soil and groundwater protection. In the past, embankments were usually made of topsoil material from the surrounding area. However recent changes in road construction regulations require the application of accurately defined gravel-soil mixtures in order to ensure drivability in emergency cases. The objective of my doctorate thesis was to assess the metal retention capability of existing and newly constructed stable highway embankments from infiltrating road runoff in order to highlight the risk of groundwater contamination and deduce possible improvements for future embankment constructions. In a first step a literature review was conducted to determine the metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) pollution in embankment soils and soil solutions of different study sites across the European highway network. In a second step the metal retention capability of an existing embankment at the A115 highway was investigated using both field and laboratory experiments. In a third step three lysimeters were filled with different embankment materials and installed along the A115 highway in order to asses metal retention capacity of newly constructed stable embankments from diffuse runoff infiltration. The European data synthesis showed that metal concentrations are strongly increased in the topsoil layer (0–<5 cm) of the first 5 m beside the road, which is the area receiving the majority of infiltrating road runoff. The mean concentrations in this area were 0.7 (Cd), 28 (Cr), 48 (Cu), 25 (Ni), 106 (Pb) and 179 (Zn) mg kg-1. Typically soil contamination decreased with increasing soil depth or distance from the road. The concentration patterns of metals in soil solution were independent from concentrations in the soil matrix. Solute concentrations often increase within a distance up to 10 m which is probably due to a lower soil pH and low percolation rates at this distance. Metal concentrations in the existing embankment soil at the A115 were strongly increased after long-term operation. They were up to thirty times higher (Cd and Cu) compared to a reference site at 800 m distance to the highway. Dissolved metal concentrations in soil solution were often higher than in the road runoff, indicating that leaching from soil matrix was largely responsible for the elevated metal levels. However, adsorption experiments showed that the metal retardation capacity of the old embankment soil is 10 to 20 times higher compared to reference soil without influence of traffic. The increasing metal retention capacity was caused by the higher soil pH and the higher clay and Corg content of the embankment soil, most likely resulting from highway traffic induced particle and sediment input. At the lysimeter study site, metals from road runoff were largely associated with particles and sediments (78-98%). Along with the highway runoff, considerable loads of sediments (4.7 kg m-2 a-1). The mean metal concentrations in road runoff were 0.6 (Cd), 58 (Cr), 166 (Cu), 21 (Ni), 29 (Pb) and 527 (Zn) µg L-1. The high infiltration rates lead to increased groundwater recharge which are increased up to 22 times (4100 mm a-1) compared to natural conditions. Dissolved metal concentrations in soil solution of stable highway embankments were not significantly higher compared to the nonstable reference. Total metal concentrations in soil solution were, depending on the metal, more than twice as high as dissolved concentrations ranging from 0.4-0.7 (Cd), 14-20 (Cr), 28-114 (Cu), 11-25 (Ni), 16-42 (Pb) and 67-97 (Zn) µg L-1. The ratio of particle-bound metals was significantly higher than in the existing embankment, which could be a result of the relatively short operating time. Overall the metal retention capability of existing highway embankments from infiltrating road runoff is adequate from the legislators' point of view. At existing, highly polluted embankment sites, leaching from soil matrix can sporadically lead to problematic metal concentrations in soil solution. The infiltration of runoff in newly constructed, stable embankments do not increase the risk of groundwater contamination with respect to the current trigger values. However, high infiltration rates directly beside the road facilitate the transfer of high metal loads into deeper soil layers and potentially into the groundwater as well. To reduce metal loads in the area of the embankments, it is recommended to specify a minimum share of fine soil (<0.063 mm) for embankment materials. Based on the present findings, future research should address the change of metal retention capacity from newly constructed embankment over time.

Resumen en español: "Introducción: El hábitat es usado de forma diferente por distintas especies, dependiendo de su alimentación, hábitos reproductivos, requerimientos de espacio y tolerancia a áreas con condiciones de menor calidad. La forma en que entendemos los requerimientos de cada especie e individuo será diferente de acuerdo con la escala espacial del hábitat que se estudie; por lo tanto, la selección de hábitat debe ser analizada a diferentes escalas espaciales. A una escala amplia (biogeográfica), el establecimiento de una especie se verá influido por los tipos de clima, vegetación y altitud. A una escala local (i. e. en un parche 10 km2), las variables que influyen sobre la presencia de las especies pueden ser la disponibilidad de alimento, el riesgo de depredación y la competencia. Conocer la distribución espacial de un organismo a escalas regionales y biogeográficas, así como los factores que influyen sobre ésta, resulta de gran utilidad para proponer áreas de conservación enfocadas en una especie o población, ya que su variación geográfica nos permite señalar las áreas con mayor valor ecológico para su conservación. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la distribución potencial del tapir centroamericano (Tapirus bairdii) en la península de Yucatán, y determinar las variables climáticas que influyen en dicha distribución. Métodos: Para ello, se desarrolló un modelo de distribución de especies utilizando el análisis de Máxima Entropía (Maxent; Phillips et al. 2006) que usa variables ambientales para predecir la distribución de un organismo en un área geográfica dada con base en los registros de presencia de la especie. Para obtener los registros de tapir, se buscaron datos de presencia en diferentes fuentes de información, tanto académicas como gubernamentales (Apéndice I). Únicamente se seleccionaron los datos obtenidos en la península de Yucatán durante los últimos 10 año. En cuanto a la parte climática, se utilizaron las variables bioclimáticas obtenidas de WorldClim, las cuales proporcionan capas con información climática global derivadas de valores de temperatura y precipitación mensuales. Resultados: De acuerdo con la influencia de las variables climáticas, la mayor probabilidad de encontrar tapires en la península de Yucatán se da en lugares donde llueve mucho y las temperaturas no son muy altas (Figura 3). La respuesta a dichas variables confirma la necesidad de este mamífero de habitar en zonas donde se asegure una cantidad suficiente de agua para sobrevivir. Adicionalmente, se identifican zonas de distribución potencial por las características climáticas idóneas en las que el tapir puede distribuirse. Sin embargo, se requieren estudios para descartar o confirmar la presencia de la especie y contemplar la posibilidad de integrar estas zonas a planes de conservación, como áreas donde los registros correspondan únicamente a avistamientos y atropellamientos, y donde el modelo confirme una fuerte probabilidad de presencia de tapires. Discusión y conclusiones: El modelado de distribución potencial de las especies es una herramienta útil para proponer planes de conservación y manejo en zonas que aún no cuentan con algún nivel de protección. Ejemplos de lo anterior son la parte central del estado de Campeche, los bosques cercanos a la Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Kaan y la franja costera Majahual-Xcalak, así como los alrededores de la laguna de Bacalar, en el estado de Quintana Roo. Conocer las variables climáticas aptas para la distribución de la especie puede ser de gran utilidad en el momento de proponer corredores biológicos. Asimismo, es importante conocer el cambio de uso de suelo en las áreas donde aún se distribuye el tapir, a fin de llevar a cabo planes de manejo y conservación de estas zonas. " ; Resumen en inglés: "Introduction: The habitat is used differentially by different species, depending on their feeding and breeding habits, space requirements and tolerance to areas with lower quality conditions. The way we understand the requirements for each species and individual will be different according to the spatial scale of habitat being studied, therefore habitat selection must be analyzed at different spatial scales. In a wide scale (biogeographic) the establishments of a species are mainly influenced by types of climte, vegetation and altitude. At a local scale (i. e. in a 10 km2 patch) the variables that influence the presence of the species could be food availability, predation risk and competition. Knowing the spatial distribution of an organism at regional and biogeographic scales and the factors that influence them, will allow to propose conservation areas targeted for a species or population, since its geographic variation allows us to identify areas with higher value for ecological conservation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential distribution of Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii) in the Yucatan peninsula, México and determine the climatic variables that influence such distribution. Methods: We performed a species distribution modeling approach using a Maximum Entropy analysis (Maxent; Phillips et al. 2006) that use environmental variables to predict the potential distribution of an organism in a given geographic area given presence records. To obtain the tapir occurrence records a search was performed on academic and governmental information sources (Appendix I). Only data obtained in the Yucatan peninsula over the past 10 years were selected. For the model generation we used the bio-climatic variables obtained from WorldClim, which provides global climate layers with information derived from monthly values of temperature and precipitation. Results: According to the influence of climate variables, the tapirs in the Yucatan peninsula occur in places with high rainfall and when the temperatures are not high (Figure 3). The answer to these variables confirms the need for this mammal to inhabit areas where sufficient water is ensured for his maintenance. Additionally, potential distribution areas were identified where studies are required to confirm the presence of the species and the possibility to integrate them into conservation plans. Discussion and conclusions: The potential distribution model suggests areas where tapirs can be distributed but there are no presence records and where records are only for sightings, as is the central part of the state of Campeche, close to forests of the Biosphere Reserve of Sian Ka'an, and the coastal strip Majahual-Xcalak and around Lake Bacalar in the state of Quintana Roo. Studies on these sites are recommended to check for the presences of tapirs. The potential distribution model is a useful tool to propose conservation and management plans in areas that do not have any protection, and to know the climate variables suitable for the distribution of the species that may be applicable at the time of proposing biological corridors. It is also important to be aware of change in land use in areas where yet the tapir is distributed to carry out management plans and conservation of these areas. "

