In every country, the WTO rules should be viewed from two perspectives: (1) They are used to facilitate access to other countries' markets. (2) The mechanisms for the protection of a country's economy (which make up the bulk of the WTO regulations) are used for the justified & unjustified protection of a country's economy. The author analyzes GATT's basic norms & the Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations, with focus on the sector-accommodation policy, using financial services as an illustration. The creation of the WTO disposed of some shortcomings noticeable in GATT, eg, the temporary character of the regulations, the stable & predictable set of obstacles at the borders, & the objective procedures for dispute resolution. To implement the Uruguay session, which includes the GATT, all WTO member states are obliged to adopt its multilateral discipline & rules & bring their national regulations in line with the accepted obligations. The author concludes that the outcomes of the Uruguay session enhanced the role of world trade as a dynamizing factor of the growth of the world economy. 1 Table, 11 References. Adapted from the source document.
The author deals with the new cycle of multilateral trade negotiations that started in Doha in 2001. Since then, the main question has remained to be how to overcome the radically different priorities of developed & developing countries. ED insists on expanding the WTO regulation system. Developing countries were against broadening of the negotiations, especially not to development that is not directly related to the trade dimension. The clash appeared in the form of a crisis of the multilateral system but also in the form of a crisis of confidence in WTO. The general agreement signed by the members of WTO in July 2004 was of great importance for the future of multilateralism. It remains to be seen if that will be confirmed at the conclusion of the Doha cycle envisaged for the end of 2006. References. Adapted from the source document.
In the first part of the paper the author deals with some general aspects of the very complex process of trade negotiations. He explains that trade negotiations, bilateral or multilateral, are the basis for establishment of the international trade regime. In order to understand multilateral trade negotiations one should be familiar with its basis, which is composed of rules & procedures. Also, it is necessary to take into consideration the fact that these rules & procedures have not emerged at once but have been introduced in the process of adjustment to the needs of negotiators. In the second part of the paper the author considers the procedures in multilateral trade negotiations within the GATT/WTO international trade system. References. Adapted from the source document.
Alternativni načini rješavanja sporova danas su prepoznati kao dobrodošlo sredstvo za ublažavanje međustranačke napetosti, ubrzanja postupka, kao i smanjenja parničnih troškova. Europska je komisija usvojila niz mjera koje predviđaju primjenu određenog oblika izvansudskih načina rješavanja sporova. U Republici Hrvatskoj cjeloviti pravni okvir za nesmetano odvijanje alternativnih načina rješavanja sporova prvi put je izrađen 2003. godine, kada je donesen Zakon o mirenju. Osim tim Zakonom, mirenje, kao postupak koji prethodi parnici, u Republici Hrvatskoj predviđa i niz drugih zakona, a neki od njih propisuju i obvezatnost njegove provedbe. Međutim, iako je postojanje pozitivnih iskustava stranaka postupkom mirenja značajno, programi dobrovoljnog mirenja i dalje pokazuju nisku stopu njegove iskorištenosti. S druge strane, iako obvezno mirenje može biti korisno, prema njemu se iznose i značajne kritike, stoga je cilj ovog rada istražiti u kojim će to slučajevima prethodna provedba postupka mirenja biti obvezatna te može li jedno takvo obvezivanje, s obzirom na svrhu samog postupka mirenja, uopće biti u skladu s pravom na pristup sudu. ; Alternative dispute resolutions are perceived as a useful means for mitigating inter-party tensions, speeding up the procedures and reducing litigation costs. The European Commission has adopted a series of measures aimed at implementation of a particular form of non-judicial means of dispute resolution. Comprehensive legal framework for stable functioning of alternative dispute resolution in the Republic of Croatia was created in 2003 when the new Mediation Act was passed. In addition to this law, dispute resolution as a procedure