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Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: North America and Siberia at the end of the XVIth - middle of the XVIIIth century

Problem setting. Latin America and the Caribbean traditionally referred to as a large and ambiguous region in an out-side territorial scientific environment. A whole stratum of problems of identities, peculiarities of self-awareness, civilization affiliations of messianic 'appointments ' in the history of the region and the world, the development of ways of cultural and historical development corresponding to them, the affirmation of the tendencies of state formation is in a scientific researcher focus. Among the many aspects that conceptualize the demandfor research in the region and its implementation, we would like to highlight the following: 1) Latin America and the Caribbean are, to some extent, «a territory of historically significant validation of modern trends» in their speculative lengthening, the field ofdeveloping new ones political and economic novations, including regarding various projections of the correlation of socio-political practices, institutional design and legal technologies, derived from the understanding of nature and the purpose of law. 2) The region 'provides ' a wide range of heterogeneous materials for analytical work, both concatenate-linear in nature, and combining poly-meaningful multidimensionality, multifaceted coexistence of values generated by contemporary media, the glare of meanings, signs, intentions of conscious transformations, random «breakthroughs» of network travel followers. In the discovery literature thatfollows only the analysis of statistical indicators, it is often noted that Latin America and the Caribbean is a region of polarization (the territory of the intersection of different values, gaps traditions, lifestyles, indicators of the difference between the needful and the wealth, the level of concentration of income, manifestations of crime, corruption, etc.). 3) Considering the full amount of opportunities and perspectives available, Latin America in general, in some associative formulation, is clearly «boxing at levels below its weight and its impact on ...

In the post-cold era, the economic and military power of the People's Republic of China is constantly growing. As a result, the rebirth of the idea of the protectionist economic policy, which has always been present in the American public debate, took place in the U.S. This idea is evidently reflected in the foreign policy of the President of the United States of America, Donald Trump. This article includes the analysis of the contemporary economic protectionism of the United States from the perspective of the offensive realism theory created by John Mearsheimer. The theory is based on three fundamental assumptions: the structure of the international system is anarchic, the primary goal of a state is to survive, for that reason states seek maximalization of their power. ; W epoce pozimnowojennej ma miejsce stały wzrost potęgi ekonomicznej oraz militarnej Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej. Owa tendencja spowodowała odrodzenie idei protekcjonizmu gospodarczego w Stanach Zjednoczonych, która była wcześniej obecna w amerykańskiej debacie publicznej. Owa idea wyraźnie się przejawia w polityce obecnego Prezydenta USA Donalda Trumpa. Artykuł zawiera analizę współczesnego zjawiska protekcjonizmu gospodarczego USA z perspektywy teorii realizmu ofensywnego stworzonej przez Johna Mearsheimera, której podstawowymi założeniami są przekonanie o anarchicznej strukturze systemu międzynarodowego oraz o przetrwaniu jako naczelnym celu państwa, które w związku z tym dąży do maksymalizacji własnej potęgi.

The aim of the article is to present and evaluate the involvement of the United States of America in resolving the 2011 Libya crisis. This problem is considered taking into account bilateral and multilateral circumstances. The individual parts of the article discuss issues such as relations between the United States of America and Libya before the crisis, as well as US actions during the crisis and the reasons for carrying them out. This concerns, inter alia, Washington's political activity in the UN Security Council and the contribution of the US Armed Forces to the military operation in Libya. The evolution of the United States position on the use of the military factor to change the political regime of Libya is also shown. The research problem is included in the questions, what motivated Washington's actions towards Libya and whether the chosen policy was justified? The main thesis of the article is that the basic reason for the involvement of the United States of America in the crisis in Libya were the premises of a humanitarian nature, but the US interests were also important. Unfortunately, the military action did not lead to the end of the internal conflict in this country. The approach of the United States of America to the crisis in Libya was an important element for the formulation of the doctrine of President Barack Obama. There can be observed the elements that match both the liberal and realistic concept of international relations. In the article, the text source analysis method was used. ; Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie i ocena zaangażowania Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki w rozwiązanie kryzysu w Libii z 2011 roku. Problem ten rozpatrywano z uwzględnieniem okoliczności dwustronnych i wielostronnych. W poszczególnych częściach artykułu omówiono zagadnienia, takie jak relacje Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki i Libii przed kryzysem oraz działania USA w trakcie kryzysu i motywy je warunkujące. Dotyczy to między innymi aktywności politycznej Waszyngtonu na forum Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ oraz wkładu Sił Zbrojnych USA w operację zbrojną w Libii. Ukazano również ewolucję stanowiska Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki w kwestii wykorzystania czynnika militarnego do zmiany reżimu politycznego Libii. Problem badawczy zawiera się w pytaniach, czym motywowane były działania Waszyngtonu wobec Libii oraz czy obrana polityka była zasadna? Główną tezą artykułu jest stwierdzenie, że podstawowym powodem zaangażowania się Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki w kryzys w Libii były przesłanki natury humanitarnej, jednak liczyły się także interesy USA. Niestety akcja zbrojna nie doprowadziła do zakończenia konfliktu wewnętrznego w tym państwie. Podejście Waszyngtonu do kryzysu w Libii było ważnym elementem wpływającym na formułowanie doktryny prezydenta Baracka Obamy. Możemy w nim dostrzec cechy wpisujące się zarówno w liberalną, jak i realistyczną koncepcję stosunków międzynarodowych. W artykule wykorzystano metodę analizy źródeł tekstowych.

