This paper analyses the conception of things, the classification of principal and auxiliary things generally and particular kinds of auxiliary things (essential parts of principal things, fruit, production, income and appurtenances) in Roman, Lithuanian and foreign countries' law. Legal regulation of Lithuania and foreign countries (Latvia, Italy, Quebec province of Canada, France, Austria Russia), the practice of Lithuanian Supreme Court and Lithuanian legal doctrine, concerned with principal and auxiliary things, was analysed in order to achieve the purpose of this paper. The most part of practical problems of Lithuanian law are concerned with appurtenances and essential parts of principal things. Fruit, production and income usually are concerned with theoretical problems. Their analysis is based on evaluation of possible positive and negative effects, correspondence to purposes of legislator and correspondence to legal doctrine.
This paper analyses the conception of things, the classification of principal and auxiliary things generally and particular kinds of auxiliary things (essential parts of principal things, fruit, production, income and appurtenances) in Roman, Lithuanian and foreign countries' law. Legal regulation of Lithuania and foreign countries (Latvia, Italy, Quebec province of Canada, France, Austria Russia), the practice of Lithuanian Supreme Court and Lithuanian legal doctrine, concerned with principal and auxiliary things, was analysed in order to achieve the purpose of this paper. The most part of practical problems of Lithuanian law are concerned with appurtenances and essential parts of principal things. Fruit, production and income usually are concerned with theoretical problems. Their analysis is based on evaluation of possible positive and negative effects, correspondence to purposes of legislator and correspondence to legal doctrine.
Summary Maintaining Work Discipline Work is a person's conscious physical or mental effort or activity directed toward accomplishing a certain goal. When working, a human being produces goods or provides services that satisfy the needs of other people. A country's economy depends on the efforts of those capable to work. If a population can produce more goods and provide more services, the economy will be able to supply workers with ever-improving tools and ensure them broader opportunities, which in its turn means that more and more goods will be produced and economic growth will be observed. Rising productivity leads to the increase of production volume. Work efficiency keeps growing and society becomes wealthier and happier. However, the brief economic overview emphasizes that at present the economic situation in Lithuania is not stable, unemployment is high, salaries and wages are slow to increase, and the minimum wage is among the lowest in the European Union. The country's economy cannot provide job places for everyone capable and willing to work; as a result, society fails to produce and acquire additional goods and services thus losing a valuable resource – potential output of goods and services. The economy therefore is deprived of a part of the national product because it is not produced. Due to the decrease in the total output, the supply of workers exceeds the demand, unemployment soars, wages plunge, and the likelihood to be dismissed from a job rises dramatically. That generates negative emotions in society. When the economy cannot create enough jobs, people lose their subsistence income and may resort to anger, rebellion or violence. In such cases discipline in the workplace can be regulated with the help of norms and regulations of the work discipline institution. It is agreed that disciplinary penalties do help to maintain order in the workplace; however, they provide favorable results only short term. Other important factors also have to be considered. Employee behavior is positively affected by financial and non-financial benefits. Such motivation is one of the ways to create positive atmosphere at work. On the other hand, the behavior of those in employment relationship is also greatly influenced by the participation of both parties in a social dialogue and their adherence to the achieved agreements. If the parties are able to negotiate and agree on urgent work-related issues, successful cooperation will be developed, grounds for conflicts will be eliminated, and forces will be joined together striving for economic and social progress. Thus, from the economic viewpoint, the impact of economic factors on the labour market is significant. If the country enjoys economic stability and participants of the labour market are satisfied with their jobs, income and social guarantees, they will respect and treasure their jobs, foster good working relationships, and have no reasons to violate rules and regulations of work discipline.