that precedes the trial is regulated by a number of other laws, some of them stipulating its obligatory enforcement. The rate of the cases solved in voluntary mediation in Croatia is still low. There is no doubt that mandatory mediation may be useful but on the other hand the question arises if rules on mandatory mediation have the capacity to prevent equitable access to justice. The primary aim of this paper is to examine different legal situations in which mediation is mandatory and ratio which stands behind it. The author will also analyse the extent to which rules on mandatory mediation are in accordance with the right of access to court. ; Alternative Weisen der Konfliktlösung sind heute als willkommene Mittel zur Milderung der Animosität zwischen den Parteien, zur Beschleunigung des Verfahrens und Verminderung von Verfahrenskosten erkannt. Europäische Kommission hat eine Reihe von Maßnahmen getroffen, die die Anwendung einer bestimmten Form der außergerichtlichen Lösung von Streitigkeiten anordnen. Zum ersten Mal wurde in der Republik Kroatien ein einheitlicher Rechtsrahmen für ungestörte Entwicklung der alternativen Weisen von Konfliktlösung im Jahr 2003 geschaffen, als das Mediationsgesetz erlassen wurde. Als einem Gerichtsverfahren vorläufendes Prozess wurde die Mediation außer von diesem Gesetz auch durch eine Reihe anderer Gesetze in der Republik Kroatien vorgesehen. In einigen dieser Gesetze wird auch die Verbindlichkeit der Durchführung des Mediationsprozesses geregelt. Obwohl positive Erfahrungen der Parteien in Bezug auf das Mediationsverfahren beträchtlich sind, weist die Analyse von Programmen der freiwilligen Mediation noch immer auf eine niedrige Stufe ihrer Nutzung hin. Andererseits wird die verbindliche Mediation trotz ihrer Nützlichkeit auch heftig kritisiert. Aus diesem Grunde ist das Ziel dieser Arbeit, zu untersuchen, in welchen Fällen die vorläufige Durchführung des Mediationsverfahrens verbindlich sein sollte und ob die Verbindlichkeit mit Rücksicht auf den Zweck des Mediationsprozesses mit dem Recht auf Beitritt zum Gericht überhaupt im Einklang steht.
Članak nastoji rasvijetliti tendencije suvremene etizacije u različitim područjima života, od gospodarstva i tehnike do znanosti i politike, s posebnim naglaskom na pravnu domenu. Ključno je pitanje: kako se danas masovno nabujala etizacija svijeta života odnosi prema načelu odvajanja prava i morala te prema vladavini prava kao minimuma morala u društvu? Teoretsko je polazište za ovo razmatranje Thomasiusova podjela naravnoga prava na honestum, decorum i iustum te Kantova dihotomija metafizičkih temelja nauka o pravu i kreposti u Metafizici ćudoređa. Taj je okvir upravo vrhunac prosvjetiteljskih nastojanja za strogim odvajanjem sfere zakonitosti i moralnosti. Postavlja se u tom sklopu pitanje, potkopavaju li suvremene etičke tendencije prosvjetiteljsko naslijeđe zaštite ljudskih prava. Na temelju takva dihotomna modela dalje se raščlanjuje utjecaj nedavne ekspanzije profesionalnih, medicinskih, znanstvenih, poslovnih i drugih oblika etike, masovno uspostavljanje etičkih povjerenstava, politička korektnost i djelovanje javnoga mnijenja na okvir ljudskih temeljnih sloboda. Za ilustraciju prikazana su dva ogledna primjera iz Hrvatske – normativni nedostaci etičkoga kodeksa i zloporaba etičkoga tijela u političke svrhe. U zaključku se obrazlaže kako suvremena etizacija može donijeti dobre plodove promicanjem ćudorednih pitanja i pravne zaštite. Međutim, ona ne smije prekoračivati granice i potkopavati vladavinu prava. Razdvajanje morala i prava znatna je baština demokratske ustavne države. Neobuzdana i preobilna etizacija raznih sfera, međutim, može biti pogubna za dobro uređenje i blagostanje u suvremenom, sve više pluralističkom i multikulturnom društvu. Primjerenije je stoga da o pravu sude nepristrani sudci i neovisni sudovi, držeći se u pravorijeku stoljećima izborenih i utvrđenih mjerila pravednosti; oni to zacijelo čine znatno pravednije nego što bi to činili provizorni etički odbori i ad hoc imenovani povjerenici. Etika se može baviti unutarnjom stranom djelovanja i moralnim maksimama. No, etičke maksime nisu uvijek vezane uz izvanjsku pravnu prisilu. O toj bitnoj razlici, koju bi svako društvo trebalo pažljivo razgraničiti i propisati, ovisi u bitnome ostvarenje ljudske slobode u njezinoj punini. ; This paper seeks to shed light on the trends of contemporary ethicisation in various areas of life, from business and technology to