Problem setting. Latin America and the Caribbean traditionally referred to as a large and ambiguous region in an out-side territorial scientific environment. A whole stratum of problems of identities, peculiarities of self-awareness, civilization affiliations of messianic 'appointments ' in the history of the region and the world, the development of ways of cultural and historical development corresponding to them, the affirmation of the tendencies of state formation is in a scientific researcher focus. Among the many aspects that conceptualize the demandfor research in the region and its implementation, we would like to highlight the following: 1) Latin America and the Caribbean are, to some extent, «a territory of historically significant validation of modern trends» in their speculative lengthening, the field ofdeveloping new ones political and economic novations, including regarding various projections of the correlation of socio-political practices, institutional design and legal technologies, derived from the understanding of nature and the purpose of law. 2) The region 'provides ' a wide range of heterogeneous materials for analytical work, both concatenate-linear in nature, and combining poly-meaningful multidimensionality, multifaceted coexistence of values generated by contemporary media, the glare of meanings, signs, intentions of conscious transformations, random «breakthroughs» of network travel followers. In the discovery literature thatfollows only the analysis of statistical indicators, it is often noted that Latin America and the Caribbean is a region of polarization (the territory of the intersection of different values, gaps traditions, lifestyles, indicators of the difference between the needful and the wealth, the level of concentration of income, manifestations of crime, corruption, etc.). 3) Considering the full amount of opportunities and perspectives available, Latin America in general, in some associative formulation, is clearly «boxing at levels below its weight and its impact on international canvases», that is, there are some reasons for internal and external character that significantly reduce the region's role in the world, affecting accents of processes of political, legal and economic worsen the work «for the common good», underestimate «the bar of tasks and results» do not meet the expectations of the significance of the region.Recent research and publications analysis. The paper uses an interdisciplinary approach involving the research of representatives of various sciences. Concerning the approach to certain aspects of the constitutional process in the countries of Latin America and the Carribien was used the researches of Ukrainian authors Yu. M. Todyka, V. P. Kolisnyk, Yu. G. Barabash, M. P. Orzikh, T. M. Slinko, A. G. Kushnirenko, pertaining to in relation to consideration ofpeculiarities ofdevelopment andfunctioning of the model of the presidential state was launched analytical andfunctionality materials I. V. Protsiuk.On the conceptualization within the political science tradition in connection with the problems of the political regimes, their development in the conditions of conflict of the present, in the face of threats and challenges of a multifaceted nature are included the materials of methodological and theoretical importance M. P. Trebin, I. O. Polishchuk, D. Denisenko, G. M. Kutz, O. A. Fisun, M. A. Polovyi and, in the context of regional- geopolitical dimensions, V. Yu. Karasev. Among the foreign authors on the subject area of the study, we note the conceptual vision of the combination ofeconomic cycles and political and legal processes of the present Daniela Campello, the development of the author of the theory of «path dependence effect» by J. Mahoney and researchers of modifications of the development of neo-patrimonialism in Latin America and Karsten Bachle. Focused on the trends and innovations of the constitutional process in the countries of the region are the scientific orientations of Rogelio Nu'nez and P. I. Kostogryzov. A broad analytical and research base on the transformation of political regimes in Latina America and the Caribbean and the peculiarities ofpolitical processes in individual countries are provided by the works of B. Geddes, G. O'Donnell, L. Diamond, D. Ziblatta, S. Levitsky, Z. V. Ivanovsky, T. A. Vorotnikova, P. P. Yakovlev, D. V. Morozov, and others.Paper objective. The purpose of this work is to find out the broad contexts of the relationship between economic and political and legal processes in Latin America and the Carribien countries with attention to the peculiarities of the rule of law formation. The tasks are to analyze a set of approaches to finding the causes of the difficulties of socio-political and institutional-legal development in the region with the involvement of interdisciplinary scientific experience and to identify some essential features of meaning- forming and socio-constructing phenomena in the contextual contours.Paper main body. One of the options for designating the specificity of the current state of affairs is framed in the concept of the so-called «curse of volatility» - the dependence of local, mainly commodity and export-oriented with low internal economy savings from cycles, fluctuations of the world economy. This dependence is a definite structural factor and has been forming for a long time. Also, macroeconomic indicators within the framework of a certain political economy methodology in the projection for the sum ofpolitical and legal events allow us to see the spread of ideology, whether left or right, the rise of populism, the tendency for further democratization of the way of life or vice versa from democracy, the relative calm of the political process or the turbulence ofpolitical events are, after all, tied to basic economic indicators, and often more or less relevant to us and corresponding to figures about the level of safety of life. The trajectory of development was laid down by some decisions at a time of critical juncture when privatization created the basis of the local economy as a structural part of the world capitalist system with its dynamics of development that facilitated the formatting and reproduction of the reactive sequences caused by different types of liberal reforms.Conclusions of the research. The particular attention in Latin America and the Caribbean countries on the expectations and responsibilities of building the future is focused on the development of Constitutional law as a leading sphere in the system of national law. Hence the numerous constitutional changes in the countries of the region, the constitutional reforms of different grades, which are intensively continued today. The lifestyle liberalization, resolving key property issues, attempts at democratization in Latin America and the Carribien countries took place in different ways, but after the foundations ofpublic law that were borrowed in outline in the USA. Between enshrined key provisions in the Constitutions and the coexistence of essentially diverse mass consciousnesses and aspirations on different 'floors' of the society, has raised multi-dimensional discord, that is emerging from the institutionalization of the liberal-democratic model of the state, generated in the context of understanding freedom as a key concept. Therefore the aspect ofan all-public agreement on coexistence rules does not appear to be fully realized, which