Summary Maintaining Work Discipline Work is a person's conscious physical or mental effort or activity directed toward accomplishing a certain goal. When working, a human being produces goods or provides services that satisfy the needs of other people. A country's economy depends on the efforts of those capable to work. If a population can produce more goods and provide more services, the economy will be able to supply workers with ever-improving tools and ensure them broader opportunities, which in its turn means that more and more goods will be produced and economic growth will be observed. Rising productivity leads to the increase of production volume. Work efficiency keeps growing and society becomes wealthier and happier. However, the brief economic overview emphasizes that at present the economic situation in Lithuania is not stable, unemployment is high, salaries and wages are slow to increase, and the minimum wage is among the lowest in the European Union. The country's economy cannot provide job places for everyone capable and willing to work; as a result, society fails to produce and acquire additional goods and services thus losing a valuable resource – potential output of goods and services. The economy therefore is deprived of a part of the national product because it is not produced. Due to the decrease in the total output, the supply of workers exceeds the demand, unemployment soars, wages plunge, and the likelihood to be dismissed from a job rises dramatically. That generates negative emotions in society. When the economy cannot create enough jobs, people lose their subsistence income and may resort to anger, rebellion or violence. In such cases discipline in the workplace can be regulated with the help of norms and regulations of the work discipline institution. It is agreed that disciplinary penalties do help to maintain order in the workplace; however, they provide favorable results only short term. Other important factors also have to be considered. Employee behavior is positively affected by financial and non-financial benefits. Such motivation is one of the ways to create positive atmosphere at work. On the other hand, the behavior of those in employment relationship is also greatly influenced by the participation of both parties in a social dialogue and their adherence to the achieved agreements. If the parties are able to negotiate and agree on urgent work-related issues, successful cooperation will be developed, grounds for conflicts will be eliminated, and forces will be joined together striving for economic and social progress. Thus, from the economic viewpoint, the impact of economic factors on the labour market is significant. If the country enjoys economic stability and participants of the labour market are satisfied with their jobs, income and social guarantees, they will respect and treasure their jobs, foster good working relationships, and have no reasons to violate rules and regulations of work discipline.
The aim of this work was to find out which systemic factors have caused suboptimal fiscal policy of Lithuania, (no budget surplus during economic growth, in the years 2000-2008) in comparison with Estonia. There were 4 hypotheses and the research showed that no one reason can be named as the only one that caused this result. A better fiscal policy conducted in Estonia was caused due to a complex of factors. First hypothesis was based on historical institutionalism. It provided 3 independent variables (hereinafter – IV). 1st – path dependence – showed that Estonia created favourable conditions for fiscal discipline already at the beginning of its independence: unlike in Lithuania, there was a radical desovietisation and liberalisation. Also, as there were no citizenship rights granted to the Russian minority, a potentially wide leftist electorate (most Russians worked in USSR factories that were reformed) was eliminated. The 2nd IV was effectiveness of rules of institutional budget planning, management and spending prioritisation. DG ECFIN evaluated these rules and criticized Lithuania for not having a good set/system of fiscal rules that would ensure anticyclical fiscal policy (budget surplus in good times). The 3rd IV was the existence or non-existence of a constitutional norm of sound public finance. The research showed there was none in both countries. Although in 2008 Lithuania passed a fiscal discipline law, it is not implemented. Estonia, however, follows strict fiscal discipline although it does not have any law of this kind. The reason for Estonia's success lies in the fact that coalition's agreements and budget strategies are firmly attended and during all the period of economic growth a liberal Reform party (Reformierakond) had a huge influence in the Government. The second hypothesis was based on the economic point of view. There were such IVs: reforms of education, health insurance and pensions and the state's obligations. The research showed that Estonia was 2-5 years ahead of Lithuania in all of these fields. Regardless of the fact that the amount of Estonia's obligations was very similar to Lithuania's, the former had a bigger GDP to reallocate. The reason for this was that in Estonia there were not as many tax exemptions for various interest groups as there were in Lithuania. The third hypothesis was based on Political Economy. The 1st IV was political business cycle. The research showed that the cycle had a worse impact on fiscal discipline in Lithuania than in Estonia. The 2nd IV was the parliamentary election system. The research showed that one-mandate component of the election system in Lithuania most probably had a negative impact on Lithuania's fiscal discipline. In Estonia, parliamentarians are elected only by lists. The 3rd IV was level of corruption and trust in institutions. There is big discrepancy between Lithuania and Estonia. This could be explained by the so called "Make the Leviathan starve" argument – if society distrusts public authorities, state cannot create budget surplus, because people in case of positive economic shock demand tax exemptions and more public spending, being afraid that collected surplus would turn in various forms of rents for interest groups. Lithuania had lower level of trust and higher level of corruption. The fourth hypothesis was based on sociological institutionalism. IV was the dominating cultural tradition. The mechanism of logical chain is this – cultural tradition affects informal institutions (pattern of behaviour), in general Estonia had a different economic mentality, as well as more favorable characteristics of society, prudence and frugality. The interviewed Lithuanian as well as Estonian experts stated that this aspect could be also important factor that had indirect impact for different fiscal policy during economic growth, According to interviewed experts, Estonian public opinion supports the strict Scandinavian type model of fiscal responsibility.
