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Abstract Background The literature is scarce on the social and geographic inequalities in the access to and implementation of the fluoridation of public water supplies. This study adds knowledge to the Brazilian experience of the chronic privation of water and wastewater policies, access to potable water and fluoridation in the country. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify possible inequalities in the population's access to fluoridated drinking water in 246 Brazilian municipalities. Methods The information on the process of water fluoridation in the municipalities and in the macro region in which each municipality is located was obtained from the national epidemiological survey which was concluded in 2003. The data relating to the human development index at municipal level (HDI-M) and access to mains water came from the Brazilian Human Development Atlas, whilst the size of the population was obtained from a governmental source. The Fisher exact test ( P < 0.05) was employed to identify significant associations between the explanatory variables and their ability to predict the principal outcomes of interest to this study, namely the presence or absence of the water fluoridation process in the municipalities as well as the length of time during which this measure has been implemented. Linear regression was used to observe the associations between the relevant variables in a multivariate environment. Results The results clearly showed that there is a relationship between municipalities with larger populations, located in more socio-economically advantaged regions and with better HDI-M, and where fluoridation is both present and has been implemented for a longer period of time (started before 1990). Conclusion The findings suggest that the aim of treating water with fluoride may not be being adequately achieved, requiring more effective strategies so that access to this measure can be expanded equitably.

Traditional processes adopted in water supply and wastewater systems consume large amounts of energy and generate relevant environmental impacts, since energy use is considered one of the largest anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases. The industry consumes 7% of all energy produced in the world, increasing the costs of operations that cannot be fully passed on to users, especially in developing countries such as Brazil. The worldwide projection of rising electricity prices further aggravates the situation, motivating a mapping of the energy efficiency of the sector in order to identify points of improvement. Several articles on the topic have already been published, but information for Brazil is scarce. This paper presents a review on the energy consumption in each stage of the water and wastewater sector, including the Brazilian scenario. Searches on the site www.sciencedirect.com, using as keywords wastewater, water, energy, consumption and Brazil and government websites resulted in 20 documents that compose this work. The objective of this work was to review the energy consumption in collective water supply and wastewater systems, from raw water abstraction to the final disposal of the treated sewage, by compiling information and adding data on the Brazilian scenario. In general, the current system is inefficient and require political integration in water and energy in order to overcome the challenges.

Public water supply requirement and its measurement -- The organisation and financing of public water supplies -- Hydrology and surface supplies -- Groundwater supplies -- Dams, impounding reservoirs and river intakes -- Chemistry, microbiology and biology of water -- Storage, clarification and filtration of water -- Specialised and advanced water treatment processes -- Disinfection of water -- Hydraulics -- Service reservoirs -- Pumping plant : electrical, control and instrumentation systems -- Pipes, pipeline construction and valves -- Pipeline and distribution system design and analysis -- Distribution practice

"Supersedes TM 5-813-5/AFM 88-10, vol. 5, 31 January 1963"--2nd prelim. p. ; "November 1986." ; Shipping list no.: 87-433-P. ; Cover title. ; Includes bibliographies. ; Mode of access: Internet.

"20 September 1985." ; Shipping list no.: 85-1041-P. ; "This manual supersedes TM 5-813-4/AFM 88-10, Chap. 4, 2 July 1958"--P. i. ; Cover title. ; Bibliography: p. B-5. ; Mode of access: Internet. ; 14

Many rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa still lack clean water for basic needs such as drinking and washing. Even where water points have been constructed, many break down prematurely or provide inadequate, seasonal or poor quality water supplies. While techno-managerial factors are relevant in explaining these problems, attention needs to be paid to the institutional and political-economic dynamics shaping policy outcomes on the ground. This study examines the political economy of rural water supply in Ethiopia, using a literature review and interviews with government staff and water sector stakeholders to unpick systemic obstacles to sustainable access to water. It reccomends that sector stakeholders: inform and build on the 2018 National WASH Inventory, invest in water resource mapping and monitoring, support legalisation of Water and Sanitation Committees and aim to improve accountability, leverage drought events to reframe the conversation.

Models based on the Kumaraswamy law are used with variables that assume values in (0, 1). In some cases, however, the data contain zeros and/or ones, that is, there is data inflation. We introduce a class of regression models that can be used with such inflated data, namely: the class of inflated Kumaraswamy regression models. We consider inflation at zero, at one, and at both zero and one. We introduce the model and provide closed‐form expressions for its score vector and Fisher's information matrix. The proposed model is used to evaluate the impacts of different conditioning variables on the proportion of people who live in households with inadequate water supply and sewage in Brazilian municipalities. Our results reveal that policies directed to increasing the population share with college education in places where it is low are particularly effective in reducing the prevalence of people who live under inadequate sanitation conditions.

Characteristics of flow -- Types of flowmeters -- Flowmeter selection -- Installation and performance issues -- Communications,information,and signal outputs -- Field testing