gives rise to a search for a constitutional character. The focus remains on the relationship between multiple interests and ideas about the common good, by means of the formation of the general will in the structure and practice of constitutional-democratic regimes. It is inextricably linked to the transformation of the concepts of representation and citizenship. Democratic legitimation is correlated with ideas about the rule of the masses, the will of the majority in the living creation of the norms of life, and with the accompanying active and continuous participation in the political process of large groups, sectors of the population. The constitutional creativity of the countries of the region shows the element of an assertion of messianism, the designation of the special role of the country, its leader, ideology, the Constitution in the processes of historical implementation at the level of regional or the world. This moment of national pride for the country and its contribution to the cultural and civilizational space of history is realized in experimental projects of various expressions. ; В статье предпринята попытка выяснения природы связи циклов экономического развития и особенностей развития политико-правовых процессов в странах Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна. Подчеркнута важность последствий процессов либеральных реформ в сложившейся традиции сочетания качества социальной жизни и конституционного творчества. Отмечено - общая векторность, динамика, связаны с диссонансами относительно местных акцентов понимания демократии в контексте доминирования представлений о равенстве и справедливости с той содержательной центрированностью понятия свободы, что вслед за либерально-конституционным пониманием демократии была отражена в формально-правовых конструкциях конституционного значения, еще изначально в основе своей заимствованных в США. Пространство стыков взаимодействия интересов значимых для региона элит и надежд большинства местных жителей актуализируют попытки переформатировать положения Конституции в поисках основания для современной модели общественного договора, дополненные поиском форм реализации мессианских назначений в истории. ; Анотація. В статті здійснена спроба з'ясування природи зв'язку циклів економічного розвитку та особливостей розвитку політико-правових процесів в країнах Латинської Америки та Карибського Басейну. Підкреслено значущість наслідків процесів ліберальних реформ в сформованій традиції сполучення якості соціального життя й конституційної творчості. Наголошено - загальна векторність, динамі­ка змін, пов'язані з дисонансами відносно місцевих акцентів розуміння демократії (як демократії участі) в контексті домінування уявлень про рівність і справедливість з тією змістовною центрованістю поняття свободи, що слідом за ліберально- конституційним розумінням демократії було відтворено в формально-правових конструкціях конституційного значення, що в своїй основі ще початково були запозиченими в США. Простір стиків сполучення інтересів значимих для регіону еліт і сподівань більшості місцевих жителів актуалізують намагання переформатувати положення Конституції в пошуках підвалин для сучасної моделі суспільного договору, що є доповненими пошуком форм реалізації месіанських призначень в історії.

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all countries of the world, and its consequences are tangible not only today, but will have effect in the long run. The article is devoted to the impact of the coronavirus crisis on the energy market in Latin America. The study identifies the main threats, outlines potential protection mechanisms, and attempts to predict the further development of the situation in the energy sector in times of crisis. Mexico has begun to actively implement a number of protection mechanisms (hedging, redirection of state trust funds, etc.) to counter the effects of the coronavirus crisis. Argentina`s police is similar, as the country has introduced a decree obliging oil companies to support production and investment at the level of 2019 in order to mitigate the impact of the crisis. Venezuela, as a country the most dependent on oil exports, is facing an acute shortage threat. They allowed to sell oil to private companies, which in turn put an end to the state's monopoly on the energy market. The oil price collapse has highlighted serious problems in the Colombian economy, which could last for several years. Continuation or reintroduction of quarantine measures does not give hope for a rapid recovery in demand for oil and petroleum products, which threatens to reduce investment in the region. Therefore, governments are forced to seek financial support from international organizations or other states. It is noted that the pandemic has dealt a severe blow to countries that have lost potential opportunities and failed to reach a better economic level. In addition, difficulties have been encountered in implementation of large-scale projects in the field of oil production. The authors conclude that most countries of the region will have to adapt to new realities and, as a result, make structural changes in national economies. As the COVID-19 pandemic is unlikely to end in the near future and compliance with quarantine measures remains relevant, it will be necessary to look for other ways of economic development that are not related to energy exports. ; Пандемія COVID-19 вплинула на усі країни світу, а її наслідки дають про себе знати не лише сьогодні, а й будуть помітними у довгостроковій перспективі. Стаття присвячена розгляду впливу коронавірусної кризи на ринок енергоносіїв країн Латинської Америки. В дослідженні визначено основні загрози, окреслено потенційні механізми захисту, зроблено спробу спрогнозувати подальший розвиток ситуації в енергетичній галузі в умовах кризи. Мексика, аби протистояти наслідкам кризи, спричиненої коронавірусною хворобою, почала активно впроваджувати низку захисних механізмів (геджування, перенаправлення коштів державних трастових фондів тощо). Подібною є політика Аргентини, яка задля пом'якшення впливу кризи, запровадила указ про зобов'язання нафтовидобувних компаній підтримувати видобуток та інвестиції на рівні 2019 р. Найбільш залежна від експорту нафти держава, Венесуела, опинилася перед загрозою гострого дефіциту. Паливо дозволили продавати приватним компаніям, що, своєю чергою, поставило крапку в державній монополії на енергоринку. Обвал цін на нафту засвідчив серйозні проблеми в економіці Колумбії, які можуть тривати кілька років. Продовження чи повторне запровадження карантинних заходів не дарує надії на швидке відновлення попиту на нафту та нафтопродукти, що є загрозою зниженню інвестицій в регіон. Тому уряди держав змушені шукати фінансової підтримки у міжнародних організацій чи інших держав. Відзначено, що пандемія нанесла серйозний удар по країнах, що втратили потенційні можливості й не змогли вийти на кращий економічний рівень. Крім того, виникли складнощі в успішній реалізації великих проєктів у сфері нафтовидобутку. Автори дійшли висновку, що більшості країн регіону доведеться пристосовуватись до нових реалій і як наслідок проводити структурні зміни у національних економіках. Оскільки закінчення пандемії COVID-19 у найближчий час є малоймовірним, а дотримання карантинних заходів все ж залишатиметься актуальним, то необхідно буде відшуковувати інші шляхи економічного розвитку, що не пов'язані із експортом енергоносіїв.