Knowledge and valuation of ecosystem services are important components for reaching the governmental goals for improving the natural environments. Recreational fishing has more than one million practitioners nationwide.Knowledge about the fishers and their catches increases the ability to assess whether the ecosystem services are retained. In addition, it gives means for evaluating the actions for the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of oceans, lakes and rivers. Knowledge of recreational fishing is also needed in order to follow up the details in its environmental objectives relating to outdoor recreation, tourism industry and the governmental goals in the open-air policy. The EU's common fisheries policy, the Swedish environmental policy and Swedish fisheries policy all emphasize that ecosystem-based management should be implemented. Thus, there are needs for knowledge of the ecosystems which are exploited by humans. Fish populations are important components of aquatic ecosystems, and are affected by the surrounding environment, while they themselves affect the structures of the aquatic food-webs. Fishes often have regulatory functions in the ecosystems, and thereby contribute to valuable ecosystem services in addition to the more obvious services as providing food and recreation for humans. Mostly issues regarding the impacts of fishing-related activities on fish populations have been focused on commercial fishing. A widespread and intensive commercial fishing may lead to the depletion of stocks or, at worst, a collapse of the fish populations; the fish population reaching such low levels that recovery may be difficult. In recent years the knowledge of the impact of recreational fishing on aquatic systems has increased, but still the effects of recreational fishing on ecosystem are relatively poorly studied, compared to commercial fisheries. For many, it may be difficult to accept that recreational fishing may affect fish populations; each fisher/angler favour just their own fisheries without bearing in mind that although the small influence from each individual fisherman may be small, it will be significant when many fishermen harvest from the same stock. Recreational fishing and its effects on the aquatic ecosystems are often neglected in fisheries science, mainly due to the lack of data to estimate recreational fishing harvest with a sufficient resolution to calculate the effort and landings of recreational fisheries. In this report, we try to give an overall picture of the fish species needing increased knowledge in order to get an estimate of harvest in recreational fisheries and thereby the effect on fish populations. Furthermore, we also try to give a picture of international studies and finally to give examples of methods concerning how and to what extent one may conduct studies in Sweden. Our proposal is largely based on combining different surveys in specific areas that we believe can be used to scale-up the results. We suggest data collation of recreational fishing is concentrated to areas with public waters, because in other water bodies the land owner has sovereignty under the law. The focus areas we point out are those already having some data collection, both in terms of recreational fishing and environmental monitoring / stock assessment and where there are non-fishing protective areas nearby. Collection of data should not be made in all areas at every year; three areas are suggested to become intensive areas (data collection every year) and the remaining areas data collection will take place every three years - on a rolling schedule. The sampling methods we recommend are national survey (i.e. mail and telephone surveys), recording of catches in fishing tourism, voluntary catch registration of individual anglers, collection of data from fishing competitions, on-site inventory of fishing effort (e.g. count fetter and trailers), inventory of catch per effort (e.g. by creel-surveys) and fish tagging studies. For the west coast we propose one focus area, Älgöfjorden. At the coasts of Bohuslän County and the northern part of Halland County the fishing pressure is high for lobster and crab and therefore a focus area should be established in this area. We suggest that data are collected by on-site visits for inventorying fishing effort (counting numbers of pots / buoys / fishing people), combined with catch registration can return an estimates on catch per effort, and this can then be applied to a larger area. Another potential focus area is the area around Torhamn (Blekinge) which, for example, is popular area recreational fishing for pike. Torhamn is one of three national reference areas for coastal fish monitoring on the East Coast and has been monitored since 2002. It is also desirable to study aspects of fishing mortality in recreational fisheries. To our knowledge, there are no national studies that have explored the effects of catch-and-release in natural environments over long periods of time. The Bråviken Bay is a relatively limited and well-defined area having considered high recreational fishing pressure, but large time series from fish monitoring programmes are lacking. This site will give good opportunities for studying pike, pikeperch and to some extent also sea trout, data collection is suggested to take place every third year. An adjacent area is Kvädöfjärden having fish monitoring time series from 1989. Closely situated to Kvädöfjärden is Licknevarpefjärden where fishing has been prohibited since 1970. Additional areas that are of interest to follow up with some regularity are Asköfjärden, Gålö and / or Lagnö in the Stockholm archipelago. In the future it might be fruitful to shift data collection intensity between Torhamn in Blekinge and an area in Stockholm archipelago. Such decision should be based on factors like where the most practical solutions / contact network can be found. In the Gulf of Bothnia angling with nets, traps and similar gears are relatively widespread. We suggest that Långvind Bay in Gävleborg County, is an area for the study of recreational fishing in a relatively sparsely populated county and is most likely typical for large parts of the Gulf of Bothnia. Data collection is suggested to take place every year. As for the Gulf of Bothnia the recreational fishery in the Bothnian Bay are mainly targeting the whitefish, sea trout and, to some extent also perch. By monitoring the recreational fisheries in Kinnbäcksfjärden near Piteå, we hope to be able to describe the local recreational fishing patterns and then apply these values for catch per effort for most of the coastal strip of the Bothnian Bays. Recreational fishing is widespread in all of the five largest lakes in Sweden, and there is a need for data collection in all five. In Lake Vänern, Lake Vättern and Lake Mälaren there are fish monitoring data of good quality and regularity. However, in the two smallest lakes, Lake Hjälmaren and Lake Storsjön in Jämtland County, few test fishing areas and few studies regarding recreational fishing have been made. For Lake Vättern we suggest that data collection is done every year; especially the archipelago in the northern part of the lake will be an excellent area for the study of recreational fishing for pike. In the other four lakes we propose that data collection is made every third year. By studying recreational fishing - its practitioners, scope, gear-use, and harvest, it will be possible to achieve a more detailed view of how recreational fishing is done and how it varies along the Swedish coast and in the five largest lakes. Such knowledge is important for the managers of common fisheries resources and the monitoring of environmental status and evaluating the recreational goals established by the Swedish governments.

Tese de doutoramento em Estudos Clássicos, no ramo de Filologia Clássica, apresentada à Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Coimbra ; The research work is divided into two basic parts: the translation and commentary of some sections of the book Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata by Plutarch. In particular they have been taken into consideration the Dedicatory epistle to Trajan and the sections dealing with Agathocles, Antipater, Aristides, Alcibiades, Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocion, Teleclus, Lysander and Pelopidas. The translation was prepared on the basis of the Latin translation by Xylander, the Italian ones by Adriani and Pettine, the English one by Babbitt, the Spanish one by Lόpez Salvá and the French one by Fuhrmann. For each anecdote the different interpretative proposals of the translators have been highlighted in the footnotes. The commentary has been developed along two lines, the former intratextual, the latter intertextual. In the first istance, the attention was paid to the study of the words used by the author, which helped to identify the frequency of some fundamental themes of ethical and political thought of Plutarch, such as the need for the governor not to be tormented by lust for wealth, not to be led astray by private interests and friendships in the management of public affairs, to be able to evaluate flexibly critical circumstances that occur from time to time, shaping the policy and operational positions to them and avoiding fruitless and stiffness intransigence. Before the eyes of the reader the author slides the long series of anecdotes, inviting them to consider which are the virtues, but also the vices that led eminent people to prosperity or to ruin. And what emerges consistently from each short story is the importance of reflection and pondering every time you are about to perform an action or reply to a question not without insolence. It is recommended and appropriate learning to tame irrational forces of the soul through the exercise of λόγος; in fact they cannot be eradicated completely. It is because of this constant and gradual exercise of self improvement that energy, which man has, can be harnessed and directed to noble deeds for those who make them and fruitful for those who benefit them. The policy ultimately cannot be separated from ethics; a politician, who is not persistent in improving his mind and free it from all forms of selfishness, will not benefit at all to those who are subjected to his command. In many cases it is possible to find in the text the words which introduce explicitly the above issues, as, for example, φιλοπλουτία, ἀδικία, δίκη, τóλμα, θάρσος, ἀργία; in other cases it can be deduced from the meaning of the anecdote which category of values the author is referring to. The presence of the terms relating to each theme, in the commentary of the individual anecdotes, are then summarized in a synoptic table in order to allow an immediate comparison of the characters and the vices/virtues attributed by the author. Another aspect investigated thoroughly is the author's appeal to rhetorical devices to give the apophthegms incisiveness, especially when the author summarizes episodes which are more extended and articulated in the Lives and other plutarchian books. In the Apophthegmata you can find especially the chiasmus, which the author often uses to contrast the thinking and acting of the character to that of his detractors; the etymological figure and the polyptoton, with which the main theme of the plutarchian reflection is repeatedly drawn inside the anecdote. It was further highlighted that in the collection of apofthegms there are two types of anecdote; there is, in most cases, the presence of apophthegmata placed at the conclusion of a synthetic context, outlined with rapid hints; but it also notes the introduction of a specific episode of war and customs of characters, devoid of judgment in the epigraph, which are also designed to emphasize an ethical feature and behavior of the character in question. The second line, that we proceeded in the research work, was the comparison of each anecdote with versions of the same occurring in other works by Plutarch. The comparison showed that in some cases the versions coincide almost entirely in the vocabulary and meaning, but on many occasions the perspective, from which the story is presented by the author, varies slightly and sometimes considerably. It has been noted in fact that some details of the anecdote are eclipsed or modified by the author based on the context in which they are placed; the same story is then molded according to the theme that the author is dealing with. In general it was found that in Apophthegmata the presentation of the characters tends to be more positive than in other works by Plutarch, operation where the author comes removing from anecdotes details that could negatively connote the character. At the base of the anecdotes they could hypothetically be the so-called ὑπομνήματα, ie raw notes that Plutarch would be recorded in the course of its various readings and which he would use in the composition of his works. It is given adequate account about this problem in a specific chapter of the thesis, which examines the theories proposed in particular by Van der Stockt, Van Meirvenne, Pelling, Städter and Beck on the nature of ὑπομνήματα. According to some of them the content of the clusters, which are groups of ὑπομνήματα, would mainly philosophical in nature, according to others mainly historical. Furthermore on the one hand it is believed that the Apohthegmata constitute a drafting stage intermediate between the hypothetical sketched ὑπομνήματα and anecdotes as are processed in different works by Plutarch. On the other hand however the collectionof apophthegms is considered complete and independent from the drafting of the Lives and Moralia, theory that appeared to me more convincing on the basis of the rhetorical and stylistic analysis that I developed. The anecdotes do not appear to a stage of stylistic poor structuring and the use of a certain category of rhetorical devices and the tendency to obscure incriminating details for the characters seem to respond to a specific purpose of the author. Another chapter is devoted to the presentation of the debate on the problematic attribution of the work to Plutarch. In this chapter we review the opinions expressed in particular by Xylander, Wyttenbach, Benseler, Volkmann, Schmidt, Sass, Weissenberger, Hartman, Babbitt, Ziegler, Flacelière, Fuhrmann and Beck, noting that the most recent studies, particularly those of Beck, the scholars tend to recognize the paternity of the collection of anecdotes. According to him and other scholars the conciseness of anecdotes than the versions, which are read in the other works by Plutarch, would not be valid indication of inauthenticity; instead it would respond to the specific needs required by the type of the literary genre.