The aim of this work was to find out which systemic factors have caused suboptimal fiscal policy of Lithuania, (no budget surplus during economic growth, in the years 2000-2008) in comparison with Estonia. There were 4 hypotheses and the research showed that no one reason can be named as the only one that caused this result. A better fiscal policy conducted in Estonia was caused due to a complex of factors. First hypothesis was based on historical institutionalism. It provided 3 independent variables (hereinafter – IV). 1st – path dependence – showed that Estonia created favourable conditions for fiscal discipline already at the beginning of its independence: unlike in Lithuania, there was a radical desovietisation and liberalisation. Also, as there were no citizenship rights granted to the Russian minority, a potentially wide leftist electorate (most Russians worked in USSR factories that were reformed) was eliminated. The 2nd IV was effectiveness of rules of institutional budget planning, management and spending prioritisation. DG ECFIN evaluated these rules and criticized Lithuania for not having a good set/system of fiscal rules that would ensure anticyclical fiscal policy (budget surplus in good times). The 3rd IV was the existence or non-existence of a constitutional norm of sound public finance. The research showed there was none in both countries. Although in 2008 Lithuania passed a fiscal discipline law, it is not implemented. Estonia, however, follows strict fiscal discipline although it does not have any law of this kind. The reason for Estonia's success lies in the fact that coalition's agreements and budget strategies are firmly attended and during all the period of economic growth a liberal Reform party (Reformierakond) had a huge influence in the Government. The second hypothesis was based on the economic point of view. There were such IVs: reforms of education, health insurance and pensions and the state's obligations. The research showed that Estonia was 2-5 years ahead of Lithuania in all of these fields. Regardless of the fact that the amount of Estonia's obligations was very similar to Lithuania's, the former had a bigger GDP to reallocate. The reason for this was that in Estonia there were not as many tax exemptions for various interest groups as there were in Lithuania. The third hypothesis was based on Political Economy. The 1st IV was political business cycle. The research showed that the cycle had a worse impact on fiscal discipline in Lithuania than in Estonia. The 2nd IV was the parliamentary election system. The research showed that one-mandate component of the election system in Lithuania most probably had a negative impact on Lithuania's fiscal discipline. In Estonia, parliamentarians are elected only by lists. The 3rd IV was level of corruption and trust in institutions. There is big discrepancy between Lithuania and Estonia. This could be explained by the so called "Make the Leviathan starve" argument – if society distrusts public authorities, state cannot create budget surplus, because people in case of positive economic shock demand tax exemptions and more public spending, being afraid that collected surplus would turn in various forms of rents for interest groups. Lithuania had lower level of trust and higher level of corruption. The fourth hypothesis was based on sociological institutionalism. IV was the dominating cultural tradition. The mechanism of logical chain is this – cultural tradition affects informal institutions (pattern of behaviour), in general Estonia had a different economic mentality, as well as more favorable characteristics of society, prudence and frugality. The interviewed Lithuanian as well as Estonian experts stated that this aspect could be also important factor that had indirect impact for different fiscal policy during economic growth, According to interviewed experts, Estonian public opinion supports the strict Scandinavian type model of fiscal responsibility.
The aim of this article is to discuss the development of the relation between political philosophy and political science. The main causes and possible perspectives of that development are elaborated. There are explored philosophical ideas which influenced the emergence of political science, the process of its institutionalisation and the relation between political science and political philosophy. The analysis of the process of institutionalisation aims at identification of the main causes of the conflict between two disciplines. The culmination of that conflict occured at sixth decade of twentieth century and was named "The Behavioral Revolution". The sharp antagonism lasted nearly two decates and when it came to an end the relation between political philosophy and political science became stable though ambiguous.