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all countries of the world, and its consequences are tangible not only today, but will have effect in the long run. The article is devoted to the impact of the coronavirus crisis on the energy market in Latin America. The study identifies the main threats, outlines potential protection mechanisms, and attempts to predict the further development of the situation in the energy sector in times of crisis. Mexico has begun to actively implement a number of protection mechanisms (hedging, redirection of state trust funds, etc.) to counter the effects of the coronavirus crisis. Argentina`s police is similar, as the country has introduced a decree obliging oil companies to support production and investment at the level of 2019 in order to mitigate the impact of the crisis. Venezuela, as a country the most dependent on oil exports, is facing an acute shortage threat. They allowed to sell oil to private companies, which in turn put an end to the state's monopoly on the energy market. The oil price collapse has highlighted serious problems in the Colombian economy, which could last for several years. Continuation or reintroduction of quarantine measures does not give hope for a rapid recovery in demand for oil and petroleum products, which threatens to reduce investment in the region. Therefore, governments are forced to seek financial support from international organizations or other states. It is noted that the pandemic has dealt a severe blow to countries that have lost potential opportunities and failed to reach a better economic level. In addition, difficulties have been encountered in implementation of large-scale projects in the field of oil production. The authors conclude that most countries of the region will have to adapt to new realities and, as a result, make structural changes in national economies. As the COVID-19 pandemic is unlikely to end in the near future and compliance with quarantine measures remains relevant, it will be necessary to look for other ways of economic development that are not related to energy exports. ; Пандемія COVID-19 вплинула на усі країни світу, а її наслідки дають про себе знати не лише сьогодні, а й будуть помітними у довгостроковій перспективі. Стаття присвячена розгляду впливу коронавірусної кризи на ринок енергоносіїв країн Латинської Америки. В дослідженні визначено основні загрози, окреслено потенційні механізми захисту, зроблено спробу спрогнозувати подальший розвиток ситуації в енергетичній галузі в умовах кризи. Мексика, аби протистояти наслідкам кризи, спричиненої коронавірусною хворобою, почала активно впроваджувати низку захисних механізмів (геджування, перенаправлення коштів державних трастових фондів тощо). Подібною є політика Аргентини, яка задля пом'якшення впливу кризи, запровадила указ про зобов'язання нафтовидобувних компаній підтримувати видобуток та інвестиції на рівні 2019 р. Найбільш залежна від експорту нафти держава, Венесуела, опинилася перед загрозою гострого дефіциту. Паливо дозволили продавати приватним компаніям, що, своєю чергою, поставило крапку в державній монополії на енергоринку. Обвал цін на нафту засвідчив серйозні проблеми в економіці Колумбії, які можуть тривати кілька років. Продовження чи повторне запровадження карантинних заходів не дарує надії на швидке відновлення попиту на нафту та нафтопродукти, що є загрозою зниженню інвестицій в регіон. Тому уряди держав змушені шукати фінансової підтримки у міжнародних організацій чи інших держав. Відзначено, що пандемія нанесла серйозний удар по країнах, що втратили потенційні можливості й не змогли вийти на кращий економічний рівень. Крім того, виникли складнощі в успішній реалізації великих проєктів у сфері нафтовидобутку. Автори дійшли висновку, що більшості країн регіону доведеться пристосовуватись до нових реалій і як наслідок проводити структурні зміни у національних економіках. Оскільки закінчення пандемії COVID-19 у найближчий час є малоймовірним, а дотримання карантинних заходів все ж залишатиметься актуальним, то необхідно буде відшуковувати інші шляхи економічного розвитку, що не пов'язані із експортом енергоносіїв.

Problem setting. Latin America and the Caribbean traditionally referred to as a large and ambiguous region in an out-side territorial scientific environment. A whole stratum of problems of identities, peculiarities of self-awareness, civilization affiliations of messianic 'appointments ' in the history of the region and the world, the development of ways of cultural and historical development corresponding to them, the affirmation of the tendencies of state formation is in a scientific researcher focus. Among the many aspects that conceptualize the demandfor research in the region and its implementation, we would like to highlight the following: 1) Latin America and the Caribbean are, to some extent, «a territory of historically significant validation of modern trends» in their speculative lengthening, the field ofdeveloping new ones political and economic novations, including regarding various projections of the correlation of socio-political practices, institutional design and legal technologies, derived from the understanding of nature and the purpose of law. 2) The region 'provides ' a wide range of heterogeneous materials for analytical work, both concatenate-linear in nature, and combining poly-meaningful multidimensionality, multifaceted coexistence of values generated by contemporary media, the glare of meanings, signs, intentions of conscious transformations, random «breakthroughs» of network travel followers. In the discovery literature thatfollows only the analysis of statistical indicators, it is often noted that Latin America and the Caribbean is a region of polarization (the territory of the intersection of different values, gaps traditions, lifestyles, indicators of the difference between the needful and the wealth, the level of concentration of income, manifestations of crime, corruption, etc.). 3) Considering the full amount of opportunities and perspectives available, Latin America in general, in some associative formulation, is clearly «boxing at levels below its weight and its impact on international canvases», that is, there are some reasons for internal and external character that significantly reduce the region's role in the world, affecting accents of processes of political, legal and economic worsen the work «for the common good», underestimate «the bar of tasks and results» do not meet the expectations of the significance of the region.Recent research and publications analysis. The paper uses an interdisciplinary approach involving the research of representatives of various sciences. Concerning the approach to certain aspects of the constitutional process in the countries of Latin America and the Carribien was used the researches of Ukrainian authors Yu. M. Todyka, V. P. Kolisnyk, Yu. G. Barabash, M. P. Orzikh, T. M. Slinko, A. G. Kushnirenko, pertaining to in relation to consideration ofpeculiarities ofdevelopment andfunctioning of the model of the presidential state was launched analytical andfunctionality materials I. V. Protsiuk.On the conceptualization within the political science tradition in connection with the problems of the political regimes, their development in the conditions of conflict of the present, in the face of threats and challenges of a multifaceted nature are included the materials of methodological