Objetivos generales: Elaborar un documento que reúna toda la información disponible sobre la flora y la vegetación de interés para la conservación, analizando los resultados y estableciendo lugares de mayor importancia botánica. Pretendemos sean una herramienta para la Administración Regional dentro del ámbito de Castilla-La Mancha y sirva para futuros trabajos de gestión del medio natural en el territorio. Se pretende que aquellos datos relevantes sean divulgados por los medios adecuados y puestos a disposición del público en general. Material y métodos: El catálogo regional de especies amenazadas recoge los taxones observados o de los que se tiene constancia en la bibliografía y que tras una revisión crítica se consideran probables, aun cuando no hayan podido ser localizados durante los muestreos. Han sido dos las fuentes empleadas para la elaboración de este catálogo y la recopilación de la información corológica. Por un lado el Sistema de información sobre las Plantas de España (ANTHOS) y por otro la observación directa de campo, que ha primado sobre la primera a la hora de asignar topónimos y otros datos debido al objetivo primordial que es la gestión de especies y hábitats y no un catálogo florístico clásico. Para la nomenclatura taxonómica se ha seguido Flora iberica y cuando ha sido necesario, por diversos motivos, se han utilizado los recursos web de bases de datos florísticas más reconocidas. Para cada taxón se ha elaborado una ficha que incluye: nombre científico, familia, nombre vernáculo, tipo vital, fotografía, distribución, ecología, estatus de protección, estado de conservación y amenazas, recomendaciones de gestión y mapa de distribución. Para las especies que aparecen recogidas bajo el epígrafe "otras especies de interés" se ofrece una ficha reducida, en la que se combinan los apartados anteriores de estatus de protección, estado de conservación y amenazas y recomendaciones de gestión en uno solo, y en el que no se asignan códigos de amenazas y de medidas de gestión. Para los hábitats de protección especial se ofrece una ficha con la siguiente información: tipo de hábitat de protección especial, equivalencia Directiva Habitat, equivalencia sintaxonómica, estado de conservación y amenazas, recomendaciones de gestión, fotografía, mapa de distribución. Conclusiones: La zona de trabajo es una de las de mayor interés botánico de Castilla-La Mancha, como lo prueban algunos resultados arrojados en esta tesis doctoral. Se revela la presencia de 146 taxones incluidos en el CREA, que suponen un 35% del total, en un 5% de la superficie de Castilla-La Mancha. De estos 146 taxones, 3 especies EN, 38 especies VU y 105 taxones IE. Se han identificado 36 tipos de hábitats de protección especial, casi el 55% del total. Se ofrece una base de datos con 2364 registros de especies protegidas o de interés que incluye datos sobre la toponímia, georeferenciación de poblaciones, presencia o ausencia en municipios, presencia o ausencia de la especie en los espacios protegidos, amenazas y medidas de gestión. El 96% de las especies protegidas encuentran alguna de sus poblaciones en la red de espacios protegidos. Se pone de manifiesto la importancia de las microrreservas en la gestión. Se aportan datos que ponen de manifiesto las amenazas más frecuentes para la conservación de taxones y hábitats y se proponen medidas de gestión. Se aporta un listado de 27 taxones de interés no recogidos en la legislación. Se propone la inclusión en el catálogo regional de especies amenazadas de 8 especies en la categoría VU y 8 especies en la categoría IE. Hay 5 especies que presentan todas sus poblaciones conocidas fuera de la red de espacios protegidos y otras 2 especies están deficientemente representadas en la red de espacios protegidos. General objective: To elaborate a document gathering all the information available about flora and vegetation of conservation interest in Castilla-La Mancha. Collected data have been analysed to establish the most relevant areas to develop plant conservation estrategies. The results intend to be a valuable tool made available to the Local Government of Castilla-La Mancha in order to optimise management and conservation of the environmental values in the area of study. In addition, we expect to make these results available to the general audience. Material and methods: The regional catalogue of endangered species gathers all the observed taxa or the taxa which after an exhaustive bibliographic review are considered to be present in our area of study. There are two information sources used to elaborate this catalogue and to compile all the chorological data: is the Information System for Spanish Plants (ANTHOS) and direct knowledge through field observation, the latter having been more important to achieve the aims of this thesis. To assign taxonomic names we have mainly used the criteria of Flora iberica, although data from several floristic web databases have been utilized in some cases. For every taxa we have elaborated a file gathering the following information: scientific name, family, common name, biologic type, photography, distribution, ecology, protection status, conservation state, management recommendations and distribution map. Moreover, for each species included in the group of "other interesting species" a reduced file has been created, including protection status, threats and conservation status and management recommendations combined in a single paragraph. However, for these species the threats codes and management measures code have not been specified. Conclusions: The studied area is one of the territories of Castilla-La Mancha with highest botanic interest, as indicated by the results showed in this doctoral thesis. A total of 146 taxa included in the regional catalogue of endangered species have been found in the area, corresponding to the 35% of the total catalogue, although this area only represents a 5% of the total land of Castilla-La Mancha. Three species are included in the EN category, 38 species are included in the VU category and 105 species are included in the IE category. Thirty-six special protected habitat types have been identified, almost 55% of the total described in Castilla-La Mancha. The present thesis has generated a database containing 2.364 records of protected or interesting species, including relevant toponymical data of the localities, georeferencing data of the localities, municipalities where the species occur, presence or absence in protected spaces, threats and management recommendations. The 96% of the protected species are included in the protected spaces network. It is shown the importance of the microreserves in the management of flora. Some data are offered in order to show the most frequent threas for flora and habitats conservation and consequently a range of management recommendations has been proposed as well. Furthermore, a list containing 27 interesting taxa not included in the legislation has been created too. Finally, this thesis proposes the inclusion of 8 new taxa in the VU category of the endangered species regional catalogue and 8 more in the IE category. Five of the protected species present all their known populations out of the protected spaces network and other 2 are scarcely represented.

El objeto de estudio de esta Tesis Doctoral analiza la participación en el programa de Deporte Escolar de la Región de Murcia durante cinco años (2005-2010) y teniendo en cuenta diferentes variables (categoría, género, grupo intermunicipal, curso, tipo de deporte, tipo de centro). Se ha realizado un recorrido conceptual alrededor de términos relacionados con el deporte y hemos observado la realidad del deporte escolar en las diferentes comunidades autónomas, así como aspectos relacionados con esta actividad como: competición, valores, centros de enseñanza, etc. A partir de la problemática observada a lo largo del marco teórico del Deporte en Edad Escolar, se han establecido los objetivos siguientes: Objetivos: 1. Detectar si la participación femenina aumenta con el paso del tiempo. 2. Constatar la evolución en la participación, en el paso de la enseñanza primaria a la secundaria (de la categoría alevín a infantil) del alumnado en el programa de Deporte Escolar. 3. Diferenciar la participación del alumnado de centros privados-concertados en las competiciones del programa de Deporte Escolar, respecto a los de centros públicos. 4. Comparar las preferencias en cuanto al género, respecto a los deportes colectivos e individuales. 5. Discriminar si la participación por categorías depende de la zona geográfica donde se desarrolle el programa de Deporte Escolar. 6. Destacar que tipo de deporte se realiza más según la zona geográfica donde se practica. 7. Determinar qué tipo de deporte se practica más según el tipo de centro. 8. Comprobar si la participación en deporte escolar de cada grupo intermunicipal durante el período de estudio no es directamente proporcional a la población escolar de estos. Población La Población de estudio corresponde a todos los sujetos en Edad Escolar de la Región de Murcia, 741.728, con una edad comprendida entre los 8 y los 18 años (Benjamín-Juvenil) durante los 5 cursos académicos objeto de esta investigación. Muestra La muestra seleccionada corresponde a todas las participaciones que han realizado los sujetos en el Campeonato de Promoción Deportiva del programa de "Deporte Escolar" de la Región de Murcia, Un total de 249.326 participaciones de alumnos durante las cinco temporadas objeto de estudio. Material e Instrumentos La inscripción de los alumnos de cada centro escolar se realiza desde el propio centro a través de la página web de la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia, en una Aplicación Informática de la Dirección General de Deportes, de la que se extrajeron los datos de participación. Con estos datos se ha programado una base de datos en el Programa de Análisis estadístico SPSS versión 15.0. CONCLUSIONES Las participaciones femeninas en el Campeonato de Promoción Deportiva aumentan con el paso del tiempo, sin embargo las masculinas son superiores a las femeninas en todas las categorías, grupos intermunicipales y tipos de centro. Las participaciones son mayores en categoría Alevín y aumentan durante el período de estudio. Se produce un mayor porcentaje de participaciones en los centros públicos que en los privados-concertados. Las mayores participaciones se producen en los deportes individuales de forma global y con un porcentaje más alto en las chicas. El mayor ratio de participación por individuo de población se produce en el grupo intermunicipal uno, donde se ubican, entre otros, los municipios de Librilla y Lorca. La participación en deportes individuales y/o colectivos es similar en los centros privados-concertados, mientras que en los públicos, los deportes individuales aventajan en un pequeño porcentaje a los colectivos. El ratio de participación por individuo de la población en deporte escolar de cada grupo intermunicipal no es directamente proporcional a la población escolar de los mismos en ninguna zona y en ningún curso. Author: VICENTE MORALES BAÑOS Title: Analysis of the participation to sports in school age in Region of Murcia 2005-2010 Directors: D. Arturo Díaz Suárez, D. Alfonso Martínez Moreno, D. Enrique Javier Garcés de los Fayos Ruiz Department: Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológico Abstract: The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the participation to the School Sports programme in the Region of Murcia during five years (2005-2010), taking into account several variables (category, genre, intermunicipal group, course, type of sport, type of centre). Different concepts about sports have been studied, therefore, we have been able to notice the reality of School Sports in the different Autonomous Regions and some features related to this activity such as: competition, values, educational institution, etc. Based on the problems discerned along the theoretical frame of sport in school age, some objectives have been established: Objectives: 1. Detect if female participation is increasing along time. 2. Verify the development in participation of students in the programme of School Sports when they start Secondary School and leave behind Primary school (from alevin to infantil category). 3. Distinguish between state-subsidised or private students participation and public students participation in competitions in the School Sport programme. 4. Compare the genre preferences related to individual and group sports. 5. Establish if the participation by categories depends on the geographical area. 6. Specify what sport is played the most on each geographical area. 7. Determine what sport is played most depending on the type of the educational centre. 8. Corroborate if the participation of each intermunicipal group in School Sports is not directly proportional to their student population. Population The target population corresponds to all the school-age individuals in the Region of Murcia (741,728) aged between 8 to 18 years old (Benjamín-Juvenil categories) during five academic years. Sample The chosen sample corresponds to all the participations the individuals have made in the Sport Promotion Championship of the School Sport programme of the Region of Murcia (a total of 249,326 participations during the five target seasons). Materials and Resources Student's registration in each educational centre is performed at their own centre through Region of Murcia's web page in the Dirección General de Deportes' App from which the data participation was taken. A database has been programmed with this data in the Statistic Analysis Programme SPSS version 15.0. CONCLUSIONS Female participations in the Sport Promotion Championship are increasing over time, however male participations are still superior to female ones in each category of the intermunicipal groups and types of educational centre. Female participants are superior in Alevín category and are increasing during the study period. A greater percentage of participants are set in public centres than in state-subsidised centres. The greatest number of participants is in individual sports and with a higher percentage in female participation. The biggest ratio of participations per individual is set in the intermunicipal group number one, where local governments of Librilla and Lorca are located. Participation in individual/group sports is similar in state-subsidised or private educational centres, whereas in public centres individual sports lead the group ones by a small percentage. The ratio of participations per individual in School Sports of each intermunicipal group is not directly proportional to the student population in any area and any school year.