The aim of this article is to discuss the development of the relation between political philosophy and political science. The main causes and possible perspectives of that development are elaborated. There are explored philosophical ideas which influenced the emergence of political science, the process of its institutionalisation and the relation between political science and political philosophy. The analysis of the process of institutionalisation aims at identification of the main causes of the conflict between two disciplines. The culmination of that conflict occured at sixth decade of twentieth century and was named "The Behavioral Revolution". The sharp antagonism lasted nearly two decates and when it came to an end the relation between political philosophy and political science became stable though ambiguous.
The aim of this article is to discuss the development of the relation between political philosophy and political science. The main causes and possible perspectives of that development are elaborated. There are explored philosophical ideas which influenced the emergence of political science, the process of its institutionalisation and the relation between political science and political philosophy. The analysis of the process of institutionalisation aims at identification of the main causes of the conflict between two disciplines. The culmination of that conflict occured at sixth decade of twentieth century and was named "The Behavioral Revolution". The sharp antagonism lasted nearly two decates and when it came to an end the relation between political philosophy and political science became stable though ambiguous.
The aim of this article is to discuss the development of the relation between political philosophy and political science. The main causes and possible perspectives of that development are elaborated. There are explored philosophical ideas which influenced the emergence of political science, the process of its institutionalisation and the relation between political science and political philosophy. The analysis of the process of institutionalisation aims at identification of the main causes of the conflict between two disciplines. The culmination of that conflict occured at sixth decade of twentieth century and was named "The Behavioral Revolution". The sharp antagonism lasted nearly two decates and when it came to an end the relation between political philosophy and political science became stable though ambiguous.
The paper addressees the question how the physical education field manifests in discipline-based higher education. The background of this paper is based on the idea that students in their professions should learn the body of knowledge of that structure. The main aim was to present how the physical education field is implementable in discipline-based higher education. An exploratory approach was used to study the manifestation of the physical education field in discipline-based higher education in depth by encluding four major physical education concepts in the hierarchy of disciplines of different sciences. This paper concludes that the physical education field can manifest in discipline-based higher education as a particular collection of the disciplines, oriented towards diverse study objects such as sport, movement education, health, physical education. As the list of the study areas and fields in studies of which are offered in higher education institutions (2009), the physical education study field can be implemented only as separate groups of study fields: medicine and health sciences, life sciences, education science. However, this list of study areas and fields studies of which are offered in higher education institutions approved by Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania No. 1749 of 23 December 2009 does not promote Lithuanian physical education community's holistic approach by solving complex problems associated with human movement.
The paper addressees the question how the physical education field manifests in discipline-based higher education. The background of this paper is based on the idea that students in their professions should learn the body of knowledge of that structure. The main aim was to present how the physical education field is implementable in discipline-based higher education. An exploratory approach was used to study the manifestation of the physical education field in discipline-based higher education in depth by encluding four major physical education concepts in the hierarchy of disciplines of different sciences. This paper concludes that the physical education field can manifest in discipline-based higher education as a particular collection of the disciplines, oriented towards diverse study objects such as sport, movement education, health, physical education. As the list of the study areas and fields in studies of which are offered in higher education institutions (2009), the physical education study field can be implemented only as separate groups of study fields: medicine and health sciences, life sciences, education science. However, this list of study areas and fields studies of which are offered in higher education institutions approved by Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania No. 1749 of 23 December 2009 does not promote Lithuanian physical education community's holistic approach by solving complex problems associated with human movement.
The paper addressees the question how the physical education field manifests in discipline-based higher education. The background of this paper is based on the idea that students in their professions should learn the body of knowledge of that structure. The main aim was to present how the physical education field is implementable in discipline-based higher education. An exploratory approach was used to study the manifestation of the physical education field in discipline-based higher education in depth by encluding four major physical education concepts in the hierarchy of disciplines of different sciences. This paper concludes that the physical education field can manifest in discipline-based higher education as a particular collection of the disciplines, oriented towards diverse study objects such as sport, movement education, health, physical education. As the list of the study areas and fields in studies of which are offered in higher education institutions (2009), the physical education study field can be implemented only as separate groups of study fields: medicine and health sciences, life sciences, education science. However, this list of study areas and fields studies of which are offered in higher education institutions approved by Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania No. 1749 of 23 December 2009 does not promote Lithuanian physical education community's holistic approach by solving complex problems associated with human movement.