and theoretical importance M. P. Trebin, I. O. Polishchuk, D. Denisenko, G. M. Kutz, O. A. Fisun, M. A. Polovyi and, in the context of regional- geopolitical dimensions, V. Yu. Karasev. Among the foreign authors on the subject area of the study, we note the conceptual vision of the combination ofeconomic cycles and political and legal processes of the present Daniela Campello, the development of the author of the theory of «path dependence effect» by J. Mahoney and researchers of modifications of the development of neo-patrimonialism in Latin America and Karsten Bachle. Focused on the trends and innovations of the constitutional process in the countries of the region are the scientific orientations of Rogelio Nu'nez and P. I. Kostogryzov. A broad analytical and research base on the transformation of political regimes in Latina America and the Caribbean and the peculiarities ofpolitical processes in individual countries are provided by the works of B. Geddes, G. O'Donnell, L. Diamond, D. Ziblatta, S. Levitsky, Z. V. Ivanovsky, T. A. Vorotnikova, P. P. Yakovlev, D. V. Morozov, and others.Paper objective. The purpose of this work is to find out the broad contexts of the relationship between economic and political and legal processes in Latin America and the Carribien countries with attention to the peculiarities of the rule of law formation. The tasks are to analyze a set of approaches to finding the causes of the difficulties of socio-political and institutional-legal development in the region with the involvement of interdisciplinary scientific experience and to identify some essential features of meaning- forming and socio-constructing phenomena in the contextual contours.Paper main body. One of the options for designating the specificity of the current state of affairs is framed in the concept of the so-called «curse of volatility» - the dependence of local, mainly commodity and export-oriented with low internal economy savings from cycles, fluctuations of the world economy. This dependence is a definite structural factor and has been forming for a long time. Also, macroeconomic indicators within the framework of a certain political economy methodology in the projection for the sum ofpolitical and legal events allow us to see the spread of ideology, whether left or right, the rise of populism, the tendency for further democratization of the way of life or vice versa from democracy, the relative calm of the political process or the turbulence ofpolitical events are, after all, tied to basic economic indicators, and often more or less relevant to us and corresponding to figures about the level of safety of life. The trajectory of development was laid down by some decisions at a time of critical juncture when privatization created the basis of the local economy as a structural part of the world capitalist system with its dynamics of development that facilitated the formatting and reproduction of the reactive sequences caused by different types of liberal reforms.Conclusions of the research. The particular attention in Latin America and the Caribbean countries on the expectations and responsibilities of building the future is focused on the development of Constitutional law as a leading sphere in the system of national law. Hence the numerous constitutional changes in the countries of the region, the constitutional reforms of different grades, which are intensively continued today. The lifestyle liberalization, resolving key property issues, attempts at democratization in Latin America and the Carribien countries took place in different ways, but after the foundations ofpublic law that were borrowed in outline in the USA. Between enshrined key provisions in the Constitutions and the coexistence of essentially diverse mass consciousnesses and aspirations on different 'floors' of the society, has raised multi-dimensional discord, that is emerging from the institutionalization of the liberal-democratic model of the state, generated in the context of understanding freedom as a key concept. Therefore the aspect ofan all-public agreement on coexistence rules does not appear to be fully realized, which gives rise to a search for a constitutional character. The focus remains on the relationship between multiple interests and ideas about the common good, by means of the formation of the general will in the structure and practice of constitutional-democratic regimes. It is inextricably linked to the transformation of the concepts of representation and citizenship. Democratic legitimation is correlated with ideas about the rule of the masses, the will of the majority in the living creation of the norms of life, and with the accompanying active and continuous participation in the political process of large groups, sectors of the population. The constitutional creativity of the countries of the region shows the element of an assertion of messianism, the designation of the special role of the country, its leader, ideology, the Constitution in the processes of historical implementation at the level of regional or the world. This moment of national pride for the country and its contribution to the cultural and civilizational space of history is realized in experimental projects of various expressions. ; В статье предпринята попытка выяснения природы связи циклов экономического развития и особенностей развития политико-правовых процессов в странах Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна. Подчеркнута важность последствий процессов либеральных реформ в сложившейся традиции сочетания качества социальной жизни и конституционного творчества. Отмечено - общая векторность, динамика, связаны с диссонансами относительно местных акцентов понимания демократии в контексте доминирования представлений о равенстве и справедливости с той содержательной центрированностью понятия свободы, что вслед за либерально-конституционным пониманием демократии была отражена в формально-правовых конструкциях конституционного значения, еще изначально в основе своей заимствованных в США. Пространство стыков взаимодействия интересов значимых для региона элит и надежд большинства местных жителей актуализируют попытки переформатировать положения Конституции в поисках основания для современной модели общественного договора, дополненные поиском форм реализации мессианских назначений в истории. ; Анотація. В статті здійснена спроба з'ясування природи зв'язку циклів економічного розвитку та особливостей розвитку політико-правових процесів в країнах Латинської Америки та Карибського Басейну. Підкреслено значущість наслідків процесів ліберальних реформ в сформованій традиції сполучення якості соціального життя й конституційної творчості. Наголошено - загальна векторність, динамі­ка змін, пов'язані з дисонансами відносно місцевих акцентів розуміння демократії (як демократії участі) в контексті домінування уявлень про рівність і справедливість з тією змістовною центрованістю поняття свободи, що слідом за ліберально- конституційним розумінням демократії було відтворено в формально-правових конструкціях конституційного значення, що в своїй основі ще початково були запозиченими в США. Простір стиків сполучення інтересів значимих для регіону еліт і сподівань більшості місцевих жителів актуалізують намагання переформатувати положення Конституції в пошуках підвалин для сучасної моделі суспільного договору, що є доповненими пошуком форм реалізації месіанських призначень в історії.