The vast literature on European political parties is dominated by works focused on analyzing activities of the highest branches of state governments. Yet, it is difficult to be surprised by this state of affairs — in Europe, central authorities remain as the main political decision-makers, both in terms of internal affairs and foreign policies. However, it does not change the fact that political parties active in and submitting electoral candidates throughout any given country are not the only entities influencing the quality of political decisions made. It is particularly the case in federation countries and the so-called regional states, where regional parties, as well as their particular variety — ethno-regional parties — gain increasing political significance. The intensification of research on the position of regional parties in political systems of individual European states, especially on the subject of their presence in representative organs on four levels — European, state, regional, and local — is definitely justified. The first argument in favor of such research is the fact that in contemporary Europe, these groupings play a major role in establishing regional imagined communities. As a consequence, scientists must attempt to redefine the existing relations between the core and the periphery. The second argument is the fact that in Western European countries, the relevance level of regional parties is rather high, which indicates that the field of operations for such parties is still widening. Thirdly, regional parties are indeed a political occurrence characteristic for "old Europe" states, but they can also be found in Central and Eastern European countries. It means that conducting research on Western European regional parties conducted in Poland can be particularly significant. Poland is a rather unitary state and a change in the constitutional order, adopted in 1997, which establishes such a form of regime, is rather unlikely. It does not mean however, that the influence of Western European standards will not have an impact on political events in Poland and the shaping of the local political scene. An indepth analysis of solutions adopted in individual Western European states in terms of the capacity for representational participation of regional collectives in electoral representative organs on European, national, regional, and local levels can allow for drawing appropriate conclusions and a substantive evaluation of chances of and threats to democracy, which result from including political representatives of regional collective into lawmaking and — in a wider context — the workings of the political system. Fourthly, an analysis of the functioning of regional parties in the framework of European political systems can significantly contribute to the understanding of some factors conditioning the so-called "unfreezing process" of political systems. Finally, it should be noted that despite the existence of several classifications of political parties, the authors researching the matter today usually propose the adoption of a division into party "families", since the main "rivalry poles" are similar in most European states. The assumption of divisions based on doctrinal stereotypes is the reason many authors question the purposefulness of including regional and ethnic parties in classifications, which indicate the existence of ideological "families". It does not, however, change the fact that they comment on the matter of the existence of such groupings in their works, which is why we can assume that this is a consequential research issue. Contemporary Spain is undoubtedly one of the most interesting examples of a European state, where the political rivalry between the core and the periphery indicates the existence of a substantial sociopolitical division in this aspect. It is clear that any attempt to describe the functioning of its party system based solely on a classification formed using traditional doctrinal stereotypes must lead to an incomplete, heavily distorted image. The political processes in this country during the last 150 years show that the socio-political division between the core and the periphery is not any less vital in Spain than the divisions based on the attitudes towards economic and ideological issues. It is clear there that at the turn of the second decade of the 21st century, in the midst of a serious economic crisis, the disappointment in elite politics on the political core level resulted in the rise of popularity of regional parties. It should be noted here that the research on Spanish parties from this party "family" must be coupled with devoting particular attention to a subtype of groupings, which advocate ethnic values. This is due to the specificity of periphery regions, differing from other state areas in language, customs or tradition of political institutions, but also in using these differences in political play by ethno-regional parties. From the perspective of a highly centralized state such as Poland, it definitely merits to examine the case of Spain. The first argument in favor of researching this field is the fact that despite granting autonomic rights to all regions of Spain, the state still retains the form of a unitary state. This work is therefore an analysis of occurrences within the context of a similar form of state, as opposed to those happening in a federation — a form foreign to Polish tradition. Secondly, adding to Polish literature and therefore widening the knowledge of regional parties in Spain may be useful in future in the context of gradual maturing of Polish democracy on local and regional levels. The state decentralization, which occurred in Poland after 1989 was probably one of the most difficult political processes carried out in the country. It is suffice to note that in 1990, at the dawn of the Polish Third Republic, only one level of self-government — the municipal government — was established. Further solutions in the local government reform area were not implemented until 1998, when the government of Jerzy Buzek decided to create county and province levels. However, those solutions are becoming a frequent subject of political and scientific discussion. These discussions often include the notion that the local government reform is a process, which has not been finalized in Poland yet. It is worth noting here that the requests related to directions of changes in the field of Polish decentralization often come from local and regional entities. It can be therefore presumed that the process of development of sub-state political elites will result in subsequent requests in the future. This can further exacerbate the sociopolitical core-periphery division. Consequently, the main goal of this work is to verify the research hypothesis, which assumes that the significant sociopolitical core-periphery divisions in Spain must have prompted the political elites of the central level - which were active after the demise of general Franco and guided the democratic transformation process, setting the state's territorial integrity as a main goal — to employ solutions for the creation, activity and financing of political parties, as well as for electoral laws, which would allow for communities from individual historical regions to maintain a representation in representative organs on four levels — European, state, regional, and local — therefore ensuring their significant position in the political system of contemporary Spain.

The contributions of this PhD dissertation are in three main areas. In the first main area, existing energy scenarios - The Danish Society of Engineer's IDA 2050, the large research project CEESA, and the Danish Climate Commission's CC2050 are compared. Second, energy system analyses for the important but uncertain areas biomass and flexible demand are performed. Thirdly, modelling-related issues are investigated with a focus on the effect of future forecasting assumption and differences between a predefined priority order and order determined by given efficiencies and constraints. Transformation from a conventional fossil-fueled energy system to a 100% renewable energy system is not an easy task, however, it is a necessary goal to be attained. Academic and governmental bodies in Denmark have released several projects on future scenarios free from fossil fuel by year 2050. Three existing energy scenarios commonly conclude that a 100% renewable energy system in 2050 is feasible both technologically and economically. The three scenarios assume similar technology options, but different rates of usage. For example, the IDA 2050 scenario establishes an energy system dependent on more biomass than the other scenarios but also a system more self-reliant in terms of electricity with the least international interconnection capacity. The CC2050 scenario builds a more electrified energy system through producing weather dependent, thus intermittent RES rather than biomass and integrating more closely with neighboring countries with the largest interconnection capacity among the three. The CEESA scenario is located between the two scenarios in that sense. Two scenarios, CEESA and IDA 2050, are compared by methodologies and results. Compared to IDA 2050, CEESA adopts three models external from the overall energy system model for analyzing three subjects which are important but uncertain areas in the future. The first model is a consequential LCA analysis for biomass potential. The second model targets transport demand due to uncertain technology development in the future transport sector. The third model addresses grid stability with a high time resolution. As a result of the consequential LCA, the potential of biomass is less than that of IDA2050. The reduced biomass potential in turn requires larger non-biomass RES capacity, which necessitates a larger capacity of flexible means as a chain effect. Especially, CEESA assumes a new technology more prevalent than IDA 2050 as a mean of reducing biomass in transport sector. The potential of biomass is regarded as one of the most influential factor in future energy system as explained. However the availability of biomass is uncertain since there might be limits on the environmental capacity and opposition against biomass usage for societal and political reasons in the future. For clarifying better usage of biomass in a 100% renewable energy system, biomass usage for either heat production or electricity generation is compared in this thesis by assuming a decrease of biomass availability for the electricity and heat sectors respectively. The base line scenario for reducing biomass is set to be IDA 2050. The results show that reduction of biomass use in the heat sector could reduce biomass consumption with less electricity exported than the reduction of biomass use in the electricity sector. The less cost solution is achieved through reducing biomass for heat production compared to reducing biomass for electricity production. Among the technologies supplying flexibility to the system in the future, this PhD dissertation focuses on flexible demand since this subject is less studied in a coherent energy system level than the other flexible means. The potential of flexible demand is assessed in two approaches. The first approach is a technical and bottom-up approach decomposing the electricity consumption into several processes and assesses the potential of flexibility within individual processes. The second approach is a top-down approach to find the level of flexible demand that makes a significant impact on the energy system. For the bottom-up approach the processes are categorized with three criteria; storability, controllability and whether process is interlocked with other processes or independent. The first two criteria are used for assessing flexible demand in residential and commercial sector, and the last criterion is added for the assessment for the industry processes. The results show that 24% of the electricity demand can be moved within a time frame of two hours and approx. 7% of the electricity demand can be moved within a time frame of 24 hours. The system benefit at the assessed amount of flexible demand is limited however. Results from the other analysis indicate that in order to have a significant impact on the energy system performance, more than a quarter of the classic electricity demand would need to be flexible within a month, which is highly unlikely to happen. For the investigation of the energy system model, EnergyPLAN, which is used for two scenario analyses, two questions are asked; "what is the value of future forecasting assumption in the model?", and "what is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive model?" For answering these questions, a linear optimization model is created with the ambition to emulate the EnergyPLAN model. The IDA 2050 scenario is used for common scenario for the emulation. Two of the main differences between EnergyPLAN and the created linear optimization model are a) that EnergyPLAN uses an endogen priority of technologies while priority in the linear model is given by efficiencies and b) the linear model could make use of the full set of exogenously given future hourly production and demand values if permitted by user. Regarding the comparison results of these two models, total fuel consumption for dispatchable plants in the linear optimization model is less than that of EnergyPLAN by 11%. Most of the difference comes from the difference in condensing mode power plants. Except in the condensing mode power plants, the fuel consumptions of CHPs and boilers, irrespective of which district heating grid, are similar in both models. Despite of the differences in the dispatch order for heat production of CHPs between two models, the overall results are similar since the electricity dispatch order override the heat generation dispatch order, and the electricity dispatch order is similar in the two models due to the chosen efficiencies. The linear optimization model assumes perfect knowledge about the future in any given situation, and the demands can hence to a greater extent be meet by efficient plants compared with non-perfect knowledge, which results in a reduced fuel consumption. EnergyPLAN bases its production on the specific conditions in each hour, and only uses a limited knowledge about future situations. When the time frame of future forecasting is reduced to a week from a year, the fuel consumption is increased from the one year time frame but less than the case of no future forecasting assumption.