science and politics, with special emphasis on the legal domain. The key question is: how does nowadays immensely enlarged ethicisation of the lifeworld relate to the principle of separating legality from morality and the rule of law as the minimum of moral in the society? Theoretical framework for this analysis is Thomasius' division of natural law into honestum, decorum and iustum, as well as Kant's dichotomy of the metaphysical foundations of the doctrine of law and virtue in the Metaphysics of Morals. This framework represents the pinnacle of the demand of the Enlightenment era for a separation of the spheres of legality and morality. The question is raised as to whether contemporary ethical tendencies undermine the legacy of the Enlightenment regarding the protection of the human rights. Based on this dichotomous model, the impact of the recent expansion of professional, medical, scientific, business and other forms of ethics, the massive establishment of ethics committees, political correctness, and the mediation of public opinion on the framework of human fundamental freedoms is further elaborated. By way of illustration, two exemplary case studies from Croatia are presented—the normative flaws of a code of ethics and the misuse of an ethical body for political purposes. The conclusion elaborates how contemporary ethicisation can produce good results by promoting legal issues and legal protection. However, it should not exceed the limits and undermine the rule of law. The separation of morality and law is an important legacy of the democratic constitutional state. The unbridled and extensive ethicisation of various spheres, though, can be devastating to good order and well-being in the contemporary increasingly pluralistic and multicultural society. Therefore, the impartial tribunals should judge by the centuries-old and established standards of justice; they do it more equitably than the provisional ethical committees and the ad hoc appointed commissioners would. Ethics may continue to deal with the inner side of action and maxims. Nevertheless, the ethical maxims are not always bound to external compulsion. The full realisation of human freedom depends on this essential distinction, which every society should carefully determine and regulate. ; Cet article vise à faire la lumière sur les tendances de l'éthisation contemporaine dans divers domaines de la vie : des affaires et technologie à la science et politique, en mettant un accent particulier sur le domaine juridique. La question clé est la suivante : quel est le rapport entre l'éthisation contemporaine du monde de la vie, massivement accrue, avec le principe de la séparation entre le droit et la morale et la primauté du droit en tant que minimum de morale ? La présupposition de départ pour cette réflexion est la division par Thomasius de la loi naturelle en honestum, decorum et iustum, ainsi que la dichotomie par Kant des fondements métaphysiques de la doctrine du droit et de la vertu dans la Métaphysique des Mœurs, ledit cadre représentant le comble de l'exigence des Lumières pour une séparation stricte entre les sphères de la légalité et de la moralité. La question se pose de savoir si les tendances éthiques contemporaines nuisent l'héritage des Lumières de la protection des droits de l'homme. Sur la base de ce modèle dichotomique, une analyse plus profonde est fournie ayant pour but de démontrer l'impact de l'expansion récente des formes de l'éthique professionnelle, médicale, scientifique, des affaires et autres, de la mise en place massive des comités d'éthique, de la rectitude politique et de la médiation de l'opinion publique. A titre d'illustration, deux études sur des cas exemplaires en Croatie sont ici traitées: les faiblesses normatives d'un code d'éthique et l'abus d'un organe éthique à des fins politiques. En conclusion, il est montré que l'éthisation contemporaine peut porter ses fruits en promouvant les questions morales et la protection juridique. Cependant, elle ne doit pas dépasser les limites de le régime du droit et le nuire. La séparation entre la morale et le droit est un héritage important de l'Etat constitutionnel démocratique. L'éthisation effrénée et étendue à divers domaines peut néanmoins être dévastatrice pour le bon ordre et le bien-être dans la société contemporaine de plus en plus pluraliste et multiculturelle. Par conséquent, les juges impartiaux et les tribunaux indépendants devraient juger selon les normes de la