The article analyzes the international cooperation of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) in the field of higher education and science, shows its role in training highly qualified personnel from Latin America and the Caribbean, with a special focus on Ecuador. The purpose of the article is to show the cross-section of the Latin American contingent of pupils at the present stage on the basis of a comparative analysis, and for this purpose are set the following tasks: to identify new priorities in education that are in demand in modern society and are embodied in the PFUR, to show the importance of the internationalization of education as one of the factors ensuring educational cooperation for RUDN University. The task is also to show the cooperation of the Ecuadorian government and RUDN University in the preparation of competitive specialists for the implementation of ambitious plans for the country's development, identify the features of the Yachai project for the development of Ecuador's scientific potential, and outline the prospects for bilateral interaction in the training system. Conclusion: for 58 years of its activity PFUR has achieved significant results in the internationalization of education, developed interesting methods of teaching Russian and other subjects, introduced the study of a number of subjects in English, which made this university attractive for foreign, in particular, Latin American students. ; В статье проанализировано международное сотрудничество РУДН в области высшего образования и науки, показана его роль в подготовке высококвалифицированных кадров из стран Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна с особым упором на Эквадор. Цель статьи - на основе сравнительного анализа показать срез латиноамериканского контингента учащихся РУДН на современном этапе, и для этого ставятся задачи: выявить новые приоритеты в образовании, которые оказываются востребованными в современном обществе и получают воплощение в РУДН, показать значение интернационализации образования как одного из факторов обеспечения образовательного сотрудничества для РУДН. Ставится также задача показать взаимодействие правительства Эквадора и РУДН в подготовке конкурентоспособных специалистов для реализации амбициозных планов по развитию страны, выявить особенности проекта «Ячай» для развития научного потенциала Эквадора, определить перспективы для двустороннего взаимодействия в системе подготовки кадров. Авторы приходят к выводу, что за 58 лет своей деятельности РУДН добился значительных результатов в интернационализации образования, разработал интересные методики преподавания русского языка и других предметов, ввел изучение ряда предметов на английском языке, что сделало вуз привлекательным для иностранных, в частности латиноамериканских, студентов.

The article discusses the process of becoming a dialogue between Latin America and the European Union and the role of Spain in the development of political, economic and cultural ties between two regions. The authors identify as positive aspects and challenges in the development of inter-regional cooperation. ; В статье рассматривается процесс становления диалога между странами Латинской Америки и Европейского Союза и роль Испании в развитии политических, экономических и культурных связей между двумя регионами. Авторы выделяют как положительные стороны, так и проблемы в развитии межрегионального сотрудничества.

The chief purpose of BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale, and Voice of America in the Context of International Communication: From Propaganda to Public Diplomacy is to analyse the role radio stations fulfil for international communication nowadays in the light of the roles they served in the past (that is, the times when radio dominated). During the interwar period and right before World War II, new radio stations came to being that aimed at broadcasting content targeted at the listeners abroad. Initially, these radio stations were transmitting mostly official messages or functioning as private point-to-point communication; in both cases, they functioned similarly to telegraphs (assuming one addresser and one addressee). Along with not only the development of the transmitting and receiving devices but also the widening of our knowledge on radio waves, radio turned into a mass medium, thanks to various "freaks," including investors and other radio lovers. Having access to the network of correspondents and a powerful radio signal, radio stations back then were able to provide live coverage of the events that interested listeners all around the globe. The capacities of radio were significant during World War II as well; precisely, it ceased to serve communication purposes exclusively, and was included into military arsenal (used not only in operations and diversion actions, but also for jamming and scouting). This military conflict showed that the possibility of reaching listeners abroad – that is, the citizens of adversary, allied, and neutral states – had been of enormous importance, whereas the ability of shaping the opinions of foreign citizens had become a crucial part of contemporary warfare. The relevance of radio for international communication was indisputable also during the Cold War. Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale, Deutsche Welle, Radio Madrid, Radio Moskwa, and Radio China International were fundamentally engaged in both ideological war and public diplomacy. Simultaneously, various international processes changed the position radio occupied among other media; the "Golden Age of Radio" reached a significant decline in the 1950s, when the dominance of radio gave way to the advent of television, whereas from late 1990s on the situation of all media was revolutionised by the birth of the Internet. As a result, digitalisation, convergence, shifts in reception and use of media – not to mention other broader phenomena, including the dominance of audiovisual culture – affected not only listeners and their preferences (inclining to fragmented radio programmes), but also ratings and marketability of radio stations. Finally, since political communication has privileged the audiovisual paradigm, and domestic policy has gradually become a media issue, radio has withdrawn in this area as well, giving primacy to television and new media. Because of the aforementioned factors and shifts, it becomes vital to carefully reconsider the contemporary and international status of radio. After all, one might be tempted to think that radio is no longer in its heyday, whereas both governments and individual listeners do not deem it as a genuine informative medium or a means capable of reaching the foreign public opinion. This book, therefore, explores how Radio France Internationale, Voice of America, and BBC World Service changed diachronically in reference to other radio stations alike, points to rules they follow and formats their programmes take, and analyses their recent activity in international communication between 2014 and 2018. Chapter 1 introduces theoretical vocabulary international communication relies on, and juxtaposes its various definitions with related cultural phenomena, including transcultural