This thesis is concerned with the current situation and future developments of environmental education in Kosovo. Ecological problems in Kosovo have accumulated over decades as a consequence of the uncontrolled use of natural resources, a growing industrial production with a high level of pollution, and a lack of appropriate policies, laws, and institutions which could treat the problems. Air, water and soil pollution, waste problems and a severe loss of biodiversity are the main environmental threats. The integration of education for sustainable development (ESD) into all levels of education is one of the key priorities in Kosovo's environmental action plan. However, at present it is not even known how environmental education (EE) is integrated in the country's educational system. In a first step, all official textbooks and the national curriculum of Kosovo were thus scrutinized to identify how many and which environmental topics were included, in which subjects and grades they were taught, and which teaching approaches were used. In a second step, a written questionnaire was sent to a representative sample of biology, geography, chemistry and civic education teachers (overall 244 persons) to investigate the integration of EE in high schools (optional upper secondary education) in Kosovo. In a third step, in-depth interviews with 18 of these high school teachers were carried out to extend and deepen the discussion of their responses in the questionnaire. In a fourth step, a toolkit on EE / ESD was developed and introduced to nine high school teachers during a one-day inservice workshop. In a fifth step, structured observations were used to investigate the impact of the workshop on high school teachers' performance in the classroom. Only 15 out of 130 books, most of them for biology teaching, included environmental topics. Environmental topics were most prominent in textbooks for grade 8, 10 and 12, whereas they were almost lacking at the primary-school level. Most environmental teaching units provided pupils with mere environmental / ecological information (91%). The other units aimed to raise pupils' awareness of environmental values, critically reflected links between the natural, social and cultural environment, and demonstrated the importance of a healthy environment for human health, quality of life and sustainable development. They were most prominent in books for civic education. However, no environmental unit promoted pupils' action competence. High school teachers were found to focus on various kinds of pollution and hazards of pollutants. Teachers' choice of topics was highly relevant, place-based and linked to the experiences of pupils, but excluded sustainability issues such as the loss of biodiversity. EE was approached in three ways. The first approach critically reflected links between the natural, social and cultural environment, while the second approach was characterized by knowledge submission of environmental facts. The third approach aimed at capacity-building and, in the sense of ESD, understood learning as process-oriented, participatory and action-oriented. However, this approach was rather uncommon, most likely due to insufficient teacher preparation, classes that were too large (up to 50 pupils), and lack of little time (just one hour per week for EE). These constraints also restricted outdoor activities. Nevertheless, in view of the interviewees ideal EE would mean outdoor education, field work and other place-based, capacity-building practical experiences, and the development of critical thinking skills. Teachers were rather satisfied with the one-day inservice workshop and stated that they had learned something new. Moreover, they liked the new toolkit and thought it practicable for use in school. However, one year later it was obvious that without support from head teachers and colleagues the toolkit was not used in schools. The study found that before the workshop teacher talk accounted for more than 90% of all lesson time and pupil-initiated talk constituted less than 10% within a typical 45-minute lesson. After the workshop, teacher talk significantly decreased and pupil talk significantly increased. Moreover, pupils were found to be engaged in small activities suitable for ESD. In conclusion, there is a strong need for new textbooks on EE / ESD in Kosovo. However, without providing teachers with skills suitable for ESD, they will most likely continue to lecture and pupils will continue to only memorize the material. Moreover, novel teaching and learning approaches need engagement from credible leaders within the institutions. Especially head teachers should thus be incorporated in the implementation of new teaching material and approaches, and training courses on EE and ESD for school principles, administrators, and of course teachers, should be offered. ; Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem derzeitigen Stand und zukünftiger Entwicklungen der Umweltbildung in der Republik Kosovo. Im Kosovo haben sich über Jahrzehnte ökologische Probleme als Folge eines unkontrollierten Ressourcenverbrauches, einer wachsenden umweltschädigenden Industrie sowie des Fehlens umweltpolitischer Maßnahmen, Gesetze und Institutionen akkumuliert. Luft-, Wasser- und Bodenverschmutzung, Müll und ein gravierender Verlust an biologischer Vielfalt sind derzeit die größten Umweltprobleme. Der Umweltplan der Regierung sieht deshalb den Einbezug einer Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE) in alle Stufen des Bildungssystems als dringliche Aufgabe vor. Es ist allerdings kaum bekannt, was derzeit bereits im Bereich der Umweltbildung in Schulen im Kosovo getan wird. In einem ersten Schritt wurden deshalb alle eingeführten Schulbücher und das nationale Curriculum daraufhin untersucht, welche und wie viele Umweltthemen sie enthalten, in welchen Fächern und Klassenstufen und auf welche Art und Weise sie unterrichtet werden sollen. In einem zweiten Schritt wurde eine repräsentative Stichprobe von Lehrkräften der gymnasialen Oberstufe (insgesamt 244 Personen) schriftlich befragt, um den Einbezug umweltrelevanter Themen in dieser Stufe zu untersuchen. In einem dritten Schritt wurden 18 dieser Lehrpersonen interviewt, um vertiefte und erweiterte Auskünfte zu bestimmten Aspekten des Fragebogens zu erhalten. In einem vierten Schritt wurde eine Unterrichtshilfe, die Umweltthemen von lokaler Bedeutung sowie Methoden der BNE beinhaltete, konzipiert, in einer eintägigen Fortbildungsveranstaltung mit neun ausgewählten Lehrkräften der gymnasialen Oberstufe durchgesprochen und im Anschluss daran evaluiert. In einem fünften Schritt wurde mit Hilfe strukturierter Beobachtungen der Einfluss der Fortbildungsveranstaltung auf das Verhalten der neun Lehrkräfte im Unterricht untersucht. Umweltthemen wurden nur in 15 der insgesamt 130 untersuchten Schulbücher behandelt. Am häufigsten waren sie in Biologiebüchern für die 8., 10. und 12. Klassenstufe vertreten. In Grundschulbüchern kamen sie eher selten vor. Rund 91% der umweltrelevanten Unterrichtseinheiten lieferten reine Sachinformationen. Die anderen hatten zum Ziel, das Bewußtsein der Schülerinnen und Schüler für den Wert der Umwelt zu schärfen, Beziehungen zwischen der natürlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Umwelt kritisch zu hinterfragen und die Bedeutung einer gesunden Umwelt für die menschliche Gesundheit, Lebensqualität und eine nachhaltige Entwicklung zu verdeutlichen. Sie waren vor allem in Büchern für das Fach Bürgerkunde vertreten. In keinem der Schulbücher ging es um die Förderung von Handlungsfähigkeiten und -fertigkeiten. Lehrkräfte der gymnasialen Oberstufe behandelten im Unterricht vor allem die Umweltverschmutzung und ihre Folgen. Ihre Themenwahl war relevant und an den Erfahrungen der Schülerinnen und Schüler ausgerichtet. BNE-Themen wie der Verlust an biologischer Vielfalt wurden dagegen kaum angesprochen. Drei verschiedene Ansätze lagen der Vermittlung von Umweltthemen zugrunde. Der erste Ansatz reflektierte kritisch die Beziehungen zwischen der natürlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Umwelt, der zweite vermittelte reines Umweltwissen und der dritte Kompetenzen, d.h. verstand Lernen ganz im Sinne der BNE als partizipativ sowie prozess- und handlungsorientiert. Dieser Ansatz war selten, was an einer unzureichenden Aus- und Weiterbildung, zu großen Klassen (bis zu 50 Schülerinnen und Schüler) und zu wenig Zeit (nur eine Stunde pro Woche für Umweltbildung) liegen könnte. Zu große Klassen und Zeitmangel schränkten auch den außerschulischen Umweltunterricht ein, obwohl aus Sicht der interviewten Lehrpersonen gerade dieser Unterricht sowie Feldarbeit und andere ortsbezogene, praktische Erfahrungen gepaart mit der Entwicklung kritischen Denkvermögens Bestandteil einer idealen Umweltbildung sein sollten. Die Lehrkräfte waren mit der eintägigen Weiterbildungsveranstaltung zufrieden und gaben an, etwas Neues gelernt zu haben. Zudem hielten sie die Unterrichtshilfe für gut und praktikabel. Dennoch wurde sie nach einem Jahr nur noch von Lehrkräften verwendet, die sich durch Rektorate und im Kollegium unterstützt fühlten. Die Beobachtungen zeigten, dass Lehrkräfte vor dem Workshop etwa 90% der Unterrichtszeit selbst redeten. Nach dem Workshop sank ihr Redeanteil deutlich ab und derjenige der Schülerinnen und Schüler stieg an. Zudem waren diese in kleinere, BNE geeignete Unterrichtsaktivitäten involviert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen neben einem Bedarf an neuen Unterrichtsmaterialien für Umweltbildung und BNE, dass eine gezielte Weiterbildung Lehrkräfte dazu befähigen kann, von einem lehrer- zu einem schülerorientierten Unterricht im Sinne einer BNE zu wechseln.