justice séculaires et bien établies ; ils le font de manière plus équitable que le feraient le comité d'éthique provisoire ou les commissaires nommés ad hoc. L'éthique peut continuer à traiter du côté intérieur des actions et des maximes. Néanmoins, les maximes éthiques ne sont pas toujours liées à la contrainte juridique extérieure. De cette distinction essentielle, que chaque société devrait déterminer et réglementer avec soin, dépend avant tout la réalisation de la liberté humaine dans sa plénitude. ; Dieser Aufsatz versucht, die Tendenzen der zeitgenössischen Ethisierung in verschiedenen Bereichen des Lebens, von der Wirtschaft und Technik bis hin zur Wissenschaft und Politik, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Rechtsdomäne, zu beleuchten. Die Schlüsselfrage lautet: Wie verhält sich die heutige massiv angewachsene Ethisierung der Lebenswelt zum Grundsatz der Trennung von Legalität und Moralität sowie zum rechtsstaatlichen Postulat des Rechts als des Minimums der Moral in der Gesellschaft? Als Rahmen für die Untersuchung dient die Aufteilung des Naturrechts in honestum, decorum und iustum bei Thomasius, ferner Kants Dichotomie der metaphysischen Anfangsgründe der Rechts- und Tugendlehre in der Metaphysik der Sitten, wo als Höhepunkt die aufklärerische Forderung nach einer strengen Scheidung der Sphäre der Legalität von der Moralität untermauert wurde. Es wird die Frage erörtert, ob zeitgenössische Ethisierungstendenzen das aufklärerische Erbe der Verteidigung der Menschenrechte untergraben. Ausgehend von diesem dichotomischen Modell wird erörtert, welche Auswirkungen die jüngere Ausweitung der Ethik im Berufsleben, in Medizin, Wissenschaft, Geschäftsbeziehungen sowie sonstige Formen der Ethik, ferner die massiven Gründungen von Ethikkommissionen, die politische Korrektheit und die öffentliche Meinungsbildung auf den Rahmen der menschlichen Grundfreiheiten haben. Zur Veranschaulichung werden zwei Fallbeispiele aus Kroatien angeführt: die normativen Mängel eines Ethikkodexes und der Missbrauch eines ethischen Gremiums zu politischen Zwecken. Abschließend wird festgestellt, dass die zeitgenössische Ethisierung gute Früchte tragen kann, sofern sie die Rechtsfragen und den Rechtsschutz fördert. Aber sie darf dabei nicht die Grenzen überschreiten und den Rechtsstaat untergraben. Die Trennung von Moral und Recht ist ein wichtiges Erbe des demokratischen Rechtsstaates. Die ungezügelte und extensive Ethisierung verschiedener Sphären kann indessen für die gute Ordnung und das Wohlleben in der heutzutage immer ausgeprägteren pluralistischen und multikulturellen Gesellschaft verheerend sein. Daher mögen lieber unparteiische Richter und unabhängige Gerichtshöfe nach den in vielen Jahrhunderten errungenen und bewährten Maßstäben der Gerechtigkeit urteilen; sie tun dies gerechter, als es provisorische Ethikkomitees und ad hoc ernannte Beauftrage je tun würden. Die Ethik mag sich weiter mit dem inneren Bereich des Handelns und den Maximen befassen. Die ethischen Maximen sind aber dem äußeren Zwang nicht immer verpflichtet. Von dieser wesentlichen Unterscheidung, die jede Gesellschaft sorgfältig bestimmen und reglementieren sollte, hängt die Verwirklichung der Menschenfreiheit in ihrer Fülle ab.
Croatia, together with some 30 countries, is waiting to be admitted into the World Trade Organization. Membership in the WTO is the first step in membership in CEFTA & one of the overture steps in joining the European Union. Apart from the undeniable benefits that WTO membership brings, there are numerous pitfalls & sacrifices facing Croatia, which at the beginning may have a detrimental effect on some sectors of economy. Among the sectors most vulnerable to global competition is that of agriculture & food production. Its position on the local market will be significantly weakened, since it is uncompetitive even at the present level of protective tariffs. The central issue in the negotiations for admitting a country or a group of countries into this organization are protective tariffs in this sector. There is no doubt that Croatia will have to reduce these protective measures to the level required by the WTO. What is that going to mean for Croatian agriculture? To what extent is Croatian agriculture (un)prepared to meet these demands? What are the possible consequences in light of the strategic importance of agriculture for any country, Croatia being no exception? 1 Table, 18 References. Adapted from the source document.