communication, political communication, propaganda, public diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, media diplomacy, and soft power. Aside from analysing these concepts, this chapter also proposes an innovative definition of international communication and its graphic model. Chapter 2 is diachronic, and it focuses on the discovery of radio waves and the invention of radio read from the technical perspective, which determines the position of radio for international communication. Moreover, the early forms of radio are recalled with regard to their significance for foreign communication. Finally, the development of radio and broadcasting in France, United Kingdom, and the USA is presented with an emphasis put on the differences between their broadcasting models. Chapter 3 is devoted to the development of international broadcasting, dividing it into three stages: 1) the early 20th century (until the 1930s), when radio waves were being tested, the first experimental stations came to being, and first international radio stations were founded, including those in Nauen and Zessen (Germany), Sainte-Assise and Le Post Colonial (France), Eindhoven and Heuzen (Netherlands), Chelmsford (United Kingdom); 2) the World War II period, in which the uses of radio for international military communication are analysed in reference to propaganda radio stations (Radio Berlin, Radio Hamburg, Radio Stuttgart, Radio Tokio) and its prominent figures (William Joyce ("Lord Haw-Haw"), Paul Ferdonnet ("the Stuttgart Traitor"), Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally"), Ive Togure ("Tokyo Rose")), British pirate radio stations functioning in response to the Axis propaganda (for instance, Gustav Siegfried Eins), the radio stations of French Resistance with a special emphasis put on Radio Brazzaville, that is, Charles de Gaulle's chief means of international communication, and, finally, Voice of America serving for public diplomacy purposes; 3) the Cold War period, in which the objectives, assumptions, and strategies of international broadcasting posed by France, United Kingdom, the United States of America between 1945 and late 1980s are examined. The last chapter is entirely dedicated to BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America nowadays, paying attention to their regulations, structures, and broadcasting services. These radio stations are understood as means used for public diplomacy of their countries, and their institutional and formal connections to government institutions are discussed. Consequently, this comparative chapter refers to the legal contexts, supported by acts and regulations of a given country, presents the principles and levels of funding, reconstructs the institutional positions of radio among other media, and characterises broadcasting in terms of services, directions, and programmes. The analysis of contemporary strategies and activities of the discussed radio stations makes it possible to claim that the use of radio for international communication has not lost its relevance, and currently is supported with television and the Internet, that is, the media that were invented later in the course of historical progress. Radio stations, therefore, are not held in media bubbles; rather, they are still significant means of foreign communication because of their specificities. Furthermore, radio communication complies with strategic foreign policies, which affects various parts of the world where levels of technological development diverge whilst the access to television or the Internet connection is not available. In the countries stricken with military conflicts or poverty, radio is still the predominant means of communication that serves numerous purposes; not only is it a source of information on military operations, epidemiological situations, climate and natural disasters, but also it educates its listeners on civil and human rights, especially women's rights. Finally, Voice of America, BBC World Service, and Radio France Internationale support policies against extremism and propaganda (for instance, fake news). The services of the discussed radio stations are related to the policies the United States of America, United Kingdom, and France put forward against ISIL and international terrorism, but also to those actions that support democratic changes in the countries affected by war and political unrest.

The article analyzes key documents of the European Union (EU) related with its external policy towards Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as its practical implications. The Maastricht Treaty created bases for the common external policy of the European Union. The EU strategy towards Latin America is reflected in the Multiannual Indicative Regional Programme 2014-2020. The document states the progress achieved, continuing challenges, priority areas and amount of the financial aid.Currently the joint summits between the European Union and the Community of Latin American and the Caribbean States (EU–CALAC) serve as a main dialogue field enabling cooperation between the two regions. The main areas of collaboration are: democracy and human rights, security, trade and investment, innovations and education, climate change. Apart the EU provides a significant financial support to Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) through sector programmes aimed at social and economic transformations in LAC. In order to encourage investment the parties established Latin American Investment Facility (LAIF). The European Union and the Caribbean Foundation (EU–LAC Fundation) serves as an additional tool to promote and strengthen strategic cooperation between the two regions. ; В статье анализируются ключевые документы Европейского союза, касающиеся внешнеполитической стратегии в отношении Латинской Америки, а также рассматривается их практическая имплементация.Подписание Маастрихтского договора заложило основы общей внешней политики Европейского Союза. Стратегия ЕС в отношении Латинской Америки нашла свое отражение в региональной программе 2014-2020 гг., рассчитанной на шесть лет. В документе проанализированы ключевые изменения на континенте, выделены основные проблемы, а также обозначены приоритетные сферы сотрудничества для их преодоления и объем финансирования.В настоящее время диалоговой площадкой для реализации широкомасштабного сотрудничества между регионами служат совместные саммиты Европейского Союза с государствами – членами Сообщества стран Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна (ЕС–СЕЛАК). К основным направлениям взаимодействия относятся вопросы демократии и прав человека, безопасности, торговли и инвестиций, инноваций и образования, изменения климата. Кроме того ЕС оказывает существенную финансовую поддержку странам Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна (ЛАКБ), в том числе путем реализации секторальных программ, направленных на социально-экономические преобразования в Латинской Америке. С целью привлечения дополнительных инвестиций на латино-американский континент был учрежден инвестиционный фонд ЛАИФ. Вспомогательной площадкой для продвижения и укрепления стратегического партнерства между регионами служит «Фонд ЕС–ЛАК».