Цель. Осмыслить феномен духовности в связи с пониманием человеческой сущности как «трансценденции», свободы в условиях глобальной цививилизации. Предложить идею мировоззренческой космо­теоцентрической парадигмы, основанной на принципе «метафизической ответственности» человека как «трансцендентного проекта». Указать на служебную роль человека в универсуме, исполнение которой автор считает основной духовной функцией человеческого сообщества. Показать узость антропо­социоцентрического мировоззрения, при котором человек, служа самому себе, не справляется с задачами собственного материального и духовного преуспевания. Дать анализ понятия обусловленности индивидов и ограниченности из смысловых интенций в круге целей и интересов потребительского общества. Подчеркнуть возросшее значение духовного авторитета, мудреца в современной либеральной, плюралистической культуре. Указать на деградацию гуманитарной компоненты в системе народного образования и подчеркнуть роль просвещения в развитии свободы личной интеллектуальной самодеятельности индивидов. Методология. Методологический подход к исследованию феномена духовности автор связывает с принципом экзистенциального единства разума, переживания, воли, веры как аспектов человеческого мироотношения. Такой подход учитывает не только факторы объективной детерминации тенденций и форм человеческого существования, но и включает возросшее значение ценностного, смыслового, мировоззренческого полагания в культурной и цивилизационной деятельности людей на партикулярном и универсальном уровнях. Автор исходит из убеждения о неуклонной активизации человеческой субъективности в духовном развитии общества. Воссоздавая космо­теоцентрическую конструкцию вектора развития общества, автор исходил также из априорно принимаемой им очевидности особого сущностного положения человека в бытии как «проекта Трансцендентного». Научная новизна. Проблема духовности человека в истории культуры, так или иначе, является сквозной, архетипической. В современных условиях она приобретает особую остроту. От того, насколько общество овладеет, космо­теоцентрическим мироотношением, зависит судьба цивилизации, а в метафизическом смысле возможность реализации человека в качестве онтологически заданного духовного существа. Размышляя о духовности, автор придает философствованию спекулятивный характер и исходит исключительно из мировоззренческих установок, поскольку, если бы он исходил из эмпирических оснований, таяли бы его вера и надежда на духовную реализацию человечества. Выводы. Переход современного общества к космо­теоцентрической парадигме мировоззрения подготовлен противоречиями его технологического и культурного развития. В условиях возрастания силы сознательного влияния социума на самого себя многое в утверждении этого мировоззрения зависит от идейного направления деятельности людей в сфере культуры и ментальных качеств субъектов культурной деятельности, духовных авторитетов, философов, мудрецов. Важнейшая роль в духовном возрастании людей принадлежит и гуманитаризации образования. Самым серьезным препятствием на пути их духовной трансформации является мировоззренческий антропоцентризм. Он превращает человека в культ для самого себя, а его жизнедеятельность – в служение себе. Антропоцент­ризм ослабляет потенцию веры человека и его волю. Демократический плюрализм, приобретающий сейчас вид догматической идеологии, порождает феномен смысловой растерянности индивидов. Слабость в сфере стратегического общезначимого нравственного предпочтения постмодерные философы представляют как силу противодействия тоталитарным идеологиям, «большим нарративам». Однако людей без идеологии нет, как нет и сомнения в наличии ценностей, в отношении которых может быть установлено решающее общественное единодушие. ; Цель. Осмыслить феномен духовности в связи с пониманием человеческой сущности как «трансценденции», свободы в условиях глобальной цививилизации. Предложить идею мировоззренческой космо­теоцентрической парадигмы, основанной на принципе «метафизической ответственности» человека как «трансцендентного проекта». Указать на служебную роль человека в универсуме, исполнение которой автор считает основной духовной функцией человеческого сообщества. Показать узость антропо­социоцентрического мировоззрения, при котором человек, служа самому себе, не справляется с задачами собственного материального и духовного преуспевания. Дать анализ понятия обусловленности индивидов и ограниченности из смысловых интенций в круге целей и интересов потребительского общества. Подчеркнуть возросшее значение духовного авторитета, мудреца в современной либеральной, плюралистической культуре. Указать на деградацию гуманитарной компоненты в системе народного образования и подчеркнуть роль просвещения в развитии свободы личной интеллектуальной самодеятельности индивидов. Методология. Методологический подход к исследованию феномена духовности автор связывает с принципом экзистенциального единства разума, переживания, воли, веры как аспектов человеческого мироотношения. Такой подход учитывает не только факторы объективной детерминации тенденций и форм человеческого существования, но и включает возросшее значение ценностного, смыслового, мировоззренческого полагания в культурной и цивилизационной деятельности людей на партикулярном и универсальном уровнях. Автор исходит из убеждения о неуклонной активизации человеческой субъективности в духовном развитии общества. Воссоздавая космо­теоцентрическую конструкцию вектора развития общества, автор исходил также из априорно принимаемой им очевидности особого сущностного положения человека в бытии как «проекта Трансцендентного». Научная новизна. Проблема духовности человека в истории культуры, так или иначе, является сквозной, архетипической. В современных условиях она приобретает особую остроту. От того, насколько общество овладеет, космо­теоцентрическим мироотношением, зависит судьба цивилизации, а в метафизическом смысле возможность реализации человека в качестве онтологически заданного духовного существа. Размышляя о духовности, автор придает философствованию спекулятивный характер и исходит исключительно из мировоззренческих установок, поскольку, если бы он исходил из эмпирических оснований, таяли бы его вера и надежда на духовную реализацию человечества. Выводы. Переход современного общества к космо­теоцентрической парадигме мировоззрения подготовлен противоречиями его технологического и культурного развития. В условиях возрастания силы сознательного влияния социума на самого себя многое в утверждении этого мировоззрения зависит от идейного направления деятельности людей в сфере культуры и ментальных качеств субъектов культурной деятельности, духовных авторитетов, философов, мудрецов. Важнейшая роль в духовном возрастании людей принадлежит и гуманитаризации образования. Самым серьезным препятствием на пути их духовной трансформации является мировоззренческий антропоцентризм. Он превращает человека в культ для самого себя, а его жизнедеятельность – в служение себе. Антропоцент­ризм ослабляет потенцию веры человека и его волю. Демократический плюрализм, приобретающий сейчас вид догматической идеологии, порождает феномен смысловой растерянности индивидов. Слабость в сфере стратегического общезначимого нравственного предпочтения постмодерные философы представляют как силу противодействия тоталитарным идеологиям, «большим нарративам». Однако людей без идеологии нет, как нет и сомнения в наличии ценностей, в отношении которых может быть установлено решающее общественное единодушие. ; The purpose of this article is to regard the phenomenon of spirituality in connection with ontological foundation of human being existence. The author suggests the concept of a new cosmo­theocentristical paradigm of human world­outlook as a ground of perspective transformation of social life activity. The author criticizes the principal of anthropocentrism of the world­outlook which dominates in present social consciousness. He underlines the role of spiritual teachers in cultural development and indicates the decline of the humanitarian component in modern system education. The author criticizes the modern system of education and gives great meaningfulness to self­dependence thought in spiritual growth of personality. Methodology. The method of philosophizing, which the author uses, is connected with unity of mind, sensuality, belief and will in mental organization of man. Such point of view takes into consideration not only objective factories. It includes the senses of human being existence and world outlook ideas. The author pays attention to the special ontological disposition of human being in the world as a «transcendent project» with «metaphysical responsibility». Scientific novelty. In the history of social culture the problem of spiritual attitude to reality is a substantial problem. Now it becomes especially important, because the survival of civilization depends on development of spirituality. The author connects the consideration of spirituality with particular ontological status of human being in the world and provides his reflection speculative character. Conclusions. The transition the world outlook of modern society to cosmo­theocentrical paradigm prepared by contradictions its technological and cultural development. The conscious influence of society to itself is growing. The anthropocentrism as a world view principle is a main obstacle in the way to spiritual transformation of modern consumptive society. This principle changed the human being into the cult for himself. Many philosophers in «postmodern situation» connect the democracy and pluralism with fighting against totalitarian ideologies. However we have not any persons without any ideology and undoubtedly it is possible to attain consonance concerning the main morality values.

El presente trabajo se estructura de la siguiente forma: OBJETIVO GENERAL El objetivo general de la investigación era el de indagar sobre la percepción de la conflictividad escolar y su afrontamiento, en el entorno cercano para posteriormente, medir el impacto de un programa preventivo de sensibilización en IES de la Región de Murcia. El esquema del programa de sensibilización estaba basado en todos aquellos aspectos que se aglutinan en la denominada "Cultura de la Mediación", entendida como conjunto de valores y creencias que se generan en torno a esta forma singular de afrontar los conflictos. OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS ­ Indagar sobre el tratamiento normativo de la conflictividad. ­ Determinar el grado de percepción de la conflictividad escolar, por parte expertos en educación y mediación, así como profesores y alumnos pertenecientes a centros educativos de la Región de Murcia. ­ Indagar sobre las formas de tratamiento de la conflictividad más utilizadas por los profesores y alumnos de los centros objeto de la investigación. ­ Indagar sobre la influencia del entorno y las características socioculturales, en la percepción del conflicto y la utilización de estrategias de resolución. ­ Conocer el impacto del programa de sensibilización sobre el alumnado. ­ Comprobar la disposición del profesorado y alumnado, para aprender formas alternativas de resolución de conflictos y en especial la mediación. METODOLOGÍA La investigación fue diseñada en tres fases, una primera exploratoria, una segunda descriptiva y una tercera explicativa, correspondientes a tres tipos de investigación y metodologías diferentes, aunque complementarias para alcanzar el objetivo final. La fase inicial consistió en realizar una búsqueda de datos aportados por informantes clave, expertos en materia de conflictividad y convivencia escolar. La segunda fase permitió analizar la opinión de profesores y alumnos acerca de la percepción de la conflictividad y la manera de resolverla desde sus centros. La tercera fase sirvió para comprobar el efecto producido por el programa de sensibilización en mediación, en alumnado de ESO de seis IES de la Región de Murcia. CONCLUSIONES En relación al tratamiento normativo de la conflictividad en España, encontramos que ha habido una evolución desde 1970 cada vez más favorable a planteamientos democráticos y participativos respecto a la resolución de conflictos. Encontramos también, en la actualidad, la existencia de una pluralidad de normas de ámbito autonómico en materia de regulación de la convivencia, lo que ha supuesto una expansión rápida, aunque desigual, de la regulación de la mediación. En el caso de la Región de Murcia encontramos vigente el Decreto 115/2005, que responde al modelo normativo-sancionador. Con relación al grado de conflictividad percibida en nuestro entorno encontramos que, pese a no haberse alcanzado en España los niveles de otros países, hoy, factores internos al ámbito escolar como la diversidad y pluralidad en las aulas, y externos relacionados con los cambios sociales, hacen que revierta en la escuela mayor número de situaciones conflictivas de naturaleza diversa. En todo caso, esta conflictividad difiere de la violencia. Respecto al alumnado encontramos que el mayor nivel de conflictividad percibido se sitúa a nivel de enfrentamientos verbales. Comprobamos que es evidente la necesidad de formación en técnicas de resolución de conflictos para toda la comunidad escolar. El programa ha logrado el impacto esperado en los alumnos, al ocasionar diferentes cambios de perspectiva, de manera destacable en lo referente a la percepción del conflicto y el aprendizaje de nuevas estrategias de gestión y resolución. Todos los anteriores aspectos, estaban incluidos en la cultura de la mediación; en consecuencia, el programa utilizado nos ha posibilitado iniciar el camino de cambio de paradigma que supone esta nueva cultura. The structure of this paper is as follows: GENERAL PURPOSE The overall objective of the research was to investigate the perception of school conflicts and its coping in the immediate environment to subsequently measure the impact of a preventive awareness programme in secondary schools in Murcia. The outline of the awareness programme was based on all the aspects generated around the so-called "Culture of Mediation", understood as a set of values and beliefs that are built around this unique way of dealing with conflicts. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES - To investigate the regulatory treatment of conflict - To determine the degree of perception of school conflicts by educational and mediation experts, as well as teachers and students from secondary schools in Murcia - To explore the ways of dealing with conflicts more used among teachers and students of the centers under investigation - To inquiry about the influence of enviroment and socio-cultural characteristics on conflict perception and the use of resolution strategies - To assess the impact of the awareness programme among students - To determine students and teachers willingness to learn alternative dispute resolution models, particularly the use of mediation METHODOLOGY The research was designed in three stages: first an exploratory phase, second a descriptive phase and third an explanatory phase, each one corresponding to different but complementary research methodologies aimed to achieve the ultimate goal. The initial stage consisted of a data search, supported by key informants who were esperts on school community life and conflicts. The second stage allowed us to analise teachers and students perceptions of conflicts and the resolving models applied in their schools. The third phase enabled us to verify the effect of the mediation awareness programme on students from six secondary schools in Murcia. CONCLUSIONS There has been an evolution since 1970, regarding to regulatory treatment of the scholar conflicts in Spain. An approach more favourable to democratic and participatory conflict resolution models can be observed. We also detect nowadays the existence of regional plurality regulation standards of scholar coexistence. These standards have brought a rapid but unequal expansion of mediation regulation. Particularly, in Murcia, we find the applicable Decree 115/2005 which responds to the normative - disciplinary model. In connection to the degree of conflict perceived in our environment we find that, not having achieved the levels of other countries, today in Spain we have a high number of conflict situations from diverse nature caused by internal factors, such as diversity and plurality in the classroom, and external factors related to the social changes. However, these conflicts do not mean the use of violence. As far as students is concerned, we find that the highest level of conflicts are found in verbal confrontations. There is an obvious need of training on conflict solving techniques in school communities. The program has achieved the expected impact on students, producing different perspective changes. It is specially remarkable the change on the conflict perception and the learning of new management and solving strategies. All the above mentioned aspects were included in the culture of mediation. Therefore, the programme used has make possible to begin the path of paradigm shift represented by this new culture.