The authors analyze the developments in the world economy during the second half of the 20th century & the first five years of the 21st century, Based on the statistical data published in the editions of international organizations -- primarily UN, IMF & WTO, they explain the causes of recession in the world economy at the beginning of this century after it achieved an impressive growth in the second half of the 20th century. The authors also point to the factors that contributed to the accelerated recovery of the world economy & world trade in 2004 & 2005. Tables, References. Adapted from the source document.
In all the systems aspiring towards free trade it is of essence to reconcile this interest with the protection of other values; also, the member stets agree to certain restrictions of their regulatory autonomy for the system on the whole to strike an optimal balance among the relevant interests. In relatively heterogeneous systems such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the members hold on to a significant portion of their regulatory autonomy in order to protect their values though this hampers the liberalization of trade. In relatively homogeneous systems, however, such as the European Union (EU), the members find it opportune to agree to tighter restrictions of their regulatory autonomy since thus they allow for increased trade without severely harming the other values. For Croatia it is good that the liberalization of trade & the restriction of regulatory autonomy have been gradual, occurring in four stages: the WTO membership, the Stabilization & Accession Agreement, negotiations on the EU membership & eventually the full EU membership. References. Adapted from the source document.
In all the systems aspiring towards free trade it is of essence to reconcile this interest with the protection of other values; also, the member stets agree to certain restrictions of their regulatory autonomy for the system on the whole to strike an optimal balance among the relevant interests. In relatively heterogeneous systems such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the members hold on to a significant portion of their regulatory autonomy in order to protect their values though this hampers the liberalization of trade. In relatively homogeneous systems, however, such as the European Union (EU), the members find it opportune to agree to tighter restrictions of their regulatory autonomy since thus they allow for increased trade without severely harming the other values. For Croatia it is good that the liberalization of trade & the restriction of regulatory autonomy have been gradual, occurring in four stages: the WTO membership, the Stabilization & Accession Agreement, negotiations on the EU membership & eventually the full EU membership. References. Adapted from the source document.
Zajednička poljoprivredna politika (ZPP) ustanovljena 1962.god. je najznačajnija javna politika na koju odlazi velik dio proračuna Europske unije. Nakon 30 godina stabilnosti, ZPP prolazi kroz prvu značajnu reformu 1992., poznatijom kao MacSharryjeva reforma. Zatim slijede Agenda 2000 (1999.), Srednjoročni pregled (eng. Mid-Term Review, MTR 2003.), Zdravstveni pregled (eng. Health-Check, 2008.), Reforma ZPP-a 2013.-2020. i Reforma nakon 2020. Početkom 1990.-ih, kroz trgovinske pregovore u sklopu GATT-a (današnjeg WTO-a) na međunarodnoj razini se postiže dogovor, Sporazum o poljoprivredi, čime su se postavile prihvatljive i neprihvatljive mjere agrarne politike. Promjenom stavova društva o poljoprivredi i njezinom financiranju, unazad 30-ak godina, mijenjali su se i ciljevi agrarne politike, te oni sada obuhvaćaju zaštitu okoliša, krajobraz, dobrobit životinja, kvalitetu i sigurnost hrane. ; The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) established in 1962 is the most important public policy to which a large part of the European Union budget goes. After 30 years of stability, the CAP is undergoing its first significant reform in 1992, better known as the MacSharry reform. This is followed by Agenda 2000 (1999), Mid-Term Review (MTR 2003), Health-Check (2008), CAP reform 2013-2020. and CAP post 2020 reform. In the early 1990s, through trade negotiations under the GATT (today's WTO), an agreement was reached at the international level, the Agreement on Agriculture, which set out acceptable and unacceptable agricultural policy measures. With the change in society's attitudes towards agriculture and its financing, over the past 30 years, the goals of agricultural policy have changed, and they now include environmental protection, landscape, animal welfare, quality and food safety.