In this paper, an attempt is made to raise the question of the nature of modernity as such, with an understanding of the key development trends and the characteristics of political processes at the global and regional levels with a description of future risk issues. In the framework of the research vector, the insufficient study of the issue of the qualitative content of geopolitics was emphasized in connection with the completion of the US approval of neo-liberal hegemony and the corresponding reformatting of the world with the beginning of the introduction by the United States of America of a political and economic strategy for national development. It has been recorded that in the context of the implementation by other actors of world politics of the intentions of a new contouring of a multipolar world, a range of issues is being updated regarding the formatting of political and economic processes at the national-state level and awareness of the risks of the future, the search for ways to minimize them. Thus, the article analyzes the power of resource aspects of geopolitics, offers a vision of the nature and content of prospects, identifies risk zones in the context of the implementation of today's strategies in general terms and, in part, in relation to the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. It is concluded that under the conditions of "fluid modernity" and the establishment of a multi-polarity of the world with centering of the poles based on resource understanding of modern infrastructural power, the nature of the transformation of the "poles of the world" is fleeting, that is, the process of struggle to expand zones of influence, "territories of responsibility" is being updated, the risks of conflict are growing, with a separate problem of the forms and extent of social conflict. In the Latin American context, in particular, the significance of the very definition, production and distribution of risks, awareness of its "level by conditional score of the scale of values" It is emphasized that the prospects for formatting the world and regional changes largely depend on the development of processes in the USA, the leader of the democratic world and world economy. ; Стаття присвячена дослідженню проблеми щастя та політики щастя в соціальних державах. Метою роботи є визначення ролі соціальної держави в формуванні суспільства щасливих людей та шляхів реалізації нею «політики щастя». Наукова новизна дослідження у визначенні можливості здійснювати політику щастя в умовах конкурентного суспільства. У дослідженні показано зростання інтересу до проблеми щастя як науковців, так і політиків. Відмічається міждисциплінарний підхід до вивчення проблеми щастя. Зазначено, що уявлення про шляхи формування соціально справедливого суспільства змінюються. Приділяється увага дискусії щодо максималізації щастя як мети уряду. Визначається суть соціальної держави, яка найбільш послідовно реалізує завдання створення гідних людини умов існування. Доведено значення свободи в забезпеченні щастя людини та необхідність надання державою соціального захисту від негативного впливу на суспільство економічної свободи, ринку. Рівень захисту громадян від ринку (рівень декоммодифікації) розглядається як один з критеріїв різних моделей соціальної держави. Аналізуються та оцінюються різні стратегії найкращого задоволення потреб суспільства та їх практичне застосування в різних країнах: традиційно ліва (підтримує державну гарантію задоволення людських потреб); традиційно права (задоволення потреб залежить від ринку); стратегії, що поєднують ознаки цих двох стратегій («гібридні»). Відмінність між країнами, які використовують «гібридні» стратегії, в тому чого більше – «ринку» чи «регулювання ринку задля задоволення потреб населення». Як приклад розглядається використання «гібридних» стратегій в Соціалістичній Федеративній Республіці Югославія, де існувала «економіка ринкового соціалізму». Визначається сумісність лібертаріанських ідей з проголошеною в Україні політикою щастя. Зроблено висновок, що реалізація прагнень сформувати суспільство щасливих людей в Україні залежить від побудови соціальної держави.

У статті систематизовано напрями діяльності канадських і американських асоціацій, які суттєво впливають на розвиток освіти дорослих. Виявлено, що «парасольковою» організацією в США є Американ­ська асоціація освіти дорослих і неперервної освіти, а в Канаді – Канадська асоціація з досліджень освіти дорослих, які беруть активну участь у розробці законодавчого, організаційного, змістового забезпечення системи освіти дорослих; суттєвий вплив на розвиток освіти дорослих у США і Канаді мають міжнародні організації, зокрема ЮНЕСКО та Міжнародна рада з освіти дорослих, які визначають тенденції та пріоритети розвитку, слугують орієнтиром у розробці національних стратегій розвитку освіти дорослих. ; The article deals with Canadian and American associations that influence the development of adult education in the United States of America and Canada. It is found out that the Association of Adult Education works in the United States of America and Canada. The United States of America has the full spectrum of associations that influence positively on adult education development. Comparative analysis provides us an opportunity to state the following. American Association of Adult Education, American Librarian Association, American Community of Study and Development, National Scientific Fund, National Educational Association, American Association of Adult Education, Adult Education Fund, Center of Liberal Adult Education, Association of Pensioners, National Association of Folk and Continuing Education influence considerably on adult education development in the United States of America. Association of Adult Education of Canada, Canadian Association for University and Continuing Education, Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Education, the International Council for Adult Education, National Film Board, Canadian Association of Directors of Extension University Education and Summer Schools provide adult education development in Canada.It was proved that "umbrella" organization in the USA is American Association of Adult and Continuous Education, and in Canada – Canadian Association for Adult Education Research, which take an active part in the development of legislative, organizational, financial provision of adult education system.It is shown that international organizations, in particular, UNESCO and the International Council on Adult Education, have a great influence on adult education development in the USA and Canada. These organizations emphasize the importance of adult education quality and the necessity to conduct international research in this field, professional training, and constant improvement of qualification of teachers of adults, monitoring and evaluation of educational results, determine trends and priorities of development, serve as an indicator in developing national strategies of adult education development.

У розвідці здійснено спробу окреслення основних напрямів реалізації приватної і громадської ініціативи в галузі вищої освіти країн Європи та Америки: фундування та підтримка недержавних вищих шкіл, організація та здійснення заходів, що сприяли популяризації та масовізації вищої освіти. Приділено увагу особливостям розповсюдження руху за демократизацію вищої освіти, втілення ідеї «розширення університету» – від Англії та США до інших європейських країн: ініціювання та читання публічних лекцій, створення повноцінних народних університетів, закладів інших типів. Доведено визначальну роль приватної та громадської ініціативи в розвитку вищої школи у вказаних просторових межах. Виокремлено специфіку розбудови недержавної вищої школи на території США та європейських країн на сучасному етапі. ; The article attempts to determine the main directions of the implementation of private and public initiatives in the field of higher education in Europe and America, which include: foundations and support of non-state universities, the organization and implementation of activities that promote the popularization and massization of higher education. The history of the formation of higher schools in the USA is shown – from the opening of Harvard College to the development of a network of higher education institutions. Initiatives that were crowned with success were highlighted (both from opening new institutions, and to carrying out further reforms). Attention is paid to the peculiarities of the expansion of the movement towards the democratization of higher education "University Expansion" in the second half of the 19th century, starting with England and the USA in other European countries. These are defined as the initiation and reading of public lectures, the creation of full-fledged public universities. The significance of the professors' heritage in the dissemination of this process is considered. The decisive role of private and public initiative in the development of higher education in the specified spatial limits is proved. The specifics of the development of non-governmental higher education in the United States (where since the beginning of its foundation higher education existed mainly as non-public) and European countries (where private and public initiative was aimed primarily to supporting public higher education and acted as its complement) are highlighted. The necessity of taking into account productive foreign experience in reforming the domestic education system, namely the use of alternative sources of financing, social partnership of higher educational institutions and business structures, and involving the public in the management of the industry, is argued.