La tesi indaga il tema della multifunzionalità applicata all'agricoltura come strumento per riattivare territori abbandonati, degradati, a rischio di uso improprio o di nuova edificazione. L'agricoltura ha sempre avuto un rapporto fondamentale con l'Uomo e con gli insediamenti. Il rapporto tra centri abitati e aree agricole è stato un rapporto di unione e di contrapposizione. Nel passaggio da agricoltura di sussistenza a quella di tipo intensivo e specializzato sono stati coinvolti gli spazi, le tecniche, gli strumenti, le opere legate all'attività agricola e, infine, il rapporto con il territorio. L'agricoltura, benché produca beni di prima necessità, nei decenni scorsi è stata considerata un elemento secondario per motivazioni economiche. Sono chiari i valori culturali, paesaggistici, ecologici, sociali, economici dell'agricoltura ma questa è diventata sempre meno redditizia e oggi si trova in grave difficoltà rispetto alla produzione, alla sostenibilità economica, al ruolo paesaggistico e a quello sociale. Le difficoltà dell'agricoltura causano anche l'incapacità delle aree di "difendersi" dalla logica della rendita fondiaria e dall'uso legato al guadagno immediato, come succede nel caso degli impianti di energia da fonti rinnovabili. Tutto questo deve richiamare l'attenzione di chi pianifica il territorio affinché trovi strumenti di valorizzazione delle potenzialità delle aree agricole. Chiaramente le cause non sono esclusivamente economiche ma legate anche ai modelli culturali e agli stili di vita. Affrontare i temi delle aree rurali, della loro produttività, del consumo di suolo e degli usi impropri, è necessario per procedere ad una pianificazione corretta e sostenibile sotto più punti di vista: non solo quello economico, ecologico, storico e sociale ma l'insieme di questi. La tesi approfondisce le diverse politiche europee adottate per frenare la crisi dell'agricoltura. Studi e documenti europei individuano nel principio di multifunzionalità in agricoltura uno strumento per rendere il territorio agricolo più forte. È utile indagare, quindi, sui rapporti tra agricoltura multifunzionale e progettazione territoriale. In particolare si è voluta puntare l'attenzione sugli aspetti sociali come forma di rivitalizzazione del territorio e, quindi, sull'agricoltura sociale come servizio e attività che crea coesione. Le domande che la ricerca si è posta sono due: le attività agricole multifunzionali e la loro declinazione particolare in quelle sociali, possono essere uno strumento di riattivazione economica, culturale e sociale di territori rurali, periurbani e urbani in stato di abbandono, degrado, a rischio di uso improprio o nuova edificazione? Attraverso quale strumento o quali strumenti la progettazione territoriale può utilizzare e valorizzare le potenzialità dell'agricoltura multifunzionale? Per rispondere a queste due domande non si è potuto trascurare il fatto che dal punto di vista spaziale ed economico, l'agricoltura è misurabile in maniera relativamente semplice. Più complesso è misurare gli aspetti paesaggistici e sociali, quindi, serve fare riferimento ai sistemi di analisi qualitativi. Inoltre l'agricoltura sociale ha scopi riabilitativi, formativi e lavorativi ma ha anche finalità legate alla pianificazione territoriale (ambientali, economici, storico-culturali e sociali) e di questo si è grandemente tenuto conto. Altro aspetto oggetto di analisi sono i diversi approcci europei alle forme di agricoltura multifunzionale e sociale e, in ambito italiano, si indaga sugli strumenti nazionali e regionali che valorizzano le attività agricole multifunzionali. Così come si approfondisce il rapporto particolare tra forme di agricoltura sociale e aree confiscate alle criminalità organizzata. Infine, la rassegna di esempi di attività multifunzionali e l'approfondimento dei casi studio selezionati, mostrano come forme di agricoltura multifunzionale possono rivitalizzare il territorio rurale, periurbano e urbano per arrivare alla proposta di azioni relative all'integrazione di strumenti di governo del territorio, all'integrazione di politiche con strumenti tradizionali, alla logica spaziale utile affinché le potenzialità dell'agricoltura multifunzionale possano essere considerate servizi al territorio e all'abitante. ; The thesis explores the theme of multifunctionality applied to agriculture as a means to reactivate the abandoned territory, degraded, at the risk of misuse or new construction. Agriculture has always had a fundamental relationship with the man and with the settlements. The relationship between urban and agricultural areas has been a relationship of union and opposition. In the transition from subsistence farming to intensive and specialized agriculture, have been involved spaces, techniques, tools, architectures related to agricultural activity and, finally, the relationship with the land. Agriculture, although produce essential goods, in the past decades has been considered a secondary element for economic reasons. There are clear cultural, scenic, ecological, social and economic values of agriculture but this is becoming less profitable and today agriculture is in serious difficulties involving the production, the sustainability , the role of the landscape and the social issues. The difficulties of agriculture also cause the inability of the areas to "defend" itself from the logic of land rent and use linked to immediate profit, as occurs in case of energy plants from renewable sources. All these issues should make territory planner to be careful so that he can find tools to enhance the potential of the agricultural areas. Clearly, the causes are not only economic but also linked to cultural patterns and lifestyles. Addressing the issues of rural areas, their productivity, land use and misuse, it is necessary to carry out a proper planning and sustainable points of view: not only the economic, ecological, historical and social but all of these together. The thesis explores the different European policies adopted to curb the crisis of agriculture. Studies and European documents identify the principle of multifunctionality in agriculture the tool to make the strongest agricultural land. Is useful to investigate, therefore, on the relationship between multifunctional agriculture and regional planning. In particular, we wanted to focus attention on the social aspects as a form of revitalization of the territory and, therefore, on agriculture as a service and social activity that creates cohesion. The questions that the research has set are two: multifunctional agricultural activities and their declination in particular social ones, can be a tool for economic revitalization, cultural and social development of rural areas, periurban and urban areas in a state of abandonment, deterioration, at the risk of misuse or new construction? Through what instrument or instruments such as the regional planning can use and exploit the potential of multifunctional agriculture? To answer these two questions we can't overlook the fact that, from the point of view of spatial and economic, agriculture is measurable in a relatively simple way. It is more difficult to measure the social aspects of the landscape and, therefore, need to refer to the qualitative analysis systems. In addition, the social farming purposes have rehabilitative, educational and business purposes but also related to spatial planning (environmental, economic, historical, cultural and social) and this has greatly been taken into consideration. Another aspect analyzed is the different European approaches to the forms of multifunctional and social agriculture, in the Italian context, and it investigates national and regional instruments that enhance agricultural activities multifunctional. It also explores the relationship between particular forms of social agriculture and areas confiscated from organized crime. The review of examples of multifunctional activities and the deepening of the case studies selected, showing how forms of multifunctional agriculture can revitalize the rural areas, periurban and urban areas. Finally, we arrive at the proposal of actions related to the integration of tools of territorial government, the integration of policies with traditional instruments, the spatial logic necessary to enable the potential of multifunctional agriculture can be considered service to the area and inhabitant.

Master in the Electric Power Industry ; La liberalización de los mercados gasistas iniciada a finales del siglo pasado ha permiti-do que los mercados monopolistas empiecen a desaparecer y den paso a nuevas fórmulas de mercado, donde son las propias necesidades generadas por el sector gasis-ta, tanto en el presente como a futuro, las que establecen su diseño y funcionamiento. El incremento en la demanda del gas natural hace necesario atraer inversión privada destinada a la construcción de infraestructuras gasistas para la extracción, transporte y comercialización del gas natural. Igualmente los operadores gasistas precisan conocer de forma fiable el valor de compra en origen y el valor de venta en destino del gas natu-ral que van a contratar, así como disponer de mecanismos que permitan reducir el ries-go en precio y volumen del gas adquirido. Es necesario que el número de inversores, financieros, operadores, comercializadores, y en general el número de agentes, se in-cremente considerablemente para disponer de un volumen de operaciones que permita satisfacer la demanda. Para gestionar estas necesidades es necesario disponer de indicadores que, entre otras razones, atraigan a los inversores, generen confianza en los operadores a la hora de cerrar sus contratos, introduzcan a los agentes financieros y sus operaciones en el mer-cado gasista y permitan mostrar la situación de la oferta y la demanda en el mercado. En el presente trabajo nos centraremos en el precio como primer indicador sobre el que los agentes de mercado ponen su atención a la hora de valorar un mercado o realizar una operación, si bien es cierto que para calificar este precio como fiable es necesario analizar otros indicadores como puedan ser la liquidez. La evolución a lo largo del tiempo de las diferentes operaciones y contratos, desde los complejos contratos a largo plazo hasta las operaciones de intercambio en los mercados organizados y pasando por los contratos OTC, han buscado simplificar su operativa has-ta límites donde prácticamente sólo se negocie con el volumen de gas y su precio. Los hubs virtuales y sus mercados organizados asociados representan hasta el día de hoy la máxima simplificación en el proceso de compra-venta de gas natural, proporcionando un mecanismo transparente y fiable para todos los agentes a la hora de obtener un precio de referencia. En el caso de la península ibérica, la puesta en servicio de un hub y su correspondiente mercado organizado, siguiendo las directrices del tercer paquete energético (Third Energy Package) aprobado por la Unión Europea permite elaborar un modelo que pro-porciona unas cantidades de gas negociado y un precio base de referencia. Las cantidades de gas obtenidas apoyan las estimaciones que afirman que el hub fun-cionará como un hub de ajuste frente a los desbalances del sistema gasista. En cuanto al precio, los valores obtenidos permiten colocar el gas dentro de una banda de precios atractiva, tanto para los grandes consumidores, como para los operadores cuyo gas fuera requerido en el caso de que el ajuste del sistema se realizara a través del gas dis-ponible en el hub. Adicionalmente y comparando los precios obtenidos a través del mo-delo con los precios en hubs del norte de Europa, se observa la ventaja que introduce la importación de un gas licuado más barato. En el caso concreto de los generadores eléctricos, que emplean el gas natural como combustible, el nivel de precios en el hub obtenido del modelo, la situación actual de sobrecapacidad instalada y su funcionamiento marginal, proporcionarían un beneficio reducido, siendo especialmente escaso para aquellos generadores independientes que dependen de contratos de suministro a largo plazo. Por tanto, la futura integración pre-vista para los mercados de gas y electricidad se encuentra ralentizada y a la espera de que el gas natural asuma un papel predominante sobre el resto de combustibles fósiles empleados en la producción eléctrica. ; Gas markets liberalization, which began at the end of the last century, has led monopoly markets to disappear and give way to new market forms, where the needs generated by gas industry, both in the present and the future, establish their design and operation. Natural gas increasing demand makes necessary to attract private investments for the construction of gas extraction infrastructures, transportation and natural gas trading. Also gas operators need a reliable purchase and sales pricing value at origin and destination for the natural gas to be contracted, and to have mechanisms in order to reduce the price and volume risk of purchased gas. It is necessary to increase the number of inves-tors, financiers, shippers, marketers, and in general the number of agents to create enough operations volume to meet the demand and balance the gas system. Indicators are required to manage these needs, among other reasons, to attract inves-tors, build trust with the shippers when they close their contracts, introduce financial agents and its operations into the market and reveal the situation of supply and demand in the gas market. In this paper we focus on price as the first indicator over which market agents put their attention to assessing a market or an operation, although to qualify this price as reliable it is necessary to analyze other indicators as may be the liquidity. Transactions and contracts evolution, from complex long-term contracts to exchange operations in organized markets and through OTC contracts, have sought to simplify its operation to limits where practically only gas volume and price are negotiated. Virtual hubs and their organized markets represent today a maximum simplification in the pro-cess of natural gas buying and selling, providing a transparent and credible process for all agents in obtaining a reference price. In the case of the Iberian peninsula, the commissioning of a hub and its associated or-ganized market, following the guidelines of the Third Energy Package approved by the European Union allows developing a model which provides the quantities of gas negoti-ated and a base benchmark price. Calculated gas amounts support the estimations that claim the hub will function as an adjustment hub to balance the gas system. Price values obtained allow valuate the gas within a range of attractive prices for both, large consumers and shippers whose gas was required in the case of system balancing through the hub. Additionally, the advantage that introduces a cheaper liquefied gas is observed comparing the prices obtained through the model with northern Europe hub ones. In the case of electric generators that use natural gas as fuel, the hub price level ob-tained through the model, the current status of installed overcapacity and marginal per-formance would provide reduced generators benefit, being particularly low for independ-ent generators whose contracts depend on long-term supply. Therefore, the future inte-gration planned for gas and electricity markets is slowed down and waiting for natural gas to assume a dominant role over other fossil fuels used in electricity generation.

På grund af faktorer såsom befolkningsvækst og ændrede spisevaner i udviklingslandene samt stigende efterspørgsel efter bioenergi i de udviklede lande, stiger efterspørgslen efter landbrugsjord på verdensplan. Eftersom landbrugsjord er mere eller mindre fast, medfører dette stigende jord-værdier. Effekten af en stigende efterspørgsel efter jord i udviklingslande med meget landbrugsjord diskuteres hæftigt, og meningerne er delte. På den ene side foreslås det at dette kan medføre tiltrængte investeringer i landbruget i disse lande, hvilket vil medføre stigende produktivitet samt skabe jobs og højere indkomster i landbruget, med faldende fattigdom og general økonomisk udvikling som følge heraf. På den anden side kan det også medføre en neo-kolonial kamp om jord, hvor politisk og øknomomisk magtfulde aktører eksproprierer jord på bekostning af landbrugsbefolkningen, hvis levebrød afhænger af denne jord. For at undgå en sådan situation hvor magfulde eliter overtager store landområder, peges der i literaturen på vigtigheden af landbrugsbefolkningernes evne til, og mulighed for, at kræve deres ret i et institutionelt miljø karakteriseret ved transparens og veldefinerede ejendomsrettigheder. Sådanne omstændigheder er dog sjældne i mange udviklingslande, og der er ikke noget der peger i retning af at en stigende efterspørgsel efter jord skulle initiere sådanne fundamentale forandringer i det politisk-økonomiske miljø. Derudover foreslår en stor literatur indenfor politisk økonomi og natur ressourcer, at potentialet for store gevinster fra natur ressourcer i lande med svage institutioner, vil have tendens til at medføre konflikter og rent seeking. Ifølge denne literatur er effekten af høje afkast fra naturressourcer på rent seeking givet ved kombinationen af ressourcens karakteristika. Hvis værdien på jord ændrer sig fra lav (hvilket typisk har været antaget) til høj, ændrer kombinationen af karakteristika sig, og passer ikke længere ind i det nuværende analytiske framework. Med andre ord er kombinationen af karakteristika på høj-værdi jord fundamentalt anderledes end konventionelle høj-værdi ressourcer såsom olie og diamanter, og derfor udvikler denne afhandling et analytisk framework som kan bruges til at analysere effekterne af høj-værdi jord på rent seeking, og dermed på fordelingen af ressource renten fra landbruget. Dette framework gør det muligt systematisk at analysere de omstændigheder der afgør hvorvidt stigende værdi på jord hovedsagligt er til gavn for landbrugsbefolkningen eller en politisk-økonomisk elite. Derudover tages der højde for de bagvedliggende faktorer som afgør i hvor stort omfang bønderne er i stand til at opnå politisk magt og dermed kræve deres ret til en del af den kage som stigende værdi på jord medfører. Indenfor dette framework udvikles en makroøkonomisk og en mikroøkonomisk model, for at muliggøre en analyse på både makroøkonomisk og mikroøkonomisk niveau. Derudover udføres et case studie samt et cross-country empirisk studie, for at understøtte det foreslåede teoretiske framework. Baseret på disse studier finder jeg at interaktionen mellem den sociale diversitet blandt bønderne, den relative størrelse på gruppen af bønder, det politiske system samt størrelsen på værdi-stigningen på jord er afgørende for fordelingen af ressource renter fra landbruget. Mere specifikt opnår bønderne en større andel når de udgør en stor og homogen gruppe i et land med politisk konkurrence og stabilitet. Hvis magtfordelingen mellem bønderne og den politisk-økonomiske elite er meget lige kan dette dog have negative velfærds effekter, fordi konkurrencen om renterne vil være hård, hvilket fører til at begge grupper bruger flere ressourcer på at opnå politisk magt. En vigtig implikation af dette er, at når lande med svage institutioner og en heterogen gruppe af bønder oplever stigende værdi på jord, vil introduktionen af mere demokratiske institutioner ikke være den bedste løsning, da dette medfører en hårdrere konkurrence om renterne. ; Due to factors such as population growth and changing diets in the developing world as well as increasing demand for bioenergy in the developed world, the demand for agricultural land is on the rise. Since land is more or less fixed, this implies increasing value of land. The effect of increasing demand for agricultural land on land-abundant developing countries is highly debated, and opinions are divided. On the one hand, some propose that it may induce much needed investments in agriculture in these countries, thereby increasing productivity and creating rural employment and higher rural incomes, with poverty reductions and general economic development as the ultimate outcome. On the other hand it could also induce a neo-colonial scramble for land, where politically and economically powerful actors appropriate land at the expense of rural populations, whose livelihoods depend on this land. To avoid such an outcome of land grabbing by powerful elites, policy recommendations presented in the literature point towards the importance of the ability and potential for rural populations to claim their rights, in an institutional environment characterized by transparency and well-defined property rights. However, such circumstances are rare in many land-abundant developing countries, and there are no good reasons why increasing demand for land should spark such fundamental changes in the political-institutional environment. In addition, a large literature on political economy and natural resources suggests that in countries where institutions are weak, the potential for large gains from natural resources tends to induce conflict and rent seeking. According to this literature, the effect of a natural resource on rent seeking is given by the combination of characteristics of the resource. However, if the value of land changes from low (which has been the assumption so far) to high, the combination of characteristics changes, and no longer applies to the existing analytical framework. In other words, high-value land is fundamentally different from conventional high-value natural resources such as oil and diamonds, and therefore this thesis develops an analytical framework for the analysis of the effects of high-value land on rent seeking, and hence on the distribution of resource rents from agriculture. This framework enables a systematic analysis of the circumstances that determine whether increasing land values will mainly benefit the rural populations or the political-economic elites. In addition, it takes into account the deeper determinants of the extent to which farmers are able to obtain political power, and thereby claim their rights to a share of the benefits from increased value of land. Within this framework, a macroeconomic and a microeconomic model is developed to enable the analysis of the effects at both levels. Moreover, a case study and a cross country empirical study is carried out to support the proposed theoretical framework. The findings in this thesis suggest that the interaction between the social diversity of the farmers, the relative size of the group of farmers, the political system and the size of the increase in land value, determines the distribution of resource rents from agriculture. More specifically, farmers tend to obtain larger shares when they are a large and homogeneous group in a country with political competition and stability. However, if the power distribution between the farmers and the political-economic elite is highly equal, this may have negative welfare effects, because the competition for rents will be very high, and hence a large amount of resources will be wasted by both groups on political power. An important implication of this is that in weakly institutionalized countries with a diverse farmer group, introducing more democratic institutions when facing increasing rents from agriculture, may not be the first best solution, because it increases